PHILOSOPHY NOTES - “Knowledge is power” – Francis Bacon

 What is Philosophy? (by Karl Jaspers) - “Know thyself” – Socrates

 From the book “Way of Wisdom”  There is no escape from Philosophy… anyone who rejects
 Jaspers wants to point out what Philosophy really is Philosophy is himself unconsciously practicing Philosophy
 Doesn’t give a definition - If someone says they reject Philosophy, that person
 Elaborate and expand on the meaning and nature of Philosophy must have his/her own idea of Philosophy
 “What Philosophy is and how much it is worth are matters of - There is no escape from Philosophy because it is innate
controversy” in the human being
 Matters of Controversy - Even if he rejects philosophy, he still practices
1. One may expect it to yield extraordinary revelations or one philosophy because he still asks philosophical questions
may view it with indifference as a thinking in the void.  “What then is Philosophy, which manifests itself so universally
- Philosophy can either blow people’s minds or be and such strange forms?”
indifferent to it. - Jaspers answers this by looking into the etymology of
- One may think of Philosophy as an amazing realization philosophy
or an amazing discovery. On the other hand, others will - Philosophy means love for wisdom
think of Philosophy as just asking and asking questions o Philia = love
without getting a definite answer. People who think this o Sophia = wisdom
way are the type of people who seek answers. - What distinction does the “sophos” of the Greek work
2. One may look upon it with awe as the meaningful endeavor for “Philosopher”, “philosophos”, connote?
of exceptional men or despise it as the superfluous broodings o Love of wisdom is compared to the
of dreamers. possession of truth; philosophy is more of
- One may see purpose in Philosophy while some may the search of truth
see it as a matter of imagination o More knowledge!
- Some people will think of Philosophy as meaningful o If you want to be a better person, you must
because it is studied by exceptional men. While some search for more knowledge
will think of Philosophy as useless because it is just an  “The essence of Philosophy is not the possession of truth but the
enterprise where people write and expand their search for truth… Philosophy means to be on the way. Its
imagination (nonsense) questions are more essential than its answers, and every answer
3. One may tale the attitude that it is the concern of all men, and becomes a new question”
hence must be simple and intelligible, or one may think of it - No readymade understanding of who the human being
as hopelessly difficult. is
- Some people think that Philosophy is the concern of all - The human being is “after-the-fact” (cannot define at
man and it concerns itself with the whole being of man; present)
and therefore, must be simple and easy to understand. - When you put yourself in a certain position for a long
However, for some, they think of it as unnecessarily time, you begin to ask yourself, is this who I really am?
difficult and complicated. They think of it as useless - There’s always a natter of decision in your search for
 Philosophy is restless as it always provides questions who you really are
 Philosophy does not aim to seek for answers. Instead, philosophy  “Every Philosophy defines itself by its realization. We can
seeks to ask more questions all the time (unlike the sciences who determine the nature of philosophy only by experiencing it”
always seek answers) - Philosophy is a performance, it is a way of life
 How do you characterize the scientific-minded, and what is their - Concepts arise from the concreteness of our experiences
criticism against Philosophy? - Philosophers are always open to new ideas despite their
1. Philosophy provides no universally valid results values and arguments
2. Philosophy gas no generally accepted and definite knowledge *there is no preconceived notion of the human being*
 Philosophy does not progress  Aims of Philosophy
 Only thing that progressed in Philosophy is the methods 1. To find reality in the primal source;
 Dialectic - Find reality at its purest
 Deconstruction - In order to have a more comprehensive understanding
 Phenomenology of reality, you must go back to its fundamental
 Hermeneutics roots/ground
 Philosophy will always end up in questions. When a question - Dig deeper to what you know
produces an answer, the answer becomes a new question 2. To apprehend reality in my thinking attitude toward myself,
 How does science differ from Philosophy? in my inner acts;
- Sciences are progressive and objective; and they deal - Apprehend reality based on our own experiences
with particular objects - Look introspectively into oneself
- Sciences progress because they have a system and 3. To open man to the comprehensive in all its scope;
different methods - Open yourself to new ideas, concepts
- The certainty philosophy aspires is an inner certainty in - We enlarge ourselves
which a man’s whole being participates 4. To attempt the communication of every aspect from man to
- Philosophy means “emerges before any science, man;
whenever men achieve awareness’ - Communicate our ideas to the outer to avoid chaos
o Questions that make us think about our life 5. To sustain the vigilance of reason in the presence of failure
and all that is and in the presence of that which seems alien to it
 4 Ways Philosophy is revealed to us - Despite not having enough knowledge, we must remind
