UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

DC CIRCUITS

1.1 Introduction:
A circuit that can be AC or DC is the combination of active elements (power supply
sources) and passive elements (resistors, capacitors and inductors). Thus, the circuit theory or
analysis helps to understand the circuit behavior or characteristics by finding out the voltages and
currents in various elements in a circuit by using different techniques. So let us discuss in brief
about basic concepts of electricity before we could deal with DC circuit theory in later articles.

1.2 Concept of Electricity

According to the atomic theory, every material is made up from the atoms. This atom consists of
centrally charged nucleus with a surrounded electron based on Niels Bohr atom model. The
nucleus consists of neutrons and positively charged protons. Electrons are negatively charged
particles and rotate around the nucleus. This atom has an equal number of protons and electrons
and a great force of attraction exist between these opposite charges results the electrons to track
the nucleus.
Bohr’s model gives the distribution of electrons in each shell of
an atom. The most importantly the valence shell which is an
outermost cell from the nucleus consists of eight electrons and
never more than that. These electrons are at furthermost
distance from the nucleus so some extra energy is required to
make these electrons free. These electrons flow gives the
electricity. But number of electrons in the outermost valence
shell decides the electricity flow because the energy of the shell
is shared by the electrons in it. Each electron has one eight of
the shell’s energy if that valence shell has eight electrons.

Hence great amount of external energy is required to make

the electrons free so that the electricity is produced.
Generally, the materials which are not having free electrons
in the outermost cell are called as insulators. Typically,
insulators have five to seven valence electrons in its
valance shell. In other hand materials with one valence
electron requires a little energy to free the electrons, so that
the current is produced and the materials are called as
conductors. Typically, conductors have two or three
valence electrons. These good conductors include silver,
 UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

copper, aluminum, gold, etc. In prior to this, materials with four valence electrons that have both
conductor and insulator properties called as semiconductors.
As from above atomic theory, the flow of electrons gives the electricity. We know that
like charges repel whereas unlike charges attract. The separation the charges makes negative
charges to accumulate at one terminal and positive charges to other terminal with the application
of source. The current starts to flow when the path is made between these two charges. The unit
of the charge is Coulomb and it has a charge of 6.25 X 1018 electrons. The external force or
voltage applied causes the charge to move and the rate at which the charge flow is decided by the
amount of voltage applied.

1. Question: Define the terms (i) Voltage (ii) Current (iii) Power (iv) Energy

1.3 Basic Electrical Quantities:

We know that the electricity is of two types, Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current
(DC). A circuit that deals with AC is referred to as AC circuit and a circuit with DC source is
termed as DC circuit. As of now we only discuss about DC circuit and its theory. The DC
source allows the electricity or current to flow with an unvarying polarity that doesn’t change
with time.

1) Electric Voltage:

Voltage is the driving force in electric circuits and is what establishes current. Voltage,
symbolized by V, is defined as energy or work per unit charge.
where:
V = voltage in volts (V)
W = energy in joules (J)
Q = charge in coulombs (C)
Definition: One volt is the potential difference (voltage) between two points when one joule of
energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
We all know that Potential Difference between two points is the work done per unit charge
when a charge is moved from one point to the other. The defining equation for this is,

V = W/Q
Q = is the charge in coulombs, is always understood to be a positive charge in a conventional
way, thus making definite the algebraic sign of the potential difference in any particular case.

Since the difference of potential between two points is expressed in volts, the potential difference
is often referred to as voltage between these points. Thus, if an electric power line has a voltage
of 220V, it follows that 220J of work have to be expended for each coulomb of electricity which
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

is transferred through any apparatus connected between the two wires. The statement above
could be shown in a simple expression as:

1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb, or 1 V = 1 J/C

Actually, voltage is being measured using the instrument called the voltmeter

This voltage can be either positive or negative and expressed mostly with prefixes like KV, mV,
uV, etc. to denote sub-multiples of the voltage. Batteries and generators are the most commonly
used DC voltage sources which can produce the DC voltage from 1V to 24V DC for functioning
of general electronic circuits.

2) Electric Current:

Electrical current is the rate of flow of charges

where:
I = current in amperes (A)
Q = charge in coulombs (C)
t = time in seconds (s) the rate of flow of charge.
Random motion of free electrons in a material. Electrons flow from negative to positive when
a voltage is applied across a conductive or semi conductive material.

One ampere (1 A) is the amount of current that exists when a number of electrons having a total
charge of one coulomb (1 C) move through a given cross-sectional area in one second (1 s).

As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current
is measured in terms of Ampere.
In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive terminal,
whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal.
Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional
current is obtained due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called
as electric current.

