16.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of Steady-State Flow Processes

Chapter 16
Thermodynamic Analysis of
Processes
The purpose of this chapter is to present a procedure for the analysis of practical processes
from a thermodynamic perspective. It is an extension of the ideal work and lost work concepts
presented in Secs. 5.7 and 5.8.
Real irreversible processes are amenable to thermodynamic analysis. The goal of such
an analysis is to determine how efficiently energy is used or produced and to show quantita-
tively the effect of inefficiencies in each step of a process. The cost of energy is of concern in
any manufacturing operation, and the first step in any attempt to reduce energy requirements
is to determine where and to what extent energy is wasted through process irreversibilities.
The treatment here is limited to steady-state flow processes, because of their predominance in
industrial practice.
16.1 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF STEADY-STATE

FLOW PROCESSES
Most industrial processes involving fluids consist of multiple steps, and lost-work calculations
are then made for each step separately. By Eq. (5.29),
˙ lost = Tσ  S˙ G
W   
For a single surroundings temperature Tσ, summing over the steps of a process gives:
ΣW˙  lost = Tσ  ΣS˙ G
 
Dividing the former equation by the latter yields:

W˙  lost ____
______ S˙ G

      
=       
ΣW l ost ΣS˙G
˙  
Thus an analysis of the lost work, made by calculation of the fraction that each individual lost-
work term represents of the total, is the same as an analysis of the rate of entropy generation,
636
16.1. Thermodynamic Analysis of Steady-State Flow Processes 637
made by expressing each individual entropy-generation term as a fraction of the sum of all
entropy-generation terms. Recall that all terms in these equations are positive.
An alternative to the lost-work or entropy-generation analysis is a work analysis. For
this, Eq. (5.26) becomes:
ΣW˙ l ost = W˙ s  − W˙ i deal (16.1)

˙ s > W˙ i  deal. The

For a work-requiring process, all of these work quantities are positive and W 
preceding equation is then written:
W˙ s  = W˙ i deal + ΣW˙ l ost (16.2)

A work analysis expresses each individual work term on the right as a fraction of W  ˙ s.
˙ ideal are negative, and |W˙  ideal| > |W˙ s  |. Equation
˙ s and W 
For a work-producing process, W 
(16.1) is therefore best written:
|
W˙  ideal = W˙  s + ΣW˙  lost (16.3)
| | |
A work analysis expresses each individual work term on the right as a fraction of |W˙ i deal|. Such
˙ ideal is negative, indicating
an analysis cannot be carried out if a process is so inefficient that W 
that the process should produce work, but W  ˙
 s is positive, indicating that the process in fact
requires work. A lost-work or entropy-generation analysis is always possible.
Example 16.1
The operating conditions of a practical steam power plant are described in Ex. 8.1,
parts (b) and (c). In addition, steam is generated in a furnace/boiler unit where methane
is burned completely to CO2 and H2O with 25% excess air. The flue gas leaving the fur-
nace has a temperature of 460 K, and Tσ = 298.15 K. Make a thermodynamic analysis
of the power plant.
Solution 16.1
A flow diagram of the power plant is shown in Fig. 16.1. The conditions
and properties for key points in the steam cycle, taken from Ex. 8.1, are as
follows:
Point State of steam t/°C P/kPa H/kJ·kg–1 S/kJ·kg–1·K–1

1 Subcooled liquid 45.83 8600 203.4 0.6580
2 Superheated vapor 500 8600 3391.6 6.6858
3 Wet vapor, x = 0.9378 45.83 10 2436.0 7.6846
4 Saturated liquid 45.83 10 191.8 0.6493
638 CHAPTER 16. Thermodynamic Analysis of Processes
CH4 and air at 298.15 K Flue gases at 460 K
Furnace/boiler
1 2
Pump Turbine Ws
4 3
Condenser
Heat discarded to
surroundings at 298.15 K
Figure 16.1: Power cycle of Ex. 16.1.
Because the steam undergoes a cyclic process, the only changes that must be
considered for calculation of the ideal work are those of the gases passing through
the furnace. The reaction occurring is:

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
For this reaction, data from Table C.4 give:
ΔH  298
°  = −393,509 +
  (2)(−241,818) − (−74,520) = −802,625 J
     
ΔG  298
°   = −394,359 +
  (2)(−228,572) − (−50,460) = −801,043 J
ΔH  298
°  − Δ
  G  298
°   
Whence,
ΔS  298   ______________
°  =        = −   5.306 J K −1
298.15
On the basis of 1 mol of methane burned with 25% excess air, the air entering
the furnace contains:
O2: (2)(1.25) = 2.5 mol
N2: (2.5)(79/21) = 9.405 mol
Total: 11.905 mol air

After complete combustion of the methane, the flue gas contains:
CO2: 1 mol y  CO 2 = 0.0775
H2O: 2 mol y H 2O= 0.1550
O2: 0.5 mol y O 2 = 0.0387

N2: 9.405 mol y N 2 = 0.7288
Total: 12.905 mol flue gas ∑yi = 1.0000
The change of state that occurs in the furnace is from methane and air at atmos-
pheric pressure and 298.15 K, the temperature of the surroundings, to flue gas at
atmospheric pressure and 460 K. For this change of state, ΔH and ΔS are calcu-
lated for the path shown in Fig. 16.2. The assumption of ideal gases is reasonable
here and is the basis of calculation for ΔH and ΔS for each of the four steps shown
in Fig. 16.2.
1 mol CH4 11.905 mol air

298.15 K 298.15 K
(a) Unmix at 298.15 K
2.5 mol O2
(b) Standard reaction at 298.15 K

9.405 N2
Figure 16.2: Calculation path
for combustion process of 1 mol CO2 2 mol H2O 0.5 mol O2
Ex. 16.1.
(c) Mix at 298.15 K
(d) Heat to 460 K
12.905 mol flue gas

460 K
Step a: For unmixing the entering air, Eqs. (11.11) and (11.12) with changes of
sign give:
ΔHa  = 0
ΔSa     
 ∑   yi  ln yi 
=  nR
i

= (11.905)(8.314)(0.21 ln  0.21 + 0.79 ln  0.79 ) = − 50.870 J·K −1
Step b: For the standard reaction at 298.15 K,

ΔHb  = ΔH  298
°  = −
  802,625 J    ΔSb  = ΔS  298 5.306 J·K −1
°  = −
 
Step c: For mixing to form the flue gas,

ΔHc  = 0
ΔSc  = − nR ∑   yi  ln yi 

       
        i
= − (12.905)(8.314)(0.0775 ln  0.0775 + 0.1550 ln  0.1550
+ 0.0387 ln  0.0387 + 0.7288 ln  0.7288) = 90.510 J·K −1
Step d: For the heating step, the mean heat capacities between 298.15 and 460 K
are calculated by Eqs. (4.9) and (5.13) with data from Table C.1. The
results in J·mol−1·K−1 are summarized as follows:
⟨Cp⟩H ⟨Cp⟩S
CO2 41.649 41.377
H2O 34.153 34.106
N2 29.381 29.360
O2 30.473 0.997
Each individual heat capacity is multiplied by the number of moles of that

species in the flue gas, and the products are summed over all species. This
gives total mean heat capacities for the 12.905 mol of mixture:
= 401.520  and  ⟨C Pt ⟩  S = 400.922 J·K −1
⟨C Pt ⟩  H
Then,
ΔHd  = ⟨C Pt ⟩  H(T2  − T1  ) = (401.520)(460 − 298.15) = 64,986 J

      T2  460  
ΔSd  = ⟨C Pt ⟩  S  ln ___
     = 400.922 ln ______  = 173.852 J·K −1
    
T1  298.15
For the total process on the basis of 1 mol CH4 burned,

ΔH = ∑  Δ   Hi  = 0 − 802,625 + 0 + 64,986 = − 737,639 J
i

      
  Si  = − 50.870 − 5.306 + 90.510 + 173.852 = 208.186 J·K −1
ΔS = ∑  Δ
i
Thus,
ΔH = − 737.64 kJ    ΔS = 0.2082 kJ·K −1
˙ = 84.75 kg·s−1. An energy balance for the