1. “Our own humanity, our own destiny, our experience strikes ourselves that we are not limited to this ignorance
us a sufficient basis for Philosophical opinions” - Embrace what is new to us carefully
- It is accessible to everyone - Open to new ideas in the presence of failure
- Not exclusive but inclusive  “Philosophy is the principle of concentration through which man
- Philosophical concepts may be abstract, but these becomes himself by partaking of reality”
concepts arise from the concreteness of our experiences - You try to discover new things about the universe
- Ongoing process
2. “Philosophical thought must always spring from free o Human being is not constrained into one
creation” definition
- Brainstorming for new ideas o There are many possibilities man can
- See things in a different perspective become himself
- Be creative in different ways o Philosophy is when man becomes himself
- Begin with the things we have and question how we can  Criticisms Against Philosophy
make it better a. By the authoritarian church
- Most evident in the questions children ask - Philosophy questions the existence of God
- Open to new ideas; we open ourselves to the freeness of - Destroys his soul with vain preoccupations
our imagination - Church does not want people to question their teachings
3. “Parting of the veils of universal occlusion” and dogmas; maintain its authority
- Occlusion = hindrance; obstacles - “Beware lest any man spoil you through Philosophy
- Philosophy opens new ideas and vain deceit, after the tradition of men, after the
- Philosophy happens through an opening rudiments of the world, and not after Christ.” (Col 2:8)
- Strangeness allows you to ask “WHY” - “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and
- When things become too familiar and something knowledge of the Holy One is understanding.” (Prov
strange happens, it makes you question things 9:10)
- Suddenly have an epiphany/sudden realization out of - Human wisdom VS divine Wisdom
the ordinary - Philosophy questions the existence of God. The church
4. “It is always present” wants to keep the status of being the higher authority
- Through the sayings of wise people in the past which is why the church doesn’t want philosophy to
- “I think, therefore, I am” – Rene Descartes question
 b. By political totalitarianism - Philosophy is the mother of all sciences
- Philosophy questions authority (rules, laws) o Theodicy, Theology, Cosmology,
- Philosophers have only interpreted the world; it has not Epistemology, Psychology, Aesthetics,
produced answers ethics, logic, etc.
- “kung nakikita mong may pagka-pilosopo na yung anak - The goal of philosophy is to unify all sciences to have a
mo, kung nagiging matigas na yung ulo, senyales na greater understanding
yan na brainwash na ng kaliwa.” - It aims to unify because the sciences have their own
- Philosophy does not provide any practical solution for a conception of things. It is independent therefore it is
social problem. Philosophy opens a possibility for a closed, and it has its own system; it closes the
revolution because philosophy might bring new change possibility to progress.
 “Must Philosophy then justify itself?” - Philosophy aims to connect other disciplines and make
- It’s impossible them open to new ideas
- Cannot justify itself on the basis of a something else for - But these disciplines/branches of philosophy want to be
what is useful. a discipline of its own and wants to be independent
- “It can only appeal to the forces in every man which from philosophy therefore closing the possibility to
drive him toward philosophical thought. It is a progress
disinterested pursuit, to which questions of utility… - Philosophy enrich disciplines through critical
have no relevance, and endeavor proper to man as man, examinations to put on beliefs
and it will continue to fulfill this striving as long as - These disciplines cease to be part of philosophy as it
there are men alive.” desires to be independent and it no longer inspire the
- There can be no philosophy without human beings. spirit of philosophy which it encloses itself
Philosophy and man are closely related because only  “Those questions which are already capable of definite answers are
man can ask these questions even without them placed in the sciences, while those only to which… no definite
knowing. answers can be given, remain to form the residue in which is called
philosophy”
- Those questions that cannot be answered are part of
 The Value of Philosophy (by Bertrand Russell) philosophy/stays in philosophy
 Guiding Question: What is the value of philosophy and why it - The reason why philosophy hasn’t progressed is
ought to be studied? because we keep on asking the same questions again
 “Many men, under the influence of science or of practical affairs, and again which is debatable up to this day
are inclined to doubt whether philosophy is anything better than - The questions that are answered already becomes a
innocent but useless trifling” different science
- Relate to Karl Jaspers’ “What is Philosophy”  “it is the business of philosophy ‘to continue the consideration of
 This view of Philosophy appears to result partly from a wrong such questions, to make aware of their importance, to examine all
conception of the ends… of the kinds of goods which philosophy the approaches to them, and to keep alive that speculative interest
strives to achieve in the universe which is apt to be killed by confining ourselves to
- Philosophy strives for the inner certainty definitely ascertainable knowledge.”