It is denoted by the letter ‘I’ or lower -case i. This electric current can be direct or alternating.
The Direct Current (DC) flows in a unidirectional way and generally it is produced by batteries,
solar cells, thermocouples, etc. In case of AC, electric charge movement periodically changes as
we can observe in case of sine wave.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

3) Electric power (P):

The power is termed as the work done in a given amount of time. In electrical circuits, power is
exactly equal to the product of voltage and current. Since the voltage is the work per unit charge
and current is the rate at which electrons move in a circuit. The Power is measured in watts
(W) and its formula is

𝒅𝒘 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
P= = × = 𝑉 ×𝐼
𝒅𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡

P=IxV
According to Ohms law, R = V/I , V= IR
Substituting in the above equation, P = (IR) R , P = I2R
Or also, by substituting I = V/R, we can get P= V x (V/R) P= V2/R
These three possible formulas are used for finding the power associated with a circuit.
4) Electrical Energy

The rate at which electrical power consumed is generally referred as electrical energy. The
energy is measured in watt-seconds as the power measured in watts and time in seconds. Often it
is measured in kilowatt-hours as we can observe in our home electricity meter.

Electrical energy = power × time

These are the basic concepts of electrical energy which are necessary to know before dealing
with any electrical circuit. With the knowledge of these basic concepts, analysis of any circuit
would be made easy. Hope that we have given some key points on each parameter of an
electrical circuit. Any further assistance on this concept or any comments and suggestions on this
article you can comment below.

Two types of elements within an electrical or electronics circuit: passive elements and active
elements. An active element is one that is capable of continuously supplying energy to a circuit,
such as a battery, a generator, an operational amplifier, etc. A passive element on the other hand
are physical elements such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc, which cannot generate
electrical energy by themselves but only consume it.
The types of active circuit elements that are most important to us are those that supply electrical
energy to the circuits or network connected to them. These are called “electrical sources” with
the two types of electrical sources being the voltage source and the current source. The current
source is usually less common in circuits than the voltage source, but both are used and can be
regarded as complements of each other.
 UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

An electrical supply or simply, “a source”, is a device that supplies electrical power to a circuit
in the form of a voltage source or a current source. Both types of electrical sources can be
classed as a direct (DC) or alternating (AC) source in which a constant voltage is called a DC
voltage and one that varies sinusoidally with time is called an AC voltage. So, for example,
batteries are DC sources and the 230V wall socket or mains outlet in your home is an AC source.
We said earlier that electrical sources supply energy, but one of the interesting characteristics of
an electrical source, is that they are also capable of converting non-electrical energy into
electrical energy and vice versa. For example, a battery converts chemical energy into electrical
energy, while an electrical machine such as a DC generator or an AC alternator converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Renewable technologies can convert energy from the sun, the wind, and waves into electrical or
thermal energy. But as well as converting energy from one source to another, electrical sources
can both deliver or absorb energy allowing it to flow in both directions.
2.Question: What are the basic active elements in electrical circuits? Explain
with necessary description.
(OR)
Explain the type of electrical sources. Write in brief about the sources.

1.4 Voltage Source and Current Source

An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit. Active

elements have the ability to electrically control electron flow (i.e. the flow of charge). All
electronic circuits must contain at least one active component.
Common examples of active components include:

• Voltage sources
• Current sources

Electrical Sources
A Source is a device which converts mechanical, chemical, thermal or some other form
of energy into electrical energy. In other words, the source is an active network element meant
for generating electrical energy. The various types of sources available in the electrical network
are voltage source and current sources. A voltage source has a forcing function of emf whereas
the current source has a forcing function of current.

Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current source can be classed as being
either independent (ideal) or dependent, (controlled) that is whose value depends upon a voltage or
current elsewhere within the circuit, which itself can be either constant or time-varying.
When dealing with circuit laws and analysis, electrical sources are often viewed as being “ideal”,
that is the source is ideal because it could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy
without loss thereby having characteristics represented by a straight line. However, in real or
 UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

practical sources there is always a resistance either connected in parallel for a current source, or
series for a voltage source associated with the source affecting its output.
The current and voltage sources are further categorized as an ideal source or practical source.

i) Voltage Source
A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at any instant of time is constant
and is independent of the current drawn from it. Such a voltage source is called
an Ideal Voltage Source and have zero internal resistance. Practically an ideal
voltage source cannot be obtained.

Sources having some amount of internal resistances are known as Practical

Voltage Source. Due to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and it
causes the terminal voltage to reduce. The smaller is the internal resistance (r) of a
voltage source, the closer it is to an Ideal Source. The symbolic representation of the
ideal and practical voltage source is shown below.

An ideal voltage source is defined as a two terminal active element that is capable of supplying
and maintaining the same voltage, (v) across its terminals regardless of the current, (i) flowing
through it. In other words, an ideal voltage source will supply a constant voltage at all times
regardless of the value of the current being supplied producing an I-V characteristic represented
by a straight line.

