1) a)

What is functionality of a monomer?

The number of bonding sites in a monomer is called functionality of a monomer.
It is also defined as the number of covalent bonds which a monomer forms with
other reactants.
∙ Monomer should have functionality of at least two.
∙ Functionality of monomer is due to the presence of double or triple bonds in
the molecule or presence of reactive functional groups like-OH, -COOH, -
NH2 etc...
∙ Ethylene has the functionality of two; Acetylene has the functionality of four.
Significance of functionality
∙ Bi functional or multifunctional monomers only can form polymers ∙ The
structure of polymer depends up on the functionality of monomers Relation
between functionality of monomer and structure of polymer
Functionality Functionality of monomer (f) Structure of
polymers

2 Bi Functional Linear Polymer

3 Tri Functional Branched

Polymer

4 Tetra Functional Cross Linked

What is degree of polymerization?

The number of repeating units present in polymer. It is indicated by
n. Degree of polymerization is given by the equation
n =mM
Where M = Molecular weight of the polymer
m = molecular weight of the monomer;
n = Degree of polymerization

B)
Differentiate between Octane number and Cetane number
Octane Number or octane rating Cetane Number or Cetane Rating

Octane number is defined as the Cetane number is defined as the

percentage of isooctane present in the percentage of hexadecane present in
mixture of isooctane and n-heptane the mixture of hexadecane and 2-
which matches the fuel under test in methyl naphthalene which matches
knocking characteristics diesel fuel under test in ignition
characteristics.
 Octane number is applicable for Cetane rating is applicable for diesel
petrol rating. rating.

Higher the octane number, greater is Higher the cetane number, greater is
the antiknocking characteristics of the antiknocking characteristics of
petrol diesel
Higher percentage of Olefins, Higher percentage of Paraffins or
cycloparaffins aromatics increase straight chain hydrocarbons
octane number of petrol increases the cetane number of
diesel.
Octane number can be improved by Cetane number of diesel fuel can be
the addition of extra iso-octane or increased by the addition of pre-
MTBE/ETBE ignition dopes like ethyl nitrite,
acetone peroxide etc.

c)
Define a composite material

A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials that results in better properties
than those of the individual components used alone. Each of the composite material retains its separate chemical,
physical, and mechanical properties unlike alloys. The two constituents of the composite are reinforcement and a
matrix. The main advantages of composites are better combination of properties such as high strength, heat
resistance, and stiffness, combined with low density and reduced weight, when compared with bulk materials.
2)a)
B)
What are the differences between HCV and LCV?
Higher or Gross calorific value Lower or Net calorific value

Higher or gross calorific value is Lower or net calorific value is defined as

defined as the total amount of heat the net heat produced when a unit mass
produced when a unit mass or or volume of a fuel is burnt completely
volume of a fuel has been burnt and the products of combustion are
completely and the products of permitted to escape.
combustion have been cooled to
room temperature.

It is called as HCV or GCV It is called as LCV or NCV

This heat cannot be totally used in This heat can be used in practice.
practice

HCV is the gross amount of heat LCV is the net or actual amount of heat
liberated liberated

HCV includes latent heat of LCV does not include latent heat of
condensation condensation
 HCV is greater than LCV LCV is lesser than HCV by the amount
of latent heat of steam

c)
Carbon neutral is a term also used to describe carbon-based fuels that when burned will
not increase carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. These fuels neither contribute to nor
reduce the amount of carbon (measured in the release of CO2) into the atmosphere.

It can be specified that Biodiesel to be carbon-neutral because the plants that are the

sources of the feedstocks for making biodiesel, such as soybeans and palm oil trees,

absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) as they grow. The absorption of CO2 by these plants offsets

the CO2 that forms while making and burning biodiesel.

3)a)
Differences between thermoplasts and thermosets
Thermoplasts Thermosets

Thermoplasts soften on heating and Thermosets do not soften on heating due to

harden on cooling because secondary cross-links and bonds between polymeric
forces between polymeric chains can chains. On prolonged heating, however,
beak easily by heat or pressure or both. charring is caused.

Thermoplasts are formed by addition Thermosets are formed by condensation

polymerization polymerization

Thermoplasts consists of long chain Thermosets consists of three dimensional

linear polymers with negligible cross- network structure.
links.

