British rule in Burma

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Colony of Burma
မြန်မာကို လို နီ
1824–1948
Flag of Burma
Flag
(1939–1948)
Emblem (1939–1948) of Burma
Emblem
(1939–1948)
Anthem: God Save the King (1824–1837; 1901–1948)
God Save the Queen (1837–1901)
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British Burma during World War II Dark green: Japanese occupation of Burma Light
silver: Remainder of British Burma Light green: Occupied and annexed by Thailand
British Burma during World War II
Dark green: Japanese occupation of Burma
Light silver: Remainder of British Burma
Light green: Occupied and annexed by Thailand
Status Division of the Bengal Presidency (1826–1862)
Province of British India (1862–1937)
Colony of the United Kingdom (1937–1948)
Capital Moulmein
(1826–1852)
Rangoon
(1853–1942)
Shimla
(1942-1945)
Rangoon
(1945–1948)
Capital-in-exile Shimla, British India
(1942–1945)
Common languages English (official)
Burmese
Religion Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam
Monarch
• 1862–1901
Victoria
• 1901–1910
Edward VII
• 1910–1936
George V
• 1936
Edward VIII
• 1936–1948
George VI
Governor
• 1862–1867 (first)
Sir Arthur Purves Phayre [a]
• 1946–1948 (last)
Sir Hubert Rance
Legislature Legislative Council of Burma (1897–1936)
Legislature of Burma (1936–1947)
• Upper house
Senate
• Lower house
House of Representatives
Historical era Colonial era
• First Anglo-Burmese War
5 March 1824
• Anglo-Burmese Wars
1824–1826, 1852, 1885
• Separation from British India
1937
• Japanese and Thai occupation
1942–1945
• Independence from the United Kingdom
4 January 1948
Currency Burmese rupee, Indian rupee, Pound sterling
ISO 3166 code MM
Preceded by Succeeded by
British Raj
Konbaung Dynasty
State of Burma
Japanese occupation
Thai occupation
Union of Burma

Today part of Myanmar

British rule in Burma lasted from 1824 to 1948, from the successive three Anglo-
Burmese wars through the creation of Burma as a province of British India to the
establishment of an independently administered colony, and finally independence.
The region under British control was known as British Burma. Various portions of
Burmese territories, including Arakan (Rakhine State) or Tenasserim were annexed by
the British after their victory in the First Anglo-Burmese War; Lower Burma was
annexed in 1852 after the Second Anglo-Burmese War. The annexed territories were
designated the minor province (a chief commissionership) of British India in 1862.
[1]

After the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885, Upper Burma was annexed, and the
following year, the province of Burma in British India was created, becoming a
major province (a lieutenant-governorship) in 1897.[1] This arrangement lasted
until 1937, when Burma began to be administered separately by the Burma Office
under the Secretary of State for India and Burma. British rule was disrupted during
the Japanese occupation of much of the country during World War II. Burma achieved
independence from British rule on 4 January 1948.

Burma is sometimes referred to as "the Scottish Colony" owing to the heavy role
played by Scotsmen in colonising and running the country, one of the most notable
being Sir James Scott.

History of Myanmar
WikiProject Myanmar peacock.svg
Prehistory of Myanmar 11,000–200 BCE
Pyu city-states 200 BCE – 1050 CE
(Sri Ksetra Kingdom, Tagaung Kingdom)
Mon kingdoms 400 BCE – 1057 CE
(Thaton Kingdom)
Arakanese kingdoms 788?–1406
Bagan Kingdom 849–1297
Early Bagan Kingdom 849–1044
Warring states period
Upper Myanmar 1297–1555
Myinsaing and Pinya Kingdoms 1297–1364
Sagaing Kingdom 1315–1364
Kingdom of Ava 1364–1555
Prome Kingdom 1482–1542
Hanthawaddy Kingdom 1287–1539, 1550–1552
Shan States 1215–1563
Kingdom of Mrauk U 1429–1785
Toungoo dynasty 1510–1752
First Toungoo Empire 1510–1599
Nyaungyan Restoration 1599–1752
Restored Hanthawaddy 1740–1757
Konbaung dynasty 1752–1885
British colonial period 1824–1948
Anglo-Burmese Wars 1824–1885
Resistance movement 1885–1895
Nationalist movement 1900–1948
Japanese occupation 1942–1945
Modern era 1948–present
Union of Burma 1948–1962
Socialist Republic 1962–1988
Union of Myanmar 1988–2010
Political reforms 2011–2015
State Administration Council (2021–present)
Timeline
List of capitals
Leaders
Royal chronicles
Military history
vte