The steam rate found in Ex. 8.1 is m 
furnace/boiler unit, where heat is transferred from the combustion gases to the
steam, allows calculation of the entering methane rate n  ˙ CH4:
(84.75)(3391.6 − 203.4) + n˙ C
  H4(−737.64) = 0
  H4 = 366.30 mol·s −1
n˙ C
whence
The ideal work for the process is given by Eq. (5.21):

W˙ i deal = 366.30[−737.64 − (298.15)(0.2082)] = − 292.94 × 10 3kJ·s −1

W˙  ideal = − 292.94 × 10 3kW
or
The rate of entropy generation in each of the four units of the power plant is
calculated by Eq. (5.17), and the lost work is then given by Eq. (5.29).
∙
Furnace/boiler: We have assumed no heat transfer from the furnace/boiler to the
˙  = 0. The term Δ(Sm˙ )  fs is simply the sum of the entropy
surroundings; therefore Q 
changes of the two streams multiplied by their rates:
S˙G
  = (366.30)(0.2082) + (84.75)(6.6858 − 0.6580) = 587.12 kJ·s −1·K −1
S˙ G = 587.12 kW·K −1
or
W˙ l ost = Tσ  S˙G
and   = (298.15)(587.12) = 175.05 × 10 3kW
∙
Turbine: For adiabatic operation,
S˙ G = (84.75)(7.6846 − 6.6858) = 84.65 kW·K −1

W˙ l ost = (298.15)(84.65) = 25.24 × 10 3 kW
and
∙
Condenser: The condenser transfers heat from the condensing steam to the surround-
ings at 298.15 K in an amount determined in Ex. 8.1:
˙  (condenser) = − 190.2 × 10 3 kJ·s −1
Q 
190,200
S˙G
Thus   = (84.75)(0.6493 − 7.6846) + _______
  = 41.69 kW·K −1
  
298.15
W˙ l ost = (298.15)(41.69) = 12.32 × 10 3kW
and
∙
Pump: Because the pump operates adiabatically,
S˙G
  = (84.75)(0.6580 − 0.6493) = 0.74 kW·K −1
W˙  lost = (298.15)(0.74)= 0.22 × 10 3 kW
and
The entropy-generation analysis is:
kW·K−1 Percent of ∑S˙G

  
S˙ G(furnace/boiler) 587.12 82.2
S˙ G(turbine) 84.65 11.9
S˙ G(condenser) 41.69 5.8
S˙ G(pump) 0.74 0.1
∑S˙ G 714.20 100.0
A work analysis is carried out in accord with Eq. (16.3):
| | | |
W˙  ideal = W˙  s + ΣW˙  lost

The results of this analysis are:
kW Percent of |W˙ i deal|
|W˙  s| (from Ex. 8.1) 80.00 × 103 27.3(=ηt)
W˙  lost (furnace/boiler) 175.05 × 103 59.8
W˙  lost (turbine) 25.24 × 103 8.6
W˙  lost (condenser) 12.43 × 103 4.2
W˙  lost (pump) 0.22 × 103 0.1
|W˙ i deal| 292.94 × 103 100.0
The thermodynamic efficiency of the power plant is 27.3%, and the major source
of inefficiency is the furnace/boiler. The combustion process itself accounts for
most of the entropy generation in this unit, and the remainder is the result of heat
transfer across finite temperature differences.
Example 16.2
Methane is liquefied in a simple Linde system, as shown in Fig. 16.3. The methane
enters the compressor at 1 bar and 300 K, and after compression to 60 bar it is cooled
back to 300 K. The product is saturated liquid methane at 1 bar. The unliquefied
methane, also at 1 bar, is returned through a heat exchanger, where it is heated to
295 K by the high-pressure methane. A heat leak into the heat exchanger of 5 kJ is
assumed for each kilogram of methane entering the compressor. Heat leaks to other
parts of the liquefier are assumed negligible. Make a thermodynamic analysis of the
process for a surroundings temperature of Tσ = 300 K.
Solution 16.2
Methane compression from 1 to 60 bar is assumed to be carried out in a three-
stage machine with inter- and aftercooling to 300 K and a compressor efficiency
of 75%. The actual work of this compression is estimated as 1000 kJ per kilogram
of methane. The fraction of the methane that is liquefied z is calculated by an
energy balance:

H4  z + H6  (1 − z) − H2  = Q
where Q
is the heat leak from the surroundings. Solution for z gives
H6  − H2  − Q ________________

1188.9 − 1140.0 − 5
z = __________
     
 
=   
       = 0.0486
H6  − H4  1188.9 − 285.4
This result may be compared with the value of 0.0541 obtained in Ex. 9.3, for the
same operating conditions, but with no heat leak.
Q from cooling Q from heat

leak = +5 kJ
CH4 feed
1.00 kg
(basis) Compression/ 2 3
1 Throttle
cooling Exchanger valve
5
6
Ws = 1,000 kJ
Unliquefied CH4
0.9514 kg 4
Liquid CH4
0.0486 kg
Figure 16.3: Linde liquefaction system for Ex. 16.2.
The properties at the various key points of the process, given in the accompa-
nying table, are either available or are calculated by standard methods. Data used
here are from Perry and Green.1 The basis of all calculations is 1 kg of methane
entering the process, and all rates are expressed on this basis.
Point State of CH4 T/K P/bar H/kJ·kg−1 S/kJ·kg−1·K−1

1 Superheated vapor 300.0 1 1198.8 11.629
4 Saturated liquid 111.5 1 285.4 4.962
5 Saturated vapor 111.5 1 796.9 9.523
The ideal work depends on the overall changes in the methane passing through
the liquefier. Application of Eq. (5.21) gives:
W˙ i deal = Δ(Hm˙ )  fs − Tσ  Δ(Sm˙ )  fs

  
    
  =    [(0.0486)(285.4) + (0.9514)(1188.9) − 1198.8]
− (300)[ (0.0486)(4.962) + (0.9514)(11.589) − 11.629] = 53.8 kJ
The rate of entropy generation and the lost work for each of the individual steps
of the process is calculated by Eqs. (5.28) and (5.29).
1R. H. Perry and D. Green, Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th ed., pp. 2-251 and 2-253, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1997.

∙
Compression/cooling: Heat transfer for this step is given by an energy balance:
˙   = ΔH − W˙ s  = (H2  − H1  ) − W˙ s 

Q
    
   
  =  (1140.0 − 1999.8
  ) − 1000
= − 1059.8 kJ
Q˙  
Then, S˙G
  = S2  − S1  −  __   
Tσ 
1059.8
______
         
  
=  9.359 − 11.629 +
      
300
= 1.2627 kJ·kg −1·K −1
W˙  lost = (300)(1.2627) = 378.8 kJ·kg −1
Exchanger: With Q˙  equal to the heat leak,

∙
Q˙  
S˙ G = ( S6  − S5  )(l − z) + ( S3  − S2  )(1) −  __    

Tσ 
5
Then, S˙ G = (11.589 − 9.523)(0.9514) + (7.798 − 9.359) − ____
      
300

   
       
     
= 0.3879 kJ·kg −1·K −1
W˙  lost = (300)(0.3879) = 116.4 kJ·kg −1
∙
Throttle: For adiabatic operation of the throttle and separator,
S˙G
  = S4  z + S5  ( 1 − z) − S3 
= (4.962)(0.0486) + (9.523)(0.9514) − 7.798

   
      
      
= 1.5033 kJ·kg −1 ·K −1
W˙ l ost = (300)(1.5033) = 451.0 kJ·kg −1
The entropy-generation analysis is:
kJ·kg−1·K−1 Percent of ∑S˙ G