The figure A shown below shows the circuit diagram and characteristics of an ideal voltage
source.
The figure B shown below gives the circuit diagram and characteristics of Practical Voltage
Source
❖ The example of voltage sources is batteries and alternators.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

ii) Current Source

The current sources are further categorized as Ideal and Practical current source.
An Ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies the same current to
any load resistance connected across its terminals. It is important to keep in mind that the current
supplied by the current source is independent of the voltage of source terminals. It has infinite
resistance.
A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with the
resistance in parallel. The symbolic representation is shown below.

Figure C shown below, show its characteristics. Figure D shown below shows the characteristics
of Practical Current Source.

An ideal current source plots a horizontal line on the I-V characteristic as shown
previously above. However as practical current sources have an internal source resistance, this
takes some of the current so the characteristic of this practical source is not flat and horizontal
but will reduce as the current is now splitting into two parts, with one part of the current flowing
into the parallel resistance, RP and the other part of the current flowing straight to the output
terminals.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Ohms law tells us that when a current, (i) flows through a resistance, (R) a voltage drop is
produced across the same resistance. The value of this voltage drop will be given as i*R P. Then
VOUT will be equal to the voltage drop across the resistor with no load attached. We remember
that for an ideal source current, RP is infinite as there is no internal resistance, therefore the
terminal voltage will be zero as there is no voltage drop.
The sum of the current around the loop given by Kirchhoff’s current law, KCL is: IOUT = IS -
VS/RP. This equation can be plotted to give the I-V characteristics of the output current. It is
given as a straight line with a slope –RP which intersects the vertical voltage axis at the same
point as IS when the source is ideal as shown.
❖ The example of current sources is photoelectric cells, collector currents of transistors.

Independent Dependent Voltage and Current Source

The source which supplies the active power to the network is known as the electrical source. The
electrical source is of two types namely independent source and dependent source.
The Independent and Dependent source means, whether the voltage or current sources are
either depending upon some other source, or they are acting independently.

3.Question: Explain Kirchhoff’s laws with diagrams.

1.5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Law: A German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff developed two laws enabling
easy analysis of an interconnection of any number of circuit elements. The first law deals with
the flow of current and is popularly known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) while the second
one deals with the voltage drop in a closed network and is known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage
Law (KVL).

The KCL states that the summation of current at a junction remains zero and according to KVL
the sum of the electromotive force and the voltage drops in a closed circuit remains zero. While
applying the KCL the incoming current is taken as positive and the outgoing current is taken as
negative. Similarly, while applying KVL, the rise in potential is taken as positive and the fall in
potential is taken as negative.

The KVL and KCL helps in finding the analogous electrical resistance and impedances of the
complex system. It also determines the current flowing through each branch of the network.

i) Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that” the algebraic sum of all the currents at any node point or
a junction of a circuit is zero”.
ΣI=0
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Considering the above figure as per the Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the
equation as;
i1 + i2 + i3 – i4 – i5 = 0 ……… (1)

The direction of incoming currents to a node is taken as positive while the outgoing currents is
taken as negative. The reverse of this can also be taken, i.e. incoming current as negative or
outgoing as positive. It depends upon your choice.

The equation (1) can also be written as i1 + i2 + i3 = i4 + i5

Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents

According to the Kirchhoff’s current law algebraic sum of the currents entering a node must be
equal to the algebraic sum of the currents leaving the node in an electrical network.

ii) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of the voltages (or voltage drops) in
any closed path of network that is transverse in a single direction is zero or in other words, in a
closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the EMFs + the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops
(product of current (I) and resistance (R)) is zero.

In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea
by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.
ΣE+ΣV=0

The above figure shows closed circuit also termed as a mesh. As

per the Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Here, the assumed current I causes a positive voltage drop of voltage when flowing from the
positive to negative potential while negative potential drop while the current flowing from
negative to the positive potential.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Considering the other figure shown below and assuming the direction of the current i

It is seen that the voltage V1 is negative in both the equation (2) and the equation (3) while V2 is
negative in the equation (2) but positive in the equation (3). This is because of the change in the
direction of the current assumed in both the figures. In the figure A, the current in both the
source V1 and V2 flows from negative (-ive) to positive (+ive) polarity while in figure B the
current in the source V1 is negative to positive but for V2 is positive to negative polarity.

For the dependent sources in the circuit, KVL can also be applied. In case of the calculation of a
power of any source, when the current enters the source, the power is absorbed by the sources
while the source delivers the power if the current is coming out of the source.

It is important to know some of the terms used in the circuit while applying KCL and KVL like
node, Junction, branch, loop, mesh. They are explained with the help of a circuit shown below

1.6 Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:

Circuit: The closed path followed by an electrical current is called an electrical circuit.
Alternatively, an electric circuit is a closed energized path. The essential parts of an electric
circuit are the source of power (battery, generator, etc.) , the conductor to carry the current and
the loads (the device which utilizes the electrical energy is called load, e.g. lamp, motor, heater
etc.).
❖ The closed path followed by direct current (dc) is called a dc circuit.