Contents
1 Prior to British conquest
2 Arrival of the British
3 Early British rule
3.1 Administration
4 Administrative divisions
4.1 Economy
5 Nationalist movement
6 Separation from India
7 World War II
8 From the Japanese surrender to Aung San's assassination
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
11.1 Citations
11.2 Sources
12 Further reading
13 External links
Prior to British conquest
Because of its location, trade routes between China and India passed through the
country, keeping Burma wealthy through trade, although self-sufficient agriculture
was still the basis of the economy. Indian merchants travelled along the coasts and
rivers (especially the Irrawaddy River) throughout the regions where the majority
of Burmese lived, bringing Indian cultural influences into the country that still
exist there today.[citation needed] As Burma had been one of the first Southeast
Asian countries to adopt Buddhism on a large scale, it continued under the British
as the officially patronised religion of most of the population.[2]

Before the British conquest and colonisation, the ruling Konbaung dynasty practised
a tightly centralized form of government. The king was the chief executive with the
final say on all matters, but he could not make new laws and could only issue
administrative edicts. The country had two codes of law, the Dhammathat and the
Hluttaw, the centre of government, was divided into three branches—fiscal,
executive, and judicial. In theory, the king was in charge of all of the Hluttaw,
but none of his orders got put into place until the Hluttaw approved them, thus
checking his power. Further dividing the country, provinces were ruled by
governors, who were appointed by the Hluttaw, and villages were ruled by hereditary
headmen approved by the king.[3]

Arrival of the British

British naval forces entering the harbour of Rangoon in May 1824

Conflict began between Burma and the British when the Konbaung dynasty decided to
expand into Arakan in the state of Assam, close to British-held Chittagong in
India. This led to the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26). The British dispatched a
large seaborne expedition that took Rangoon without a fight in 1824. In Danuphyu,
at the Ayeyarwadddy Delta, Burmese General Maha Bandula was killed and his armies
routed. Burma was forced to cede Assam and other northern provinces.[4] The 1826
Treaty of Yandabo formally ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, the longest and the
most expensive war in the history of British India. Fifteen thousand European and
Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian
casualties.[5] The campaign cost the British between 5 and 13 million pounds
sterling (between 18 and 48 billion in 2020 U.S. dollars)[6] which led to an
economic crisis in British India in 1833.[7]

District Courts and Public Offices, Strand Road, Rangoon, 1868. Photographer J.
Jackson
In 1852, the Second Anglo-Burmese War was provoked by the British, who sought the
teak forests in Lower Burma as well as a port between Calcutta and Singapore. After
25 years of peace, British and Burmese fighting started afresh and continued until
the British occupied all of Lower Burma. The British were victorious in this war
and as a result obtained access to the teak, oil, and rubies of their newly
conquered territories.