- Philosophy is more on the personal level - The business of philosophy is basically to keep us open-
- There is a misconception of philosophy as it is based on minded on things
the standards of science - Philosophy allows us to be open-minded; to keep alive
- Philosophy has a different kind of view apart from the that curiosity in ourselves
sciences  “Thus, [t]he value of philosophy is, in fact, to be sought largely in
- The kind of good philosophy and the sciences aim for its very uncertainty.”
are different from each other because they have - What can I be, not just who I am
different standards - The importance of uncertainty is to allow people to
- Inventions are made (materially) for the convenience, enlarge themselves to explore things. Explore new
progress, efficiency, and comfort for the people. These ideas.
inventions are made by the sciences (people find - The value of philosophy can be understood through its
science useful). effects. We ask questions in the unknown
o This is not what Philosophy wants to  “Philosophy ‘enlarge[s] our thoughts and free them from the
achieve tyranny of custom. Thus, while diminishing our feeling of certainty
 “If the study of philosophy has any value at all… it must be only as to what things are, it greatly increases knowledge as to what
indirectly, through its effects upon the lives of those who study it.” they may be.’
- Philosophy is indirectly useful; and is directly useless - Critic of philosophy is the government and the church
- But despite its direct usefulness, in the long-run, people o Customs and traditions hinder progress
do it. they realize that philosophy is change in himself, - Philosophy is futural in essence
not in the world - What things are (present) and what things may be
- The effect of philosophy is not in the world but it is in (future)
the man itself (inner certainty) - Philosophy is concerned and associated to the future
 “to truly determine the value of philosophy, we must first free our because the future itself is uncertain
minds from the prejudices of… ‘practical’ men.” - Philosophy makes us see things in a different light
- Practical man’s only concern is with material needs;  “The life of the instinctive man is shut up within the circle of its
concerns himself with what he can gain private interests”
- Philosophy doesn’t concern itself with material things. - People should be open-minded to be able to adapt to the
Instead philosophy asks things about the use of progressing society
acquiring these material things; they ask about what - We welcome unfamiliar things so that we can grow up
good will it bring you  “[T]he philosophic life is calm and free”
 “if all men are able to satisfy all their material needs, then what - It is calm and free because we tend to accept that there
more is there to satisfy?” are really some things that cannot be answered. When
- What makes us want to live there is no definite answers, we become contented and
 “it is exclusively among the goods of the mind that the value of relieved because we know that it is not our fault why
philosophy is to be found.” there are things we cannot answer. The pressure no
- Science is food for the body (material things) longer concerns you
- Philosophy is food for the mind and soul - You will have a different perspective of things
 “Philosophy… aims primarily at knowledge” - You see things in a positive light
- Knowledge is proper to the human being as a human - It’s not done by objective knowledge
being - To enter in dialogue with other people
o So that we won’t be closed-minded o Communicate different ideas with different
- “The knowledge it aims at is the kind of knowledge people and be open to accepting new ideas.
which gives unity and system to the body of the - Although the things of the world may affect you,
sciences, and the kind of which results from a critical looking at the world in a different perspective will set
examination of the grounds of our convictions, you free
prejudices, and beliefs.” - Instinctive man is not concerned about the future
o Philosophy aims for a holistic type of  Philosophic Contemplation
knowledge - It views the whole impartially
o Unifying and holistic o Philosophy view things in. an unbiased way.
o Before you can be anything else, you must We get to have an open mind (objective)
be a human being - All acquisition of knowledge is an enlargement of the
o Looks into common understandings of the self through the adaptation of the self to the characters
world to open up which finds in its objects.