Thermoplasts are usually soft, weak Thermosets are usually hard, strong and
and less brittle. more brittle.

B)
Define Knocking

Knocking (also called as detonation or pinging) is defined as premature

instantaneous ignition of fuel air mixture in IC engine, leading to production of
an explosive violence or sound accompanied by the release of thick black
smoke.
 Knocking occurs in initial part of combustion in a compression ignition
engine ∙ Knocking occurs the final part of combustion in a spark ignition
engine. ∙ Knocking consumes more fuel and decreases the efficiency of
engine.
Knocking can be minimized by the
o Addition of anti-knocking substances in fuel
o Using High octane fuel
o Decreasing compression ratio
o Regular maintenance of engines

Common Reasons for Engine Knocking

⮚ Improper Combustion Process
⮚ Improper quality of gasoline
⮚ Internal machine problems

C)

4) a)Biodegradable polymers
Biodegradable polymers are a special class of polymer that breaks down after its
intended purpose by bacterial decomposition process to result in natural byproducts
such as gases (CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts.
or
The biodegradable polymers may be defined as the polymers which are
degraded by the micro-organism within a suitable period so that biodegradable
polymers & their degraded products do not cause any serious effects on the
environment.
 They degrade by enzymatic hydrolysis & oxidation. The decomposition reactions
involves hydrolysis (either enzymatically induced or by non –enzymatic mechanism)
to non- toxic small molecules which can be metabolized by or excreted from the body.

The common examples of aliphatic biodegradable polymers are Poly lactic

acid(PLA) polyglycolic acid (PGA), Polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB), Polyhydroxy
butyrates-co-beta hydroxyl valerate( PHBV), Polycaprolactone(PCL), Nylon-2-nylon-
6.
polylactic acid or polylactide (PLA) is a biodegradable and
bioactive thermoplastic aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, such as corn
starch (in the United States and Canada), cassava roots, chips or starch (mostly in Asia), or
sugarcane

Preparation of polylactic acid

PLA is prepared by condensation polymerization of lactic acid (CH3CH(OH)COOH ) at about< 200

°C to get lactide monomer and one equivalent of water for every step which further gives PLA.
Molecular weights of 130 kDa or higher molecular weight can be prepared by this method.

Another method is one-step condensation process combining lactic acid with a zeolite.at about 100 °C

Properties of PLA
∙ PLA is a biodegradable polymer
∙ PLA polymers range from amorphous glassy polymer to semi-crystalline and highly crystalline
polymer
∙ PLA is heat-resistant and can withstand temperatures of 110 °C.
∙ The basic mechanical properties are good
∙ Polylactic acid can be processed like most thermoplastics into fiber, film
∙ PLA can be processed by extrusion such as 3D printing, injection molding, film and sheet
casting, and spinning, providing access to a wide range of materials

Applications of PLA

∙ PLA is used as a feedstock material in desktop fused filament fabrication 3D printers. ∙ PLA is
used as medical implants in the form of anchors, screws, plates, pins, rods, and as a mesh. It
breaks down inside the body within 6 months to 2 years.
∙ Woven shirts, microwavable trays, hot-fill applications and even engineering
plastics. ∙ PLA is also used in e-tobacco industry.
∙ PLA is also used in agriculture materials, such as films, seed coatings, fast food
wrappers, personal hygiene products etc.

4)B)
Cracking is mainly of two types 1. Thermal cracking 2. Catalytic cracking
Catalytic cracking is of two types. 1. Fixed Bed Catalytic Cracking 2. Moving Bed or Fluidized
Catalytic Cracking

Moving-bed or Fluid –bed or Fluidized Catalytic Cracking: ∙

Catalytic cracking process is carried in presence of a catalyst at much lower temperature (about
530 oC) and pressure (3 to 5 Kg/cm2)
∙ Artificial clay and zirconium oxide or aluminum silicate or alumina is used as catalyst in
this process.
∙ Catalytic cracking converts high boiling petroleum fractions to high-octane base
components of aviation, and automobile gasoline fractions along with middle
distillates.
∙ In this process reactor and regenerator placed side by side.