Photograph of the arrival of British forces in Mandalay on 28 November 1885 at the

end of the Third Anglo-Burmese War. Photographer: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–
1912)

In this rendering, British officers take King Thibaw onto a steamship en route to
exile in India. He would never see Burma again.
In Upper Burma, the still unoccupied part of the country, King Mindon had tried to
adjust to the thrust of imperialism. He enacted administrative reforms and made
Burma more receptive to foreign interests. But the British initiated the Third
Anglo-Burmese War, which lasted less than two weeks during November 1885. The
British government justified their actions by claiming that the last independent
king of Burma, Thibaw Min, was a tyrant and that he was conspiring to give France
more influence in the country. British troops entered Mandalay on 28 November 1885.
Thus, after three wars gaining various parts of the country, the British occupied
all the area of present-day Myanmar, making the territory a Province of British
India on 1 January 1886.[3][8]

Early British rule

Colonial India
British Indian Empire
Imperial entities of India
Dutch India 1605–1825
Danish India 1620–1869
French India 1668–1954
Austrian India 1778–1785
Portuguese India
(1505–1961)
Casa da Índia 1434–1833
Ceilão Português 1597–1658
Portuguese East India Company 1628–1633
British India
(1612–1947)
EIC in India 1612–1757
Company rule in India 1757–1858
British rule in Portuguese India 1797–1813
British Raj 1858–1947
British rule in Burma 1824–1948
Princely states 1721–1949
Partition of India 1947–
Other
Ragusan trade with India 1530–1667
Swedish East India Company 1731–1813
vte
Burmese armed resistance continued sporadically for several years, and the British
commander had to coerce the High Court of Justice to continue to function. Though
war officially ended after only a couple of weeks, resistance continued in northern
Burma until 1890, with the British finally resorting to systematic destruction of
villages and appointment of new officials to finally halt all guerrilla activity.

Traditional Burmese society was drastically altered by the demise of the monarchy
and the separation of religion and state. Intermarriage between Europeans and
Burmese gave birth to an indigenous Eurasian community known as the Anglo-Burmese
who would come to dominate the colonial society, hovering above the Burmese but
below the British.

After Britain took over all of Burma, they continued to send tribute to China to
avoid offending them, but this unknowingly lowered the status they held in Chinese
minds.[9] It was agreed at the Burma convention in 1886 that China would recognise
Britain's occupation of Upper Burma while Britain continued the Burmese payment of
tribute every ten years to Peking.[10]

Administration
The British controlled their new province through direct rule, making many changes
to the previous governmental structure. The monarchy was abolished, King Thibaw
sent into exile, and religion and state separated. This was particularly harmful,
because the Buddhist monks, collectively known as the Sangha, were strongly
dependent on the sponsorship of the monarchy. At the same time, the monarchy was
given legitimacy by the Sangha, and monks as representatives of Buddhism gave the
public the opportunity to understand national politics to a greater degree.[3]

The British also implemented a secular education system. The colonial Government of
India, which was given control of the new colony, founded secular schools, teaching
in both English and Burmese, while also encouraging Christian missionaries to visit
and found schools. In both of these types of schools, Buddhism and traditional
Burmese culture was frowned upon.[3]

Administrative divisions

Administrative map of the Burma Province, 1948

The province of Burma, after 1885 was administered as follows:

Ministerial Burma (Burma proper)

Tenasserim Division (Toungoo, Thaton, Amherst, Salween, Tavoy, and Mergui
Districts)
Arakan Division (Akyab, Northern Arakan or Arakan Hill Tracts, Kyaukpyu and
Sandoway Districts)
Pegu Division (Rangoon City, Hanthawaddy, Pegu, Tharrawaddy and Prome Districts)
Irrawaddy Division (Bassein, Henzada, Thayetmyo, Maubin, Myaungmya and Pyapon
Districts)
Scheduled Areas (Frontier Areas)
Shan States
Pakokku Chin Hills
Kachin tracts
The "Frontier Areas", also known as the "Excluded Areas" or the "Scheduled Areas",
compose the majority of states within Burma today. They were administered
separately by the British with a Burma Frontier Service and later united with Burma
proper to form Myanmar's geographic composition today. The Frontier Areas were
inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Chin, the Shan, the Kachin and the
Karenni.