Network: An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons
from a voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are
electric networks" but the converse need not be true. i.e. A network is not necessarily a circuit.
• Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
• Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit
elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more
branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Junction: A junction is a point in the network where three or more circuit element are joined. It is
a point where the current is divided. In the circuit above B and D are the junctions.
• Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which
are connected between two nodes.
• Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is
encountered more than once.
• Mesh – a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed path. There are no
components inside a mesh.
Note that: Components are said to be connected together in Series if the same current value
flows through all the components.
Components are said to be connected together in Parallel if they have the same voltage applied
across them.

A Typical DC Circuit: A simple DC circuit is given in below figure to make the reader get
aware of DC circuit components and its parameters. The above DC circuit consists of the voltage
source and resistance with a specific current flow.

4. Question: What are the passive bilateral elements? Explain their V – I

characteristics

1.7 Passive Elements:

Passive Elements : Which it can either dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric

field or a magnetic field
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Bilateral Elements: Conduction of current in both directions in a circuit element with same
magnitude is termed as a bilateral circuit element. It offers some resistance to current flow in
both directions.

Examples: Resistors, inductors, capacitors etc

This figure shows that a bilateral circuit element can conduct from both sides and offer same
resistance for current from either side.

1) Resistance
The resistance of a conducting material opposes the flow of electrons. It is measured in ohms and
denoted by the Greek symbol Ω. Depends on the resistor value in a circuit voltage applied to the
circuit is decided. Thus, resistance can be defined as the voltage required for a circuit for making
1 ampere current flow. This also referred as Ohm’s law and written as R = V/I. That means if a
circuit requires 200V to produce 2A current then the resistance should be 100 ohms. The
resistance value is always positive. Resistors can be fixed or variable resistors as shown in
figure.

2) Inductance:
An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy
in it as a magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous basis.
The energy absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature.
That is why an inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit.
If a time varying current flowing through a coil there is an emf induced in it. The induced emf
across the coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current with respect to time. Due
to the property inducing emf, all types of electrical coil can be referred as inductor. An inductor
is an energy storage device which stores energy in form of magnetic field.

What is Inductance? As we already told, the induced emf across a coil is directly proportional to
the rate of change of current through it. The proportionality constant in that relation is known as

inductance.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

3) Capacitance:

A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store energy in it as electric

field. The energy dealing capacity of a capacitor is limited and transient – it is not actually
supplying energy; it is storing it for later use.
As such it is not considered an active component since no energy is being supplied or amplified.

• The charge accumulated on capacitor plates is directly proportional to voltage applied

across the plates.

q V q = CV

where C is the constant of proportionality and is called capacitance (unit: Farad).

• V-I characteristic of a capacitor is obtained by computing

• Alternatively, integrating the above equation w.r.t. time, and rearranging terms, we get

1 t
C 0
V (t ) = I (t )dt

1.7.1 Resistance in series & Parallel:

More than one electrical resistance can be connected either in series or in parallel in
addition to that, more than two resistances can also be connected in combination of series and
parallel both.

a) A series connection of resistors. (b) A parallel connection of resistors.

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

a) Resistors in Series:

Resistors are in series whenever the flow of charge, called the current, must flow through
devices sequentially.

The derivations of the expressions for series and parallel resistance are based on the laws of
conservation of energy and conservation of charge, which state that total charge and total energy
are constant in any process. These two laws are directly involved in all electrical phenomena and
will be invoked repeatedly to explain both specific effects and the general behavior of electricity.

Suppose you have three different types of resistors – R1, R2 and R3 – and you connect them end
to end as shown in the figure below, then it would be referred as resistances in series.
Now say this current is I.
So this current I will pass through the resistance R1, R2 and R3. Applying
Ohm’s law, it can be found that voltage drops across the resistances will
be V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3.

shows resistors in series connected to a voltage source. Now, if total

voltage applied across the combination of resistances in series, is V.

Then obviously

Since, sum of voltage drops across the individual resistance is nothing but the equal to applied
voltage across the combination.

Now, if we consider the total combination of resistances as a single resistor of electric resistance
value R, then according to Ohm’s law,
V = IR ………….(2)

Now, comparing equation (1) and (2), we get

So, the above proof shows that equivalent resistance of a

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

combination of resistances in series is equal to the sum of individual resistance. If there were n
number of resistances instead of three resistances, the equivalent resistance will be

In case of series connection, the equivalent resistance of the combination, is sum of these three
electrical resistances.
That means, resistance between point A and D in the figure below, is equal to the sum of three
individual resistances. The current enters in to the point A of the combination, will also leave
from point D as there is no other parallel path provided in the circuit.
(This fact would be an advantage to a person wishing to avoid an electrical shock, who could
reduce the current by wearing high-resistance rubber-soled shoes. It could be a disadvantage if
one of the resistances were a faulty high-resistance cord to an appliance that would reduce the
operating current.)

b) Resistances in Parallel
Say we have three resistors of resistance value R1, R2 and
R3. These resistors are connected in such a manner that
the right and left side terminal of each resistor is
connected together, as shown in the figure below.