1. Cracking process
∙ The cracking stock (heavy oil) is preheated at 3000C and as it enters the reactor, hot
catalyst, in the form of a fine powder is introduced from the regenerator.
∙ Cracking occurs on the surface of the turbulent bed as it circulates with the heavy oil
vapours in the reactor at a temperature of about 530oC and pressure of 3 to 5
Kg/cm2in less than 3 seconds

∙ At the top of the reactor there is centrifugal separator known as cyclone which allows
only cracked vapours to pass to the matching fractionating column and retains the
catalyst in the reactor

2. Separation of Gasoline or Petrol

∙ The low-boiling lighter fractions move up to the top of the reactor and enter into the
fractionating column and sent to cooler, where gasoline is condensed.
∙ It is then sent to a stabilizer to recover pure gasoline. The product contains a higher
proportion of aromatics and iso-Paraffins.

3. Regeneration of catalyst
⮚ A part of fluidized catalyst is continuously removed from a sump in the reactor and is
forced into the regenerator with under high pressure of air.
⮚ The carbon and the tarry residues deposited on the catalyst are burnt off in the
regenerator at 590 oC or more.
⮚ The hot flue gases are allowed to pass through a waste heat boiler to generate steam,
and then through a cyclone and cottrel precipitator to remove any powdered catalyst.
About 35 tons per minute of catalyst is regenerated in this process.
4)C)
What is Transesterification?
Transesterification is a chemical reaction used for the conversion of triglycerides (fats)
contained in oils, (Feedstocks) into usable biodiesel.
Biodiesel produced by the process of transesterification has a much lower viscosity,
making it capable of replacing petroleum diesel in diesel engines. These reactions are
acid or base catalyzed or enzyme catalysed (biocatalysts).
The major components of vegetable oils and animal fats are Triglycerides. To obtain
biodiesel, the vegetable oil or animal fat is subjected to a chemical reaction termed
transesterification.
Carbon neutral, also called carbon neutrality is a term used to describe the action of
organizations, businesses and individuals taking action to remove as much carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere as each put in to it. The overall goal of carbon neutrality is to achieve a
zero carbon footprint. For example, a business may plant trees in different places around the world
to offset the electricity the business uses. This practice is often called carbon offset or offsetting.

Carbon neutral is a term also used to describe carbon-based fuels that when burned will
not increase carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. These fuels neither contribute to nor
reduce the amount of carbon (measured in the release of CO2) into the atmosphere.

∙ Carbon-neutral fuel is energy fuel or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas
emissions or carbon footprint. Carbon –neutral fuels are
1. Synthetic fuel (including methane, gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel or ammonia)
2. Biofuels
3. Renewable energy sources such as wind turbines, solar panels, and
hydroelectric power Stations, etc.
∙ Carbon-Neutral fuels do not cause net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. ∙ Carbon-
neutral fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier
reaction to produce methane to be used in power plants as synthetic natural gas, transported by
pipeline, truck, or tanker ship, or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer–
Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating.
The overall goal of carbon neutrality is to achieve a zero carbon footprint.
Characteristics of Carbon neutral fuels
∙ Carbon-neutral fuels do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. ∙ Carbon
neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling. ∙
Biofuels are said to be carbon-neutral because the carbon dioxide that is absorbed by the plants
is equal to the carbon dioxide that is released when the fuel is burned.
∙ For example, Biodiesel is a carbon neutral, because – the amount of carbon dioxide
released when it is used and the same amount is absorbed by the plants as they grew.
So, this would reduce the production of this greenhouse gas.

State the mechanism of biodiesel to be carbon neutral

It can be specified that Biodiesel to be carbon-neutral because the plants that are the

sources of the feedstocks for making biodiesel, such as soybeans and palm oil trees,

absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) as they grow. The absorption of CO2 by these plants offsets
 the CO2 that forms while making and burning biodiesel.

5) a.

Bakelite is prepared by the condensation polymerization of phenol with

formaldehyde in presence of acidic or alkaline catalyst.

Nylon-6:6 is prepared by the condensation polymerization between

hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.

5)B)

1) The top most use of LPG is to use as the main fuel for vehicles. It burns better than diesel or petrol and hence, the

top most use for LPG is to use it as ignition fuel. It is also more energy efficient and is said to leave lesser damaging

impact on the atmosphere and the environment.

2) LPG is also popularly used as a refrigerant. Since butane and propane are both considered to be energy efficient,
LPG serves as a great hydrocarbon.