By 1931 Burma had 9 divisions, split into a number of districts.[11]

Arakan Division (Akyab, Arakan Hill, Kyaukpyu and Sandoway Districts)

Minbu Division ( Magway, Minbu and Thayetmyo Districts)
Mandalay Division (Kyaukse, Mandalay, Meiktila and Myingyan Districts)
Tenasserim Division (Toungoo, Thaton, Amherst, Salween, Tavoy, and Mergui
Districts)
Pegu Division (Rangoon City, Hanthawaddy, Pegu, Tharrawaddy and Prome Districts)
Irrawaddy Division (Bassein, Henzada, Maubin, Myaungmya and Pyapon Districts)
Sagaing Division (Bhamo, Lower Chindwin, Upper Chindwin, Katha, Myitkyina, Sagaing
Districts, the Hukawng Valley and The Triangle Native areas)
Federated Shan States (Northern, Eastern, Central, Myelat, Karenni, Kengtung and
Yawnghwe)
Pakokku Hill Tracts (Chin Hills, Manipur, Lushai Hills , Pakokku District , Cachar
and Jaintia )
Economy

Vegetable stall on the roadside at the Madras Lancer Lines, Mandalay, January 1886.
Photographer: Hooper, Willoughby Wallace (1837–1912)
The traditional Burmese economy was one of redistribution with the prices of the
most important commodities set by the state. For the majority of the population,
trade was not as important as self-sufficient agriculture, but the country's
position on major trade routes from India to China meant that it did gain a
significant amount of money from facilitating foreign trade. With the arrival of
the British, the Burmese economy became tied to global market forces and was forced
to become a part of the colonial export economy.[3]

Burma's annexation ushered in a new period of economic growth. The economic nature
of society also changed dramatically. The British began exploiting the rich soil of
the land around the Irrawaddy delta and cleared away the dense mangrove forests.
Rice, which was in high demand in Europe, especially after the building of the Suez
Canal in 1869, was the main export. To increase the production of rice, many
Burmese migrated from the northern heartland to the delta, shifting the population
concentration and changing the basis of wealth and power.[3]

To prepare the new land for cultivation, farmers borrowed money from Indian
moneylenders called chettiars at high interest rates, as British banks would not
grant mortgages. The Indian moneylenders offered mortgage loans but foreclosed on
them quickly if the borrowers defaulted.

At the same time, thousands of Indian laborers migrated to Burma (Burmese Indians)
and, because of their willingness to work for less money, quickly displaced Burmese
farmers. As the Encyclopedia Britannica states: "Burmese villagers, unemployed and
lost in a disintegrating society, sometimes took to petty theft and robbery and
were soon characterized by the British as lazy and undisciplined. The level of
dysfunction in Burmese society was revealed by the dramatic rise in homicides."[12]

With this quickly growing economy came industrialisation to a certain degree, with
a railway being built throughout the valley of the Irrawaddy, and hundreds of
steamboats traveled along the river. All of these modes of transportation were
owned by the British. Thus, although the balance of trade was in favour of British
Burma, the society was changed so fundamentally that many people did not gain from
the rapidly growing economy.[3]

The civil service was largely staffed by Anglo-Burmese and Indians, and the ethnic
Burmese were excluded almost entirely from military service, which was staffed
primarily with Indians, Anglo-Burmese, Karens and other Burmese minority groups. A
British General Hospital Burmah was set up in Rangoon in 1887.[13] Though the
country prospered, the Burmese people largely failed to reap the rewards. (See
George Orwell's novel Burmese Days for a fictional account of the British in
Burma.) An account by a British official describing the conditions of the Burmese
people's livelihoods in 1941 describes the Burmese hardships:

“Foreign landlordism and the operations of foreign moneylenders had led to

increasing exportation of a considerable proportion of the country’s resources and
to the progressive impoverishment of the agriculturist and of the country as a
whole…. The peasant had grown factually poorer and unemployment had increased….The
collapse of the Burmese social system led to a decay of the social conscience
which, in the circumstances of poverty and unemployment caused a great increase in
crime.”[14]

Nationalist movement

Map of Rangoon and Environ, 1911

By the turn of the century, a nationalist movement began to take shape in the form
of the Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA), modelled after the YMCA, as
religious associations were allowed by the colonial authorities. They were later
superseded by the General Council of Burmese Associations (GCBA) which was linked
with Wunthanu athin or National Associations that sprang up in villages throughout
Burma Proper.[15] Between 1900 and 1911 the "Irish Buddhist" U Dhammaloka publicly
challenged Christianity and imperial power, leading to two trials for sedition.