 “[A]s soon as definite knowledge concerning any subject becomes - We start from the not-self, and through its greatness, the
possible, this subject cease to be called philosophy, and becomes a boundaries of self are enlarged.
separate science.
 o Philosophical contemplation enlarges the - The decisive event that confirmed his mission as a
self by beginning with the not-self moral philosopher was the reply of the Delphic Oracle
o SELF VS NOT-SELF - As the story goes, one day a young Zealot named
o Self = who we are (present) Chaerophon went to the temple of Apollo near the
o Not-self = who we will be/who we may be Delphi and asked whether there was any living person
(future) who was wiser than Socrates; the priestess replied that
o Combine the present and the future in order there was none.
to adapt and become better people - Socrates interpreted this reply to mean that he was the
o It enlarges not only the objects of our wisest because he realized and admitted his own
ignorance
thoughts but also the objects of our actions
o Being aware of your own ignorance will
and our affections
 Thoughts influence actions allow you to gain knowledge
 We are defined not only by our o To admit your ignorance, you’ll see the
thoughts, but also by our actions. possibility of learning more
- “I know that I know nothing” – Socrates
- If Socrates was to be successful in overcoming the
relativism and skepticism of the Sophists, he had to
discover some immovable foundation upon which to
build an edifice of knowledge
- Socrates discovered this foundation within people, and
not in the facts of the external world
- The inner life is the seat of a unique activity – the
activity of knowing, which leads to the practical activity
of doing
o Knowledge is a fusion of the present and - To describe this activity, Socrates developed the
future; it is a form of union of self and not- conception of the soul, or psyche
self. - The soul was the capacity for intelligence and
 Philosophy is to be studied, not for the sake of any definite answers character; it was a person’s conscious personality
to its questions since no definite answers can, as a rule, be known o Man = soul  principle of reason
to be true, but rather for the sake of the questions themselves; - Socrates identified the soul with the normal powers of
because these questions 1) enlarge our conception of what is intelligence and character, not as some ghostly
possible, 2) enrich our intellectual imagination and diminish the substance
dogmatic assurance which closes the mind against speculation; but - Those who attain knowledge of what human life is
above all because, through the greatness of the universe which really like and those who have the proper care of their
philosophy contemplates, 3) the mind also is rendered great, and soul in mind will conduct their behavior in accordance
becomes capable of that union with the universe which constitutes with their knowledge of true moral values
its highest good. o Care for the knowledge and intelligence first
- Philosophy tries to eliminate the dogmatic view because o “think before you act”
a dogmatic person closes himself to new perspectives - Thus, Socrates was primarily concerned with the good
and ideas life, and not with mere contemplation
- Philosophy aims for us to progress and be open to new - Dialectic
ideas o Socrates was convinced that the surest way
- Progressive about ideas not to be stopped with customs to attain reliable knowledge was through the
and traditions practice of disciplined conversation
o This method begins with a discussion of the
 THE PHAEDO (by Plato)
most obvious aspects of any problem.
 Socrates
Through the process of dialogue, in which
- born in 470 BCE
all parties to the conversation are forced to
- died at the age of 71 in 399 BCE
clarify their ideas, the final outcome of the
- Socrates engaged in argumentation with the sophists
conversation is a clear statement of what is
o Sophists = learns for the sake of money not
meant
for the sake of imparting knowledge. taught  CONTEXT OF THE STORY: After Socrates’ Trial
for pragmatic purposes - Socrates was brought to trial on the charge of (1) not
o Philosopher = seeks for wisdom/knowledge worshipping the Gods whom the state worships, but
for the sake of knowledge itself introducing new and unfamiliar religious practices, and
- He wrote nothing (2) of corrupting the young.