3) LPG is also used as a chemical feedstock.

4) LPG is also used for agricultural purposes in drying processes.
5)C)Clean Technology
Clean technology refers to selection of products, procedures, and services that harness sources
of renewable energy to reduce or eliminate wastes and emissions and significantly minimize the
utilization of natural resources thereby increasing performance, productivity, or efficiency by
minimizing negative effects on the environment

Benefits of clean technology

Examples of Clean Technology

6)
7) Mechanism of conduction in conducting polymers:
∙ Mechanism of conductivity in these polymers is based on the motion of charged defects
within the conjugated framework.
∙ The charge carriers, either positive p-type or negative n-type, are the products of oxidizing
or reducing the polymer respectively.
∙ Oxidation of the polymer initially generates a radical cation with both spin and charge.
Which is known as polaron and comprises both the hole site and the structural distortion
which accompanies it. ∙ The cation and radical form a bound species, since any increase in
the distance between them would necessitate the creation of additional higher energy
quinoid units.
∙ Theoretical treatments have confirmed that two nearby polarons combine to form the lower
energy bipolaron. One bipolaron is more stable than two polarons despite the coulombic
repulsion of the two ions.
∙ It is this charge carrier mobility that leads to the high conductivity of these
polymers. Hopping and tunneling Mechanism:
∙ Conjugated polymers possess a complex morphological distribution of crystalline and
amorphous regions. Therefore, this complex condition has a great difficulty to trace the
movement of charge-carriers in various domains.
∙ Solitons and bipolarons constitute the majority of charge-carriers. There is an intermediate
range of electronic energy state in which mobility is very low.
∙ Conduction is possible only if electrons are excited to higher state with greater mobility. ∙
Conduction via localized electrons suggests direct jumps across or tunnel through an
energy barrier from one site to the next.
∙ The movement of charge along a specific chain is the movement from one to another
polymer chain and from crystalline to amorphous area or vice versa.
∙ Inter-soliton hopping mechanism is proposed technique to explain such
conduction. ∙ The solitons move around by exchanging electrons with the
nearby charged solitons.

Doping in Conducting Polymers:

∙ Conjugated polymers can more easily be oxidized or reduced than any conventional polymer
due to presence of π-conjugated structure and the electrical conduction is obtained
through “doping” leading to the generation of charge-carriers in the form of free electrons
or holes.
∙ The charge carriers are usually delocalized over the conjugated polymer chain. ∙ The
transport of the charge-carriers along a conjugated backbone can be described by the Band
Model as has been done for metals and semiconductors.
∙ Besides this intrachain conduction including very high intrinsic conductivity to the doped
conjugated polymers, several hopping and tunneling processes are also in operation for
non-intrinsic (interchain and interfiber) conduction processes

Applications of conducting polymers

Conducting polymers have the following applications:
⮚ Anti-static substances for photographic films

⮚ Rechargeable batteries

⮚ Bio sensors
⮚ Analytical sensors to detect pH, Oxygen,

glucose ⮚ In photovoltaic cells

⮚ In corrosion resistance paints

⮚ Shields for computer screens against electromagnetic

radiation ⮚ "Smart" windows that can eliminate sunlight

∙ Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

∙ Displays in mobile telephone and mini-format televisions

8)
 9)Fractional Distillation
Step-III Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is the physical separation of a mixture into its fractions, by
virtue of their boiling points by heating them to a temperature at which several
fractions of the mixture will evaporate. Fractional distillation is a special type of
distillation used in petroleum refineries to separate crude oil into useful substances
or fractions having different
hydrocarbons of different boiling points.
⮚ In this step the crude oil is preheated to 400oC and fed continuously in
fractionating column having a large number of trays each fitted with bubble caps.
⮚ The tower is heated by superheated steam sent in from bottom so as to build a
temperature gradient in the fractionating column of about 300 oC at the bottom and
decreased gradually to 125-150oC at the top .
⮚ The fractions at the top of the fractionating column have lower boiling points than
the fractions at the bottom.
⮚ The hydrocarbons of petroleum boil at different temperatures according to their size
and molecular weight. Due to this intense heat, all volatile fractions except the
residue are evaporated.
⮚ The hot vapours are then passed into the fractionating column.
⮚ The vapours raising the column are exposed to progressively lower temperatures
as they pass form one tray to another resulting in fractional condensation at
different heights of column.