A new generation of Burmese leaders arose in the early twentieth century from
amongst the educated classes, some of whom were permitted to go to London to study
law. They returned with the belief that the Burmese situation could be improved
through reform. Progressive constitutional reform in the early 1920s led to a
legislature with limited powers, a university and more autonomy for Burma within
the administration of India. Efforts were undertaken to increase the representation
of Burmese in the civil service. Some people began to feel that the rate of change
was not fast enough and the reforms not extensive enough.

In 1920 a student strike broke out in protest against the new University Act which
the students believed would only benefit the elite and perpetuate colonial rule.
'National Schools' sprang up across the country in protest against the colonial
education system, and the strike came to be commemorated as 'National Day'.[15]
There were further strikes and anti-tax protests in the later 1920s led by the
Wunthanu athins. Prominent among the political activists were Buddhist monks
(hpongyi), such as U Ottama and U Seinda in the Arakan who subsequently led an
armed rebellion against the British and later the nationalist government after
independence, and U Wisara, the first martyr of the movement to die after a
protracted hunger strike in prison.[15]
In December 1930, a local tax protest by Saya San in Tharrawaddy quickly grew into
first a regional and then a national insurrection against the government. Lasting
for two years, the Galon Rebellion, named after the mythical bird Garuda – enemy of
the Nagas i.e. the British – emblazoned on the pennants the rebels carried,
required thousands of British troops to suppress along with promises of further
political reform. The eventual trial of Saya San, who was executed, allowed several
future national leaders, including Dr Ba Maw and U Saw, who participated in his
defense, to rise to prominence.[15]

In May 1930, the Dobama Asiayone (We Burmans Association) was founded, whose
members called themselves thakin (an ironic name as thakin means "master" in the
Burmese language – rather like the Indian 'sahib' – proclaiming that they were the
true masters of the country entitled to the term usurped by the colonial masters).
[15] The second university student strike in 1936 was triggered by the expulsion of
Aung San and Ko Nu, leaders of the Rangoon University Students Union, for refusing
to reveal the name of the author who had written an article in their university
magazine, making a scathing attack on one of the senior university officials. It
spread to Mandalay leading to the formation of the All Burma Students Union. Aung
San and Nu subsequently joined the Thakin movement progressing from student to
national politics.[15]

Separation from India

Photograph of Royal Lake in Dalhousie Park, Rangoon, 1895. Photographer Philip

Adolphe Klier (c. 1845–1911)
The British separated Burma Province from British India in 1937[16] and granted the
colony a new constitution calling for a fully elected assembly, with many powers
given to the Burmese, but this proved to be a divisive issue as some Burmese felt
that this was a ploy to exclude them from any further Indian reforms. Ba Maw served
as the first prime minister of Burma, but he was forced out by U Saw in 1939, who
served as prime minister from 1940 until he was arrested on 19 January 1942 by the
British for communicating with the Japanese.