This combination is called resistances in parallel. If

electric potential difference is applied across this
combination, then it will draw a current I (say).
As this current will get three parallel paths through these
three electrical resistances, the current will be divided into
three parts. Say currents I1, I1 and I1 pass through resistor
R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
Where total source current

Now, as from the figure it is clear that, each of the resistances in parallel, is connected across
the same voltage source, the voltage drops across each resistor is the same, and it is same as
supply voltage V (say).
Hence, according to Ohm’s law,

Now, if we consider the equivalent resistance of the combination is R. Then,

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Now putting the values of I, I1, I2 and I3 in equation (1) we get,

The above expression represents equivalent resistance of resistor in parallel. If there were n
number of resistances connected in parallel, instead of three resistances, the expression of
equivalent resistance would be

5. Question: Explain current division and voltage division rule for series and
parallel circuits.

1.7.2 Current Division and Voltage Division Rule:

a) Current Division Rule

A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as the current divides in all the branches in a parallel
circuit, and the voltage remains the same across them. The current division rule determines the
current across the circuit impedance. The current division is
explained with the help of the circuit shown below

The current I has been divided into I1 and I2 in two parallel

branches with the resistance R1 and R2 and V is the voltage drop
across the resistance R1 and R2.

As we know
V = IR ……..(1)
Then the equation of the current is written as

Let the total resistance of the circuit be R and is given by the

equation shown below
Equation (1) can also be written as
I = V/R ……….(3)
Now, putting the value of R from the equation (2) in the
equation (3) we will get

But
Putting the value of V = I1R1 from the equation (5) in the
equation (4),
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

we finally get the equation as And now considering V = I2R2 the equation will be Thus, from
the equation (6) and (7) the value of the current I1 and I2 respectively is given by the equation
below

Thus, in the current division rule, it is said that the current in any of the parallel branches is equal
to the ratio of opposite branch resistance to the total resistance, multiplied by the total current.

b) Voltage Division Rule

The voltage division rule can be understood by considering a series circuit shown below. In a
series circuit, voltage is divided, whereas the current remains the
same.

Let us consider a voltage source E with the resistance r1 and

r2 connected in series across it.

As we know

I = V/R or we can say I = E/R

Therefore, the current (i) in the loop ABCD will be By putting the value of i from equation (8)
in the equation (9) the voltage across the resistance r1 and r2 respectively is given by the equation
shown below as

Thus, the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that resistor times the
total impressed voltage across the series elements divided by the total resistance of the series
elements.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

1.7.3 Inductance in series and parallel:

Inductors connected in series or connected in parallel can be reduced to one single

inductor. Take a look at the circuit with three series inductors shown in the top diagram.

1.7.4 Capacitor in Series and parallel:

Let us connect n number of capacitors in series. V volt is applied across this series combination
of capacitors.
Let us consider capacitance of capacitors are C1, C2, C3…….Cn respectively, and equivalent
capacitance of series combination of the capacitors is C. The voltage drops across capacitors are
considered to be V1, V2, V3…….Vn, respectively.

Now, if Q coulomb be the charge transferred from

the source through these capacitors, then,

Since the charge accumulated in each capacitor and I entire series combination of capacitors will
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

be same and it is considered as Q.

Now, equation (i) can be written as,

Let us connect n number of capacitors in parallel, across a voltage source of V volt.

Let us consider the capacitance of the capacitors are C1, C2, C3…..Cn, respectively and
equivalent capacitance of the combination of the capacitor is C. As the capacitors are
connected in parallel, like current charge in each capacitor will be same. Total charge of the
parallel combination, will be divided in each capacitor according to it’s capacitance value but
voltage across each capacitor will be same and at steady state condition it is exactly equal to
the applied voltage.

Where, Q1, Q2, Q3,…….Qn are the charge of capacitor C1, C2, C3….. Cn
respectively. Now equation (2) can be written as,

1.8 Network Analysis Techniques (Network Theorems)

Generally speaking, network analysis is any structured technique used to mathematically

analyse a circuit (a "network" of interconnected components). Quite often the technician or
engineer will encounter circuits containing multiple sources of power or component
configurations which defy simplification by series/parallel analysis techniques.

A direct application of Kirchhoff ’s current and voltage laws using the principles
discussed in above topics can solve many circuit problems. However, there are a variety of
techniques, all based on these two laws, that can simplify circuit analysis. The main
techniques, to be introduced in this chapter, are:

1. Nodal analysis.
2. Mesh analysis.
3. Superposition theorem
4. Thevenin’s theorem.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

5. Norton’s theorem.

Each of these techniques has particular strengths aimed at solving particular types of circuit
problem. This simplifies circuit solution and makes less work overall!