➢ Higher boiling fractions condense first while the lower boiling fractions
condense turn by turn.
⮚ The heavy bottom fractions are often cracked into lighter, more useful products.
All of the fractions are processed further in other refining units

Composition and Uses of Gasoline, Diesel and Kerosene

Petrol or gasoline:
∙ Petrol or Gasoline is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
∙ Petrol is a fraction obtained in the temperature range of 40 to 1200C.
∙ It composed of mixture of C5H12 to C9H20.
∙ Gasoline is most often produced by the fractional distillation of crude oil and known
 as straight-run gasoline.
∙ It is also produced by the cracking of heavy oil and known as cracked gasoline.
∙ It is of two types.
1.Straight –Run petrol obtained by fractional distillation.
2.Cracked petrol obtained by cracking
∙ Its calorific value is 11,250 KCal/Kg.
o Petrol is used as an automobile fuel for IC engines in Cars, motorcycles,
light trucks, and boats etc.
o It is used as aviation fuel

10)Moving-bed or Fluid –bed or Fluidized Catalytic Cracking: ∙

Catalytic cracking process is carried in presence of a catalyst at much lower temperature (about
530 oC) and pressure (3 to 5 Kg/cm2)
∙ Artificial clay and zirconium oxide or aluminum silicate or alumina is used as catalyst in
this process.
∙ Catalytic cracking converts high boiling petroleum fractions to high-octane base
components of aviation, and automobile gasoline fractions along with middle
distillates.
∙ In this process reactor and regenerator placed side by side.

1. Cracking process
∙ The cracking stock (heavy oil) is preheated at 3000C and as it enters the reactor, hot
catalyst, in the form of a fine powder is introduced from the regenerator.
∙ Cracking occurs on the surface of the turbulent bed as it circulates with the heavy oil
vapours in the reactor at a temperature of about 530oC and pressure of 3 to 5
Kg/cm2in less than 3 seconds
∙ At the top of the reactor there is centrifugal separator known as cyclone which allows
only cracked vapours to pass to the matching fractionating column and retains the
catalyst in the reactor

2. Separation of Gasoline or Petrol

∙ The low-boiling lighter fractions move up to the top of the reactor and enter into the
fractionating column and sent to cooler, where gasoline is condensed.
∙ It is then sent to a stabilizer to recover pure gasoline. The product contains a higher
proportion of aromatics and iso-Paraffins.

3. Regeneration of catalyst
⮚ A part of fluidized catalyst is continuously removed from a sump in the reactor and is
forced into the regenerator with under high pressure of air.
⮚ The carbon and the tarry residues deposited on the catalyst are burnt off in the
regenerator at 590 oC or more.
⮚ The hot flue gases are allowed to pass through a waste heat boiler to generate steam,
and then through a cyclone and cottrel precipitator to remove any powdered catalyst.
About 35 tons per minute of catalyst is regenerated in this process.
 Figure showing Moving Bed (OR) Fluidized Catalytic Cracking of heavy oil

What are the advantages of catalytic cracking?

Catalytic cracking process
✔ Gives higher yield of petrol
✔ Gives petrol of higher quality and higher octane rating
✔ Does not require external fuel during cracking
✔ Does not require higher pressure during cracking
✔ Process can be easily controlled
✔ Gives products with very low sulphur content
✔ Is selective process i.e. only higher hydrocarbons are cracked
Advantages of Cracked Petrol or gasoline

Cracked petrol has good octane rating

Cracked petrol is obtained in high yield and high quality

Cracked petrol contains very little sulphur content

Cracked petrol does not need blending

In view of the above advantages cracked petrol is superior to straight-run petrol

Significance of cracking:
Cracking is the most important process for the commercial production of gasoline and
diesel fuel.

11)
12 Principles of Green Chemistry
Developed by Paul Anastas and John Warner, the following list plans an early conception of what
would make a greener chemical, process, or product.