 
S ˙G    (compression/cooling) 1.2627 40.0
S˙G    (exchanger) 0.3879 12.3
S˙G    (throttle) 1.5033 47.7
∑S˙ G
  3.1539 100.0
The work analysis, based on Eq. (16.2), is:
kW·kg−1 ˙ s
Percent of W 
W˙ i deal 53.8 5.4(=ηt)
W˙ l ost(compression/cooling) 378.8 37.9
W˙ l ost(exchanger) 116.4 11.6
W˙ l ost(throttle) 451.0 45.1
W˙  s 1000.0 100.0
16.3. Problems 645
The largest loss occurs in the throttling step. Replacing this highly irreversi-
ble process with a turbine results in a considerable increase in efficiency. Of
course, it would also result in a considerable increase in the capital cost of the
equipment.
From the standpoint of energy conservation, the thermodynamic efficiency of a process

should be as high as possible and the entropy generation or lost work as low as possible.
The final design depends largely on economic considerations, and the cost of energy is an
important factor. The thermodynamic analysis of a specific process shows the locations of the
major inefficiencies and hence the pieces of equipment or steps in the process that could be
altered or replaced to advantage. However, this sort of analysis gives no hint as to the nature
of the changes that might be made. It merely shows that the present design is wasteful of
energy and that there is room for improvement. One function of the chemical engineer is to
try to devise a better process and to use ingenuity to keep operating costs, as well as capital
expenditures, low. Each newly devised process may, of course, be analyzed to determine what
improvement has been made.
16.2 SYNOPSIS
After studying this chapter, including the end-of-chapter problems, one should be able to
∙ Carry out a step-by-step thermodynamic analysis of a steady-flow process like those

illustrated in Ex. 16.1 and Ex. 16.2
∙ Identify the contributions of each process step to the overall rate of entropy generation
of the process
∙ Assign the contributions of each process step to the overall lost work of the process, to
identify the best opportunities for improving the thermodynamic efficiency of the over-
all process
16.3 PROBLEMS
16.1. A plant takes in water at 21°C, cools it to 0°C, and freezes it at this temperature,
producing 0.5 kg·s−1 of ice. Heat rejection is at 21°C. The heat of fusion of water is
333.5 kJ·kg−1.
˙ ideal for the process?
(a) What is W 
(b) What is the power requirement of a single Carnot heat pump operating between
0 and 21°C? What is the thermodynamic efficiency of this process? What is its
irreversible feature?
(c) What is the power requirement if an ideal tetrafluoroethane vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle is used? Ideal here implies isentropic compression, infinite
cooling-water rate in the condenser, and minimum heat-transfer driving forces in
evaporator and condenser of 0°C. What is the thermodynamic efficiency of this

process? What are its irreversible features?
(d ) What is the power requirement of a tetrafluoroethane vapor-compression cycle for
which the compressor efficiency is 75%, the minimum temperature differences in
evaporator and condenser are 5°C, and the temperature rise of the cooling water in
the condenser is 10°C? Make a thermodynamic analysis of this process.
16.2. Consider a steady-flow process in which the following gas-phase reaction takes place:
CO + _ 12  O2 → CO2. The surroundings are at 300 K.
(a) What is Wideal when the reactants enter the process as pure carbon monoxide and
as air containing the stoichiometric amount of oxygen, both at 25°C and 1 bar, and
the products of complete combustion leave the process at the same conditions?
(b) The overall process is exactly the same as in (a), but the CO is here burned in an
adiabatic reactor at 1 bar. What is Wideal for the process of cooling the flue gases to
25°C? What is the irreversible feature of the overall process? What is its thermo-
dynamic efficiency? What has increased in entropy, and by how much?
16.3. A plant has saturated steam available at 2700 kPa, but there is little use for this steam.
Rather, steam at 1000 kPa is required. Also available is saturated steam at 275 kPa.
A suggestion is that the 275 kPa steam be compressed to 1000 kPa using the work of
expanding the 2700 kPa steam to 1000 kPa. The two streams at 1000 kPa would then
be mixed. Determine the rates at which steam at each initial pressure must be supplied
to provide enough steam at 1000 kPa so that upon condensation to saturated liquid,
heat in the amount of 300 kJ·s−1 is released
(a) if the process is carried out in a completely reversible manner.