- He loves to argue and debate - Socrates was given the punishment of death penalty
- Most of Socrates’ dealings were written by his younger - How was Socrates executed? He was executed through
contemporaries (his students) administering poison, hemlock.
o Aristophanes  Why a Philosopher Must Accept Death:
 Depicts Socrates as a strutting - Death is not the end of a philosopher’s life.
waterfowl, poking fun at his o World of Forms
habit of rolling his eyes and o World of Senses
referring impishly to his “pupils”  Phaedo - recalling events; Echecrates - interested in the topic
and “thinking shop” 1. There was a long interval between trial and execution
o Xenophon because 
 Comes from a portrait of a loyal - “They have a law that as soon as this mission begins
soldier who had a passion for the city must be kept pure, and no public executions
discussing requirements for may take place until the ship has reached Delos and
morality who inevitably attracted return again, which sometimes takes a long time, if the
younger people who sought winds happen to hold it back. The mission is considered
advice to begin as soon as the priest of Apollo has garlanded
o Plato the stern of the ship, and this happened, as I say, on the
 Confirms this general portrait day before the trial.”
and in addition pictures Socrates - Took long to execute Socrates because of tradition that
as a man with a deep sense of when this ship would sail, no public executions must
mission and absolute moral happen until it comes back.
purity. 2. Socrates was quite happy. Despite the imminence of death,
- “GADFLY” Socrates still continued to undertake a discussion with his
o A gadfly is a person who interferes with the friends.
status quo of a society or community by - “It never occurred to me to feel sorry for him, as you
posing novel, potentially upsetting might have expected me to feel at the deathbed of a
questions, usually directed at authorities very dear friend. The master seemed quite happy,
o Socrates compares himself to a gadfly Echecrates, both in his manner and in what he
o Socrates has stayed away from politics at the said; he met his death so fearlessly and nobly.”
warning of an inner voice that keeps him 3. Socrates’ first words were a relationship of pleasure and pain.
from heading into danger, a voice he calls a - “What a queer thing it is, my friends, this sensation
“supernatural sign.” which is popularly called pleasure! It is remarkable
how closely it is connected with its conventional
opposite, pain. They will never come to a man both at
once, but if you pursue one of them and catch it, you
are nearly always compelled to have the other as well;
 they are like two bodies attached to the same head. I
am sure that if Aesop had thought of it he would have
made up a fable about them, something like this — God
wanted to stop their continual quarreling; and when he
found that it was impossible, he fastened their heads
together; so wherever one of them appears, the other is
sure to follow after. ”
4. Cebes, in lieu of Evenus, asked Socrates about the lyrics
which he had been composing. Erenus wanted to know what
induced Socrates to write them after he had gone to prison.
- “I did it in the attempt to discover the meaning of
certain dreams, and to clear my conscience, in case this
was the art which I had been told to practice.”
- “In the past I used to think that it was impeling and
exhorting me to do what I was actually doing; I mean
that the dream, like a spectator encouraging a runner
in a race, was, urging me on to do what I was doing
already, that is, practicing the arts, because philosophy
is the greatest of the arts.”
5. What Socrates meant was that, although it is not legitimate to
end one’s life, a philosopher will be willing to do so to follow
a friend who dies. Socrates first explains why it is
conventionally wrong to commit suicide. 
- “The allegory which the mystics tell us — that we men
are put in a sort of a guard post, from which one must
not release oneself or run away —  seems to me to be a
high doctrine with difficult implications.”  How can you perceive something without knowing its concept
- “If one of your possessions were to destroy itself (absolute standards)
without intimation from you that you wanted it to die,  If a person is to be reminded of something, he must first know it at
wouldn't you be angry with it and punish it, if you had some time or another
any means of doing so?”  Recollection implies forgetfulness because when you see that thing
6. However, Cebes was still skeptical about the idea of or someone you have forgotten; you get reminded of it
philosophers being readily willing to die. What was Cebes’  recollection, however, may be caused either by similar/equal or by
argument with which Simmias agreed? dissimilar/unequal objects
- “It is natural for the wise to be grieved when they die,  Theory of Recollection = we have the knowledge of abstract ideas
and for fools to be happy.” – such as beauty, equality and justice – because we became
7. What was Socrates’ defense against Cebes’ argument? acquainted with it in a former life. our souls must have existed
- “If I did not expect to enter the company, first, of other before we were born. For example, absolute equality does not exist
wise and good gods, and secondly of men now dead in this universe
who are better than those who are in this world now, it  Socrates points out that when we compare similar things or equal
is true that I should be wrong in not grieving at death. things, how can we know that similar things are similar and equal
As it is, you can be assured that I expect to find myself things are equal
among good men. I would not insist particularly on this o There is a difference between similar/equal things and
point, but on the other I assure you that I shall insist similarity/equality
most strongly — that I shall find there divine masters o Similarity/equality = absolute standards/universal.