1. Prevention
 it is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has
been created. It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after
its formation

• This statement is one of the most popular guidelines in process optimization;

it describes the ability of chemists to redesign chemical transformations in
order to minimize the generation of hazardous waste as an important step
toward pollution prevention.
• By preventing waste generation, the hazards associated with waste storage,
transportation, and treatment could be minimized.
• This pillar of green chemistry is still valid. We have to take waste’s
multidimensional nature into account. We need to move from a “quantity of
waste per quantity of product”
2. Atom Economy
Atom economy may be defined as number of atoms of the reactants combined
into the final desired product and number of atoms wasted (as byproducts)
Atom economy is convenient method for assessing efficiency of a reaction and is
expressed as a percentage and calculated using this formula

• Atom economy is a concept developed in the early 1990s to evaluate the

efficiency of chemical conversions on an element-by-element basis.
• The concept of “atom economy” is based on the ratio of the entire mass of
atoms in the target product to the entire mass of atoms in the starting
materials. • This concept reduces waste generation, helps to plan such
chemical reactions, which maximize the integration all the reactants into the
final product, lowering the number of wasted atoms.
• It helps in selecting such chemical conversion routes, which include the major
share of starting materials into desired products, displays higher efficiency
and contributes to waste reduction.
• Atom economy concept is nowadays widely implemented in new routes to
generate various organic compounds, e.g., such substances that are used
in the biomedical and pharmaceutical fields

3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses:

• Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate
substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment. •
Green chemistry is an approach that aims to eliminate the usage and generation of
hazardous substances by designing better manufacturing processes for chemical
products. Specifically, the goal of making the finished product and by-products less
toxic directs the decisions made during chemical production.
• Features of the manufacturing process considered include the initial selection of
chemicals, the mechanism of chemical synthesis, the end products of the process,
and the management of toxic products generated during production. By limiting the
hazard intrinsic to the chemical products, the risk introduced by the product is
consequently reduced.
• In addition to protecting the environment, green chemistry has the potential to benefit
the large and diverse group of people whose job or residence places them at risk
for exposure to toxic chemicals produced by manufacturing
4. Designing Safer Chemicals
Chemical products should be designed to affect their desired function while
minimizing their toxicity.
• Chemical products should be designed to achieve their desired function with at the
same time minimizing their toxicity.
• New products can be designed that are inherently safer, while highly effective for
the target application.
• For example, the direct incorporation of radioactive spent liquid scintillation waste into
cement combined with clay materials is considered an added value in the
immobilization of the hazardous organic wastes in very cheap materials and natural
clay to produce a safe stabilized product easy for handling, transformation, and
disposal
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries:
The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should
be made unnecessary wherever possible and harmless when used.
• This principle promotes the use of safer solvents and auxiliaries. Mostly, reactions of
organic compounds take place in liquid backgrounds, where the solvent acts in
different ways:
• In addition, the applied solvent also governs the selection of adequate downstream
and regeneration processes and recycling or discarding techniques.
• To tackle ecological effect of chemical processes, innovative concepts for
substitution of volatile organic solvents have become a great challenge in green
chemistry. • A green solvent should meet numerous criteria such as low toxicity, non-
flammability, non-mutagenicity, non-volatility, and widespread availability among
others. Moreover, these green solvents have to be cheap and easy to handle and
recycle.

6. Design for Energy Efficiency

∙ Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for their
environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible,
synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure.
• Usually, energy is used to enhance the human life in important ways. The traditionally
used energy sources like coal, oil, and gas are limited in supply, and their
combustion releases greenhouse gases. For continuous improvement of life
quality, both move toward renewable energy and design for energy efficiency is
needed.
• Designing more efficient processes by choosing the most suitable technologies and
unit operations has to go in parallel with selecting proper energy sources. Using an
electric motor with energy sources generated from the sun and wind is more
effective in ecological terms instead of using fossil fuels.
• Efficient use of non-conventional forms of energy is a challenging task for engineers
and designers to help society use energy more effectively.
• Consequently, green chemistry includes minimization of energy loss like mechanical
friction, fluid drag, and unwanted heat transfer, by improving the layout and
insulation of a refrigerator or designing lighter vehicles with enhanced aerodynamic
characteristics and lower rolling resistance.