(b) if the higher-pressure steam expands in a turbine of 78% efficiency and the
lower-pressure steam is compressed in a machine of 75% efficiency. Make a
thermodynamic analysis of this process.
16.4. Make a thermodynamic analysis of the refrigeration cycle of Ex. 9.1(b).
16.5. Make a thermodynamic analysis of the refrigeration cycle described in one of the
parts of Prob. 9.9. Assume that the refrigeration effect maintains a heat reservoir at a
temperature 5°C above the evaporation temperature and that Tσ is 5°C below the con-
densation temperature.
16.6. Make a thermodynamic analysis of the refrigeration cycle described in the first par-
agraph of Prob. 9.12. Assume that the refrigeration effect maintains a heat reservoir
at a temperature 5°C above the evaporation temperature and that Tσ is 5°C below the
condensation temperature.
16.3. Problems 647
16.7. A colloidal solution enters a single-effect evaporator at 100°C. Water is vaporized

from the solution, producing a more concentrated solution and 0.5 kg·s−1 of steam
at 100°C. This steam is compressed and sent to the heating coils of the evaporator to
supply the heat required for its operation. For a minimum heat-transfer driving force
across the evaporator coils of 10°C, for a compressor efficiency of 75%, and for adia-
batic operation, what is the state of the steam leaving the heating coils of the evapora-
tor? For a surroundings temperature of 300 K, make a thermodynamic analysis of the
process.
16.8. Make a thermodynamic analysis of the process described in Prob. 8.9. Tσ = 27°C.
16.9. Make a thermodynamic analysis of the process described in Ex. 9.3. Tσ = 295 K.
390 CHAPTER 10 . The Framework of Solution Thermodynamics
∙ Recognize that partial properties cannot vary independently, but are constrained by the
Gibbs/Duhem equation
∙ Understand that all linear relationships among thermodynamic properties of pure spe-
cies also apply to partial properties of species in a mixture
∙ Compute partial properties of a mixture in the ideal-gas state
∙ Define and use fugacity and fugacity coefficients for pure species and for species
in a mixture, and recognize that these are defined for convenience in solving phase-
equilibrium problems
∙ Compute fugacities and fugacity coefficients of pure species from PVT data or general-
ized correlations
∙ Estimate fugacity coefficients of species in gas mixtures using second virial coefficient
correlations
∙ Recognize that the ideal-solution model provides a reference for description of liquid mixtures
∙ Relate partial properties in an ideal solution to corresponding pure species properties
∙ Define and use excess properties of species in a mixture
10.11 PROBLEMS
10.1. What is the change in entropy when 0.7 m3 of CO2 and 0.3 m3 of N2, each at 1 bar and
25°C, blend to form a gas mixture at the same conditions? Assume ideal gases.
10.2. A vessel, divided into two parts by a partition, contains 4 mol of nitrogen gas at 75°C
and 30 bar on one side and 2.5 mol of argon gas at 130°C and 20 bar on the other. If
the partition is removed and the gases mix adiabatically and completely, what is the
change in entropy? Assume nitrogen to be an ideal gas with CV = (5/2)R and argon to
be an ideal gas with CV = (3/2)R.
10.3. A stream of nitrogen flowing at a rate of 2 kg·s−1 and a stream of hydrogen flowing
at a rate of 0.5 kg·s−1 mix adiabatically in a steady-flow process. If the gases are
assumed ideal, what is the rate of entropy increase as a result of the process?
10.4. What is the ideal work for the separation of an equimolar mixture of methane and
ethane at 175°C and 3 bar in a steady-flow process into product streams of the pure
gases at 35°C and 1 bar if Tσ = 300 K?
10.5. What is the work required for the separation of air (21-mol-% oxygen and 79-mol-%
nitrogen) at 25°C and 1 bar in a steady-flow process into product streams of pure
oxygen and nitrogen, also at 25°C and 1 bar, if the thermodynamic efficiency of the
process is 5% and if Tσ = 300 K?