Having understood the fundamental laws of circuit theory (Ohm’s law Kirchhoff’s laws), we are
now prepared to apply these laws to develop two powerful techniques for circuit analysis: nodal
analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), and mesh
analysis, which is based on a systematic application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).
we can analyse almost any circuit by obtaining a set of simultaneous equations that are then
solved to obtain the required values of current or voltage.

6. Question: What is nodal analysis. Write the basic steps to solve a problem
by applying node analysis.

1. Nodal analysis.
Nodal analysis provides a general procedure for analysing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables. Choosing node voltages instead of element voltages as circuit variables is
convenient and reduces the number of equations one must solve simultaneously.

❖ Nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage method.

In nodal analysis, we are interested in finding the node voltages. Given a circuit with n nodes
without voltage sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking the following three
steps.

Steps to determine the Node voltages:

1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2, . . . , vn−1 to the remaining n
− 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the n − 1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express the
branch currents in terms of node voltages.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node voltages.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

7. Question: What is mesh analysis. Write the basic steps to solve a problem
by applying mesh analysis.

2. Mesh Analysis

Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analysing circuits, using mesh currents as
the circuit variables. Using mesh currents instead of element currents as circuit variables is
convenient and reduces the number of equations that must be solved simultaneously. Recall that
a loop is a closed path with no node passed more than once. A mesh is a loop that does not
contain any other loop within it.
Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method.
Nodal analysis applies KCL to find unknown voltages in a given circuit, while mesh analysis
applies KVL to find unknown currents. Mesh analysis is not quite as general as nodal analysis
because it is only applicable to a circuit that is planar. A planar circuit is one that can be drawn in
a plane with no branches crossing one another; otherwise it is nonplanar.
❖ A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, in to the n meshes.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in terms of the
mesh currents.
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

8. Question: State and explain Superposition theorem with an example

3. Superposition theorem:

If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value of a
specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis as in above topics. Another
way is to determine the contribution of each independent source to the variable and then add
them up. The latter approach is known as the superposition.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) a bear a linear
relationship to one another. element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across
(or currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

The principle of superposition helps us to analyse a linear circuit with more than one
independent source by calculating the contribution of each independent source separately.
However, to apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned
off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every
current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable
circuit.
2.Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit variables. With these in mind,
we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

Steps to apply superposition Principle:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current)
due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the
independent sources.
Analysing a circuit using superposition has one major disadvantage: it may very likely involve
more work. If the circuit has three independent sources, we may have to analyse three simpler
circuits each providing the contribution due to the respective individual source. However,
superposition does help reduce a complex circuit to simpler circuits through replacement of
voltage sources by short circuits and of current sources by open circuits.
Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity. For this reason, it is not applicable to the
effect on power due to each source, because the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the
square of the voltage or current. If the power value is needed, the current through (or voltage

across) the element must be calculated first using superposition.

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

9. Question: State and explain Thevenin’s theorem with an example

4. Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances
can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the
load“.
In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to
an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a
resistance (or impedance) connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and
other interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the
circuit.

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network consisting of
multiple resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single equivalent
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

resistance Rs and one single equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking
back into the circuit and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.

10. Question: State and explain Norton’s theorem with an example:

5. Norton’s Theorem

Norton’s Theorem states that – A linear active network consisting of independent or

dependent voltage source and current sources and the various circuit elements can be substituted
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance. The current
source being the short-circuited current across the load terminal and the resistance being the
internal resistance of the source network.

The Norton’s theorems reduce the networks equivalent to the circuit having one current source,
parallel resistance and load. Norton’s theorem is the converse of Thevenin’s Theorem. It
consists of the equivalent current source instead of an equivalent voltage source as in Thevenin’s
theorem. The determination of internal resistance of the source network is identical in both the
theorems.
 UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

In the final stage that is in the equivalent circuit, the current is placed in parallel to the
internal resistance in Norton’s Theorem whereas in Thevenin’s Theorem the equivalent voltage
source is placed in series with the internal resistance.

The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Norton’s Theorem is as follows:
1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
3. Find IS by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B.
4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.
The Norton equivalent circuit represents a general circuit with an independent current source in
parallel with the Norton equivalent Resistance.
• Norton current source (IN ) is equivalent to the short-circuit current at the terminal a and b
• Norton resistance RN is the same as the Thevenin resistance

•
For the previous example

Source Transformation

From Thevenin equivalent circuit to Norton

From Norton Equivalent circuit to Thévenin

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

11. Question: Find the expression for time constant for RL circuit excited by
a DC source.

1.9 Transient Response of Series RL Circuit

Consider the following series RL circuit diagram.

In the above circuit, the switch was kept open up to t = 0 and

it was closed at t = 0. So, the DC voltage source having V volts
is not connected to the series RL circuit up to this instant.
Therefore, there is no initial current flows through inductor.
The circuit diagram, when the switch is in closed position is
shown in the following figure.