7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks:

∙ A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever
 technically and economically practicable

∙ According to the principles of green chemistry, a raw material or feedstock should be

renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically
practicable. Using renewable resources like microbial or plant biomass, which are
embedded into nature’s closed carbon cycle, represents a real option to prepare
functional bio-products in a sustainable way and to contribute to energetic
transition.
∙ This Principle #7 addresses the renewable feedstock involving the fields of agronomy,
biochemical engineering, biotechnology, chemistry, microbiology, physics,
toxicology, or engineering.in the development of next-generation fuels, polymers,
and other materials essential for our today’s society based on renewable resources
and characterized by low impact on health and environment.

8. Reduce Derivatives:
Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ deprotection,
temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or
avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can
generate waste.

∙ Many processes could be designed in such a way to reduce the use of additional
reagents and the resulting wastes. It is commonly necessary to synthesize a
derivative of a compound containing groups which are not needed in the final
product, but which allow the synthesis or purification steps to proceed more easily.
However, these derivatives result in lower atom economy, since they introduce
atoms that are not incorporated into the final product, but finally end up as waste.
∙ For many reactions that have traditionally required protecting groups, chemists are
currently devoting research efforts to finding alternatives that do without them

9.Catalysis
Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents.

∙ Catalysis is the chemical reaction enabled or accelerated by a catalyst. According to

Ostwald, catalysts are substances that speed up a reaction by enabling an
energetically favored transition state between reactants, but which are not
consumed by it and do not appear in the net reaction equation.
∙ Catalysts play an essential role in our modern industrial economy, in our stewardship
of the environment, and in all biological processes. Scientists found that iron and
copper sulfate as catalysts improved the mechanism of oxidative degradation of
cellulosic wastes using 35% hydrogen peroxide.
∙ Recently, synthesis of nano-catalysts of specific size and shape was developed to
allow facile movement of materials in the reacting phase and the control over
morphology of nanostructures to tailor their physical and chemical properties.
Nano-catalyst systems surrounding a paramagnetic core allow rapid and selective
chemical changes with excellent product yield coupled with the ease of catalyst
separation and recovery
∙ Biocatalysts (enzymes) are highly selective and active catalysts produced by Mother
Nature. Not only do enzymes carry out the desired reactions under mild conditions
of temperature and pressure, which is analogous to the above-discussed energy
efficiency principle. Moreover, they are bound to drive reactions of renewable
materials In addition, biocatalysts in a free or immobilized form are useful for
 bioremediation, hence, the mitigation of pollutants from the ecosphere

10. Design for Degradation

Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they
break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the
environment. ∙ One of the most important objectives of green chemistry is maximizing
the production with minimizing unwanted by-products.
∙ Designing of products and processes that display reduced impact on humans and the
environment, such as creating sustainable mortar composite that could be
considered as value-added product suitable for various applications as inert matrix
for immobilization of some low and intermediate levels of radioactive wastes,
decorative tiles, building bricks, and light concrete, is reported.
∙ In this case, highly reactive hydroxyl radicals react with the organic moieties of the
spinning fiber wastes either by subtracting ions of hydrogen or by addition to the
unsaturated site to yield organic radicals, which are readily oxidized by oxygen.
Therefore, the end products of the degradation process were only carbon dioxide
and water

11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention

Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-
process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances.

With advancements in chemistry, the production of numerous toxic chemicals is a

serious problem for the environment.

One of the basic concepts of green chemistry is familiar to pollution prevention

practitioners.

Less hazardous materials in chemical formulations and reducing waste formation

have been sounded for many years.

Thus, green chemistry aims at eliminating the usage and generation of hazardous
substances by designing better manufacturing processes for chemical materials
with minimum waste production by real-time monitoring of running processes.

This accordingly enables a timely intervention right before waste or toxins are
generated

12.Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention

Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be
chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases,
explosions, and fires.