16.1 Thermodynamic Analysis of Steady-State Flow Processes

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Chapter 16

16.1 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF STEADY-STATE

Dividing the former equation by the latter yields:

Σ​W˙ ​​l ost​ = ​​W˙ ​​s ​ − ​​W˙ ​​i deal​ (16.1)

​​ ˙ ​s​ > ​​W˙ ​​i deal. The

​W˙ ​​s ​ = ​​W˙ ​​i deal​ + Σ​​W˙ ​​l ost​ (16.2)

Point State of steam t/°C P/kPa H/kJ·kg–1 S/kJ·kg–1·K–1

CH4 and air at 298.15 K Flue gases at 460 K

Figure 16.1: Power cycle of Ex. 16.1.

For this reaction, data from Table C.4 give:

O2: (2)(1.25) = 2.5 mol

N2: (2.5)(79/21) = 9.405 mol

Total: 11.905 mol air

CO2: 1 mol ​​y​ ​CO​ 2​​​​ = 0.0775

H2O: 2 mol ​y​ ​H​ 2​O​= 0.1550

O2: 0.5 mol ​y​ ​O​ 2​ = 0.0387

1 mol CH4 11.905 mol air

(a) Unmix at 298.15 K

(b) Standard reaction at 298.15 K

(c) Mix at 298.15 K

(d) Heat to 460 K

12.905 mol flue gas

Step b: For the standard reaction at 298.15 K,

Step c: For mixing to form the flue gas,

Each individual heat capacity is multiplied by the number of moles of that

Δ​Hd​ ​ = ​⟨​C​ Pt ​⟩​ ​H​(​T2​ ​ − ​T1​ ​)​ = ​​(​401.520​)​(​460 − 298.15​)​ = 64,986 J

For the total process on the basis of 1 mol CH4 burned,

˙ ​​= 84.75 kg·s−1. An energy balance for the

The ideal work for the process is given by Eq. (5.21):

kW·K−1 Percent of ∑​​S˙​​G

A work analysis is carried out in accord with Eq. (16.3):

The results of this analysis are:

​H6​ ​ − ​H2​ ​ − Q ________________

Q from cooling Q from heat

Figure 16.3: Linde liquefaction system for Ex. 16.2.

Point State of CH4 T/K P/bar H/kJ·kg−1 S/kJ·kg−1·K−1

​W˙ ​​i deal​ = Δ​​(​H​m˙ ​​) ​fs​ − ​Tσ​ ​ Δ​​(​S​m˙ ​​) ​fs​

New York, 1997.

​˙ ​ = ΔH − ​​W˙ ​​s ​ = (​H2​ ​ − ​H1​ ​ ) − ​​W˙ ​​s ​

Exchanger: With ​​Q˙ ​​ equal to the heat leak,

The entropy-generation analysis is:

kJ·kg−1·K−1 Percent of ∑​​S˙​​ G

The work analysis, based on Eq. (16.2), is:

From the standpoint of energy conservation, the thermodynamic efficiency of a process

∙ Carry out a step-by-step thermodynamic analysis of a steady-flow process like those

evaporator and condenser of 0°C. What is the thermodynamic efficiency of this

(a) if the process is carried out in a completely reversible manner.

16.4. Make a thermodynamic analysis of the refrigeration cycle of Ex. 9.1(b).

16.7. A colloidal solution enters a single-effect evaporator at 100°C. Water is vaporized

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16.1 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF STEADY-STATE

ΣW˙ l ost = W˙ s  − W˙ i deal (16.1)

˙ s > W˙ i  deal. The

W˙ s  = W˙ i deal + ΣW˙ l ost (16.2)

CO2: 1 mol y  CO 2 = 0.0775

H2O: 2 mol y H 2O= 0.1550

O2: 0.5 mol y O 2 = 0.0387

ΔHd  = ⟨C Pt ⟩  H(T2  − T1  ) = (401.520)(460 − 298.15) = 64,986 J

˙ = 84.75 kg·s−1. An energy balance for the

kW·K−1 Percent of ∑S˙G

H6  − H2  − Q ________________

W˙ i deal = Δ(Hm˙ )  fs − Tσ  Δ(Sm˙ )  fs

˙   = ΔH − W˙ s  = (H2  − H1  ) − W˙ s 

Exchanger: With Q˙  equal to the heat leak,

kJ·kg−1·K−1 Percent of ∑S˙ G