A wave of strikes and protests that started from the oilfields of central Burma in
1938 became a general strike with far-reaching consequences. In Rangoon student
protesters, after successfully picketing the Secretariat, the seat of the colonial
government, were charged by the British mounted police wielding batons and killing
Rangoon University student. In Mandalay, the police shot into a crowd of protesters
led by Buddhist monks killing 17 people. The movement became known as Htaung thoun
ya byei ayeidawbon (the '1300 Revolution' named after the Burmese calendar year),
[15] and 20 December, the day the first martyr Aung Kyaw fell, commemorated by
students as 'Bo Aung Kyaw Day'.[17]

World War II
Main article: Japanese occupation of Burma
See also: Japanese invasion of Burma, Burma Campaign, and Saharat Thai Doem

The British Army in Burma 1944

The Empire of Japan invaded Burma in 1942; this continued through 1943 when the
State of Burma was proclaimed in Rangoon. Japan never succeeded in fully conquering
all of the colony, however, and insurgent activity was pervasive, though not as
much of an issue as it was in other former colonies. By 1945, British-led troops,
mainly from the British Indian Army, had regained control over most of the colony.

From the Japanese surrender to Aung San's assassination

The surrender of the Japanese brought a military administration to Burma. The
British administration sought to try Aung San and other members of the British
Indian Army for treason and collaboration with the Japanese.[18] Lord Mountbatten
realised that a trial was an impossibility considering Aung San's popular appeal.
[15] After the war ended, the British Governor, Colonel Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith,
returned. The restored government established a political programme that focused on
the physical reconstruction of the country and delayed discussion of independence.
The Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League (AFPFL) opposed the government leading to
political instability in the country. A rift had also developed in the AFPFL
between the communists and Aung San together with the socialists over strategy,
which led to Than Tun being forced to resign as general secretary in July 1946 and
the expulsion of the CPB from the AFPFL the following October.[15]

Dorman-Smith was replaced by Major-General Sir Hubert Rance as the new governor,
and the Rangoon police went on strike. The strike, starting in September 1946, then
spread from the police to government employees and came close to becoming a general
strike. Rance calmed the situation by meeting with Aung San and convincing him to
join the Governor's Executive Council along with other members of the AFPFL.[15]
The new executive council, which now had increased credibility in the country,
began negotiations for Burmese independence, which were concluded successfully in
London as the Aung San-Attlee Agreement on 27 January 1947.[15]

The agreement left parts of the communist and conservative branches of the AFPFL
dissatisfied, sending the Red Flag Communists led by Thakin Soe underground and the
conservatives into opposition. Aung San also succeeded in concluding an agreement
with ethnic minorities for a unified Burma at the Panglong Conference on 12
February, celebrated since as 'Union Day'.[15][19] Shortly after, rebellion broke
out in the Arakan led by the veteran monk U Seinda, and it began to spread to other
districts.[15] The popularity of the AFPFL, dominated by Aung San and the
socialists, was eventually confirmed when it won an overwhelming victory in the
April 1947 constituent assembly elections.[15]

Then a momentous event stunned the nation on 19 July 1947. U Saw, a conservative
pre-war Prime Minister of Burma, engineered the assassination of Aung San and
several members of his cabinet including his eldest brother Ba Win, the father of
today's National League for Democracy exile-government leader Dr Sein Win, while
meeting in the Secretariat.[15][20] Since then, 19 July has been commemorated as
Martyrs' Day in Burma. Thakin Nu, the Socialist leader, was now asked to form a new
cabinet, and he presided over Burmese independence instituted under the Burma
Independence Act 1947 on 4 January 1948. Burma chose to become a fully independent
republic, and not a British Dominion upon independence. This was in contrast to the
independence of India and Pakistan which both resulted in the attainment of
dominion status. This may have been on account of anti-British popular sentiment
being strong in Burma at the time.[15]