o It is most important to avoid highly reactive chemicals that could potentially

cause accidents during the reaction.
o Substance and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be
chosen in such a way to minimize the potential for chemical accidents,
including toxin
releases, explosions, and fire formation. For example, the most abundant solution
medium, water, could accidentally cause an explosion by flowing into a tank
containing methyl isocyanate gas, releasing a large amount of methyl isocyanate
 into the surrounding area.
o Other well-known materials, which undergo reactions of often disastrous
outcome with water, are found among alkali metals. If an alternative reaction
had been developed that did not use this reagent, the risk of explosion even
causing death
would have been minimized.
o Basically, safe chemistry can also be carried out in flow mode, using tubular
micro reactors with reaction channels of tiny diameter. Such flow chemistry
approaches
drastically reduce the reaction volume, the reaction time, and catalyst requirement,
intensifies the processes by boosting the space/time yield, opens new process
windows in terms of extreme temperature and pressure conditions to be applied,
and, moreover, even allows to carry out highly dangerous reactions in a safe way.
o In addition, the application of flow chemistry in micro-reactors also displays a plan to
overcome classical drawbacks of microwave-driven processes, such as the restricted
penetration depth of microwaves into absorbing media.
12)
 13)
How are composites classified?
Composite materials are commonly classified into two distinct levels on the basis of matrix as
well as reinforcement phase present in them.
I. Classifications of composites on the basis of Matrix Phase
The first level of classification is on the basis of matrix constituent. The major composite classes include
 1. Polymer Matrix Composites(PMCs) or Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs):
.Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs):
It consists of polymer resin within the type of a matrix,.

Glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites (GFRP) are the largest amount of produced carbon fibre-
reinforced polymer composites (CFRP).
E.g.: Glass and Carbon fiber reinforced polymers
2. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
E.g.: Alumina reinforced aluminium composites
3. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
E.g.: Carbon fiber reinforced SiC composite

II. Classifications of composites on the basis of reinforcement phase:

The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form:

1. Fibre Reinforced Composites:

These consist of fibres embedded in matrix material. They are of two types:
a) Discontinuous Fibre Or Short Fibre Composite:
Properties of these composites vary with fibre length.
b) Continuous Fibre Reinforced Composite:
Properties of these composite do not vary with fibre length. Any increase in fibre length
does not increase the elastic modulus of the composite, Fibres are small in diameter when
pushed axially, bend easily although they have very good tensile properties.
2. Laminar Composites:
These composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall
under this category.
3. Particulate Composites:
These composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may
be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this
category
13)Explanation of the characteristic properties of composite
materials
Light Weight:
Composites are light in weight, compared to most woods and metals. Their lightness is important in automobiles
and aircraft, for example, where less weight means better fuel efficiency. Some modern airplanes are built with
more composites than metal including the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner.

High Strength:
Composites can be designed to be far stronger than aluminum or steel. Metals are equally strong in all
directions. But composites can be engineered and designed to be strong in a specific direction.

Highest Strength to Weight Ratio:

• Relation between strength and weight of material depends on its strength-to-weight ratio. Some materials are
very strong and heavy, such as steel. Other materials can be strong and light, such as bamboo poles. •
Composite materials can be designed to be both strong and light.
Corrosion Resistance:
Composites resist damage from the weather and from harsh chemicals. Composites are good choices where
chemicals are handled or stored. They withstand severe weather and wide changes in temperature.

High-Impact Strength:
Composites can be made to absorb impacts—the sudden force of a bullet or the blast from an explosion. Because
of this property, composites are used in bulletproof vests and panels, and to shield airplanes, buildings, and
military vehicles from explosions.

Design Flexibility - Composites can be molded into complicated shapes more easily than most other materials.
This gives designers the freedom to create almost any shape or form.

Part Consolidation:
A single piece made of composite materials can replace an entire assembly of metal parts. Reducing the
number of parts in a machine or a structure saves time and cuts down on the maintenance needed over the life
of the item.

Dimensional Stability
Composites retain their shape and size when they are hot or cool, wet or dry. For example, they are used in
aircraft wings, so that the wing shape and size do not change as the plane gains or loses altitude.

Nonconductive:
Composites do not conduct electricity. This property makes them suitable for such items as electrical utility poles
and the circuit boards in electronics.
Nonmagnetic:
Composites contain no metals; therefore, they are not magnetic. They can be used around sensitive electronic
equipment. The lack of magnetic interference allows large magnets used in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
equipment to perform better.
Radar Transparent:

Radar signals pass right through composites, a property that makes composites ideal materials for use anywhere
radar equipment is operating, whether on the ground or in the air. Composites play a key role in stealth aircraft,
such as the U.S. Air Force’s B-2 stealth bomber, which is nearly invisible to radar.
Low Thermal Conductivity:
Composites are good insulators. They are used in buildings for doors, panels, and windows where extra
protection is needed from severe weather.
Durable:
Structures made of composites have a long life and need little maintenance. Many composites have been in
service for half a century.