Now, the current i flows in the entire circuit, since the DC voltage
source having V volts is connected to the series RL circuit.

Transient Response of RL Circuit:

Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit results in the
following differential equation.

or

In the above equation, the current i is the solution to be found and V is the applied constant
voltage. The voltage V is applied to the circuit only when the switch S is closed. The above
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

equation is a linear differential equation of first order. Comparing it with a non-homogeneous

differential equation

whose solution is

where c is an arbitrary constant. In a similar way, we can write the current equation as

To determine the value of c in Eq. 12.5, we use the initial conditions. In the Transient Response
of RL Circuit shown in Fig. 12.1, the switch S is closed at t=0. At t=0–, i.e. just before closing
the switch S, the current in the inductor is zero. Since the inductor does not allow sudden
changes in currents, at t=0+ just after the switch is closed, the current remains zero.

Thus at
Substituting the above condition in Eq. 12.5, we have

Hence

Substituting the value of c in Eq. 5, we get

Equation 12.6 consists of two parts, the steady state part V/R, and the transient part (V/R)e-
(R/L)t
. When switch S is closed, the response reaches a steady state value after a time interval as
shown in Fig. 12.2.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Here the transition period is defined as the time taken for the current to reach its final or steady
state value from its initial value. In the transient part of the solution, the quantity L/R is
important in describing the curve since L/R is the time required for the current to reach from its
initial value of zero to the final value V/R. The time constant of a function V/R e-(R/L)t is the time
at which the exponent of e is unity, where e is the base of the natural logarithms. The term L/R is
called the time constant and is denoted by τ

The transient part of the solution is

At one TC, i.e. at one time constant, the transient term reaches 36.8 percent of its initial value.

Similarly,

After 5 TC, the transient part reaches more than 99 percent of its final value. In Fig. 12.1, we can
find out the voltages and powers across each element by using the current.
Voltage across the resistor is
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Similarly, the voltage across the inductance is

Where, τ is the time constant and its value is equal to LRLR.

Both Equation 5 and Equation 6 are same. But we can easily understand the above waveform of
current flowing through the circuit from Equation 6 by substituting a few values of t like 0, τ,
2τ, 5τ, etc.
In the above waveform of current flowing through the circuit, the transient response will present
up to five time constants from zero, whereas the steady state response will present from five
time constants onwards.

12. Question: Find the expression for time constant for RC circuit excited by
a DC source

1.10 Transient Response of Series RC Circuit

Consider a Transient Response of RC Circuit consisting of resistance and capacitance as shown

in Fig. 12.6.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

The capacitor in the circuit is initially uncharged, and is

in series with a resistor. When the switch S is closed at t
= 0, we can determine. the complete solution for the
current. Application of the Kirchhoff’s voltage law to
the circuit results in the following differential equation.

By differentiating the above equation, we get

Equation 12.9 is a linear differential equation with only the complementary function. The
particular solution for the above equation is zero. The solution for this type of differential
equation is

Here, to find the value of c, we use the initial conditions.

In the Transient Response of RC Circuit shown in Fig. 12.6, switch S is closed at t=0; Since the
capacitor never allows sudden changes in voltage, it will act as a short circuit at t=0 +. So, the
current in the circuit at t=0+ is V/R

Substituting this current in Eq. 12.10, we get

The current equation becomes

When switch S is closed, the response decays with time as shown in Fig. 12.7.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

In the solution, the quantity RC is the time constant, and is denoted by τ,

where τ = RC sec
After 5 TC, the curve reaches 99 per cent of its final value. In. Fig. 12.6, we can find out the
voltage across each element by using the current equation. Voltage across the resistor is

Similarly, voltage across the capacitor is

At t = 0, voltage across capacitor is zero

The responses are shown in Fig. 12.8.

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

Example Problem on Electrical Parameter Calculations

Consider an electric bulb or lamp rated at 100W is connected to a supply source of 250V. Find
out the current flowing to the load, the resistance of the lamp and the energy dissipated in two
minutes.

From the power formula we know that P = VI

Then the current flowing through the lamp is, I = 100 / 250
I = 0.4 A
From the ohms law,
Resistance R = V/I
R = 250/ 0.4
R = 625 ohms.
Energy dissipated,
E = Power * time
E=V*I*t
= 250*0.4* (2*60)
= 12000 watt-second

REFERENCE
1) D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010
2) E. Hughes, “Electrical and Electronics Technology”, Pearson, 2010.
3) Vincent Del Toro, “Electrical Engineering Fundamentals”, Pearson, 2015.
4) https://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-engineering-articles/circuit-theory/
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1. What are the basic active elements in electrical circuits? Explain with necessary
description.
2. What are the passive bilateral elements? Explain their V – I characteristics
3. Explain the type of electrical sources. Write in brief about the sources.
4. Define the terms (i) Voltage (ii) Current (iii) Power (iv) Energy
5. Explain Kirchhoff’s laws with diagrams.
6. What is nodal analysis. Write the basic steps to solve a problem by applying node
analysis.
7. What is mesh analysis. Write the basic steps to solve a problem by applying mesh
analysis.
8. State and explain Superposition theorem with an example
9. State and explain Thevenin’s theorem with an example
10. State and explain Norton’s theorem with an example
11. Find the expression for time constant for RL circuit excited by a DC source.
12. Find the expression for time constant for RC circuit excited by a DC source
13. Explain current division and voltage division rule for series and parallel circuits.
14. The current in the 6 resistance in the circuit shown below is 2A. Determine the current
in all the branches and the applied voltage