See also
List of colonial heads of Burma
Notes
as Chief Commisoner
References
Citations
Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV 1908, p. 29
For the history of all major religious groups in Burma and modern Myanmar, see
Religion in Myanmar.
Encyclopædia Britannica
World Book Encyclopedia
Thant Myint-U (2001). The Making of Modern Burma. Cambridge University Press. pp.
18. ISBN 0-521-79914-7.
Thant Myint-U (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma. Farrar,
Straus and Giroux. pp. 113, 125–127. ISBN 978-0-374-16342-6.
Webster, Anthony (1998). Gentlemen Capitalists: British Imperialism in South East
Asia, 1770–1890. I.B.Tauris. pp. 142–145. ISBN 978-1-86064-171-8.
 Dictionary of Indian Biography. Ardent Media. 1906. p. 82. GGKEY:BDL52T227UN.
Alfred Stead (1901). China and her mysteries. LONDON: Hood, Douglas, & Howard. p.
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forward tribute peking.(Original from the University of California)
William Woodville Rockhill (1905). China's intercourse with Korea from the XVth
century to 1895. LONDON: Luzac & Co. p. 5. Retrieved 19 February 2011. tribute
china.(Colonial period Korea ; WWC-5)(Original from the University of California)
Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. XXVI 1931
"Myanmar - The initial impact of colonialism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved
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Service record held in Army Medical Service Museum, Aldershot, page 145, return no
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Martin Smith (1991). Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity. London and
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193, 202, 204, 199, 200, 270, 269, 275–276, 292–3, 318–320, 25, 24, 1, 4–16, 365,
375–377, 414.
"Sword For Pen". Time. 12 April 1937.
"The Statement on the Commemoration of Bo Aung Kyaw". All Burma Students League.
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Stephen Mccarthy (2006). The Political Theory of Tyranny in Singapore and Burma.
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"The Panglong Agreement, 1947". Online Burma/Myanmar Library.
"Who Killed Aung San? – an interview with Gen. Kyaw Zaw". The Irrawaddy. August
1997. Archived from the original on 19 August 2006. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
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This article incorporates text from China and her mysteries, by Alfred Stead, a
publication from 1901, now in the public domain in the United States.
This article incorporates text from China's intercourse with Korea from the XVth
century to 1895, by William Woodville Rockhill, a publication from 1905, now in the
public domain in the United States.
Further reading
Baird-Murray, Maureen [1998]. A World Overturned: a Burmese Childhood 1933–47.
London: Constable. ISBN 0094789207 Memoirs of the Anglo-Irish-Burmese daughter of a
Burma Frontier Service officer, including her stay in an Italian convent during the
Japanese occupation.
Charney, Michael (2009). A History of Modern Burma. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Desai, Walter Sadgun (1968). History of the British Residency in Burma. London:
Gregg International. ISBN 0-576-03152-6.
Fryer, Frederick William Richards (1905). "Burma" . The Empire and the century.
London: John Murray. pp. 716–727.
Harvey, Godfrey (1992). British Rule in Burma 1824–1942. London: AMS Pr. ISBN 0-
404-54834-2.
Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. IV (1908), The Indian Empire, Administrative,
Published under the authority of His Majesty's Secretary of State for India in
Council, Oxford at the Clarendon Press, pp. xxx, 1 map, 552
Naono, Atsuko (2009). State of Vaccination: The Fight Against Smallpox in Colonial
Burma. Hyderabad: Orient Blackswan. p. 238. ISBN 978-81-250-3546-6.
( http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/4729301/Cite)
Richell, Judith L. (2006). Disease and Demography in Colonial Burma. Singapore: NUS
Press. p. 238.
Myint-U, Thant (2008). The River of Lost Footsteps: a Personal History of Burma.
London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
External links
J. S. Furnivall, "Burma, Past and Present", Far Eastern Survey, Vol. 22, No. 3 (25
February 1953), pp. 21–26, Institute of Pacific Relations.
<http://jstor.org/stable/3024126>
Ernest Chew, "The Withdrawal of the Last British Residency from Upper Burma in
1879", Journal of Southeast Asian History, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Sep. 1969), pp. 253–278,
Cambridge University Press. <http://jstor.org/stable/20067745>
Michael W. Charney: Burma, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the
First World War.
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Categories: British rule in BurmaFormer countries in Burmese historyFormer British
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century in MyanmarStates and territories established in 1824States and territories
disestablished in 19481824 establishments in Burma1824 establishments in British
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