15. Find R in the circuit shown below is

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

16. Find V in the circuit shown below

17. Determine I in the circuit shown below

18. Find the value of mesh currents for the circuit shown below

19. Find Va in the following circuit using nodal analysis

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

20. Find branch currents, branch voltages and power dissipated in each resistor for the
circuit shown below

Understanding Level Questions:

1. Find the Thevenin's resistance across terminals A – B

2. Find i and Vab in the circuit shown below

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

3. For the circuit shown below i0 = 2A, calculate ix and the total power dissipated by the
circuit

4. Determine the current through a 200F capacitor whose voltage is shown in the
following figure

5. Find the Thevenin voltage across the terminal a – b for the circuit shown below.

6. Find the Norton’s current across the terminals a – b for the circuit shown below
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

7. In the circuit shown below, use the current division to compute iX and iY

8. The node voltages shown in the partial network are relative to some reference node which
is not shown in the figure. Find i in the circuit.

9. Find the value of R if i1=1.5mA using mesh analysis

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

10. Find the current through 10 resistance using superposition theorem

11. Determine the number of branches and nodes in the circuit shown below. Identify which
elements are in series and parallel.

12. Find Vx and Ix in the circuit shown below

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

13. Using mesh analysis find ‘i’ in the circuit shown below

14. An Inductance of 2.0mH has a current I = 5(1-e-5000t) A. Find the corresponding voltage
and maximum stored energy.

15. Find Vs if r1 = 2, r2 = 1 and r3 = 5 in the circuit shown below.

16. If ix =1A in the circuit shown below, find ‘i’ and Vs

17. In the circuit shown below, find V1 and V2

18. Find I and Vab in the circuit shown below

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

19. The light bulb in the following figure is rated at 120V, 0.75A. Calculate Vs to make the
light bulb operate at rated conditions

20. Using super position, find Vo in the circuit shown below.

Application Level Questions:

1. The total charge entering a terminal is given by q=5tsin4t mC. Find the current at
t=0.5s
2. Find the power delivered to an element at t=3ms, if the current entering its positive
terminal is i=5cos60t A and the voltage is v=3i
3. The current through an element is as shown in the following figure. Determine the total
charge that passes through the element at t=1s

4. Find ‘I’ in the network shown below

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

5. Find i1, i2, i3 in the figure shown below

6. Find ‘R’ for the circuit shown below

7. Find the equivalent resistance Rab of the network shown in the circuit

8. Determine Vth and Rth at the terminals 1 – 2 for the circuit shown below

9. Find the Norton’s current in the circuit shown below

UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

10. Two Electrical networks N1 and N2 are connected with three resistances as shown in the
figure below. The voltage across 3 resistance is_______V

11. Consider the circuit shown below. Let X be a 4 resistor, then the power absorbed is P1
watts and when X by a 6V independent voltage source with positive terminal at the top,
Then the power absorbed by X is P2 watt. What is the value of P1/P2.

12. A battery has a short circuit current of 20A and an open circuit voltage of 12V. If the
battery is connected to an electric bulb of resistance 2, Calculate the power dissipated
by the bulb.
13. The Thevenin equivalent at terminal a – b of the linear network is as shown below is to
be determined. When a 10K resistor is connected to terminal a – b, the voltage vab is
measured as 6V. When a 30K resistor is connected to terminal a – b, the voltage vab is
measured as 12V. Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent across the terminals a – b.

14. An Inductor has a linear change in current from 50mA to 100mA in 2ms and induces a
voltage of 160mV. Calculate the value of the Inductance.
15. An electric motor can be modelled as series combination of 12 resistor and 200mH
inductor. If a current i(t) = 2te-10tA flows through the motor, Find the voltage across the
motor.
UNIT-1 DC CIRCUITS

16. Determine the time constant of the circuit shown below

17. In the circuit shown below v(t) = 56e-200tV and i(t) = 8e-200t A for t > 0. Find the values of
R & C.

18. In the circuit shown below, use voltage divisor formula to compute Vx and Vy

19. In applying the superposition principle to the circuit shown below, the current i due to
the 4V source acting alone is ________A

20. A circuit consisting of four circuit elements as shown in the figure. The voltage drops
and polarities are indicated in the figure. It is given that VPQ = 8V. What are the values of
V1 and VQR.