who are supremely good.” These are perceived through the mind; these are
8. Death is the release of the soul from the body. It is the concepts. These are things we can’t see.
separate condition of the body by itself when it is released o Similar things/Equal things = instances of absolute
from the soul, and the separate condition by itself of the soul
standards/particulars. These are perceived through our
when released from the body.
senses; our percepts
- Socrates did not fear death because he believed in the
o We know that they are similar because we see them; but
afterlife
how do we know similarity itself?
9. On the acquisition of knowledge, is the body a hindrance?
o EXAMPLE: Good food. We know that it is good food
With regard to abstract concepts such as beauty and
goodness, have any bodily sense? Is it through the body we because we see it; but we do not know the concept of
get redeemed? goodness itself
- The philosopher is not concerned with the goods of the o Similarity/equality exists prior to our senses
body but with the goods of the mind and soul.  Everything that is perceivable by senses
- On the acquisition of knowledge: happened at the instant of birth. Therefore,
o Body = 5 senses the knowledge of absolute standards came
o Soul = obtain knowledge before that.
 LEARNING IS BASICALLY JUST
RECOLLECTING KNOWLEDGE
 Knowledge of absolute standards are already
there
 Souls knows these knowledge of
absolute standards
 Our souls exist even way before
we were born
o When the soul is already in the body, we forget about
the KAS
 We need to recollect in order to remember it
 Arguments for the Existence of the Soul because it is deep in the memory of a person
(KAS)
 Soul:
1. Soul before birth
(2)
2. Soul after death

(1)

 It is presumed that the man is both the body and the soul
  Philosophers attain a divine nature. They don’t reincarnate.
- A philosopher, therefore, is one who cares about his/her
soul and does not subordinate them to the body

 Philosophers set the soul free from the imprisonment of the body:
1. Philosophy points out that observation is entirely deceptive –
prone to mistakes/manipulation
2. Philosophy urges the soul to refrain from using them (senses)
unless it is necessary to do so
3. Philosophy encourage the soul to collect and concentrate
itself by itself
4. Philosophy attributes no truth to anything which it views
indirectly as being subject to variation
 Socrates said that they can bury him in whatever way they think is
most proper on the condition that what they say is what they are
burying is only his body. This means to say that they are not
burying “Socrates” himself, but only Socrates’ body, because
“who” Socrates is, is not the body, but the soul that lingers on after
death.
 Socrates is: brave (he did not fear death), wise (he wanted to
recollect because knowledge/ wisdom can only be attained after
death, and upright (because he lived a good life)
 Philosophy
 Phaedo = a work under the branch of psychology (study of
the soul; study of the human being)
 Metaphysis
- where psychology came from
 When a philosopher dies, his soul goes to the world of forms - meta = beyond
 The Affinity Argument - physika = the physical
o The soul bears an affinity to the invisible, the immortal, - ground of cosmology, theology
and indissoluble, while the body exhibits and affinity to - A study/theory of reality. It asks questions about what
the visible, the mortal, and the dissoluble. is real/what is an illusion
o Because the soul bears an affinity to the eternal forms - It is the study of being as being. It studies things as they
and the divine gods, the soul must also be immortal. are.
 The Argument from the Form of Life o Being is understood to be the reason why
o The soul is immortal because the soul is the form of life things are as they are/exist
– or the cause of life o It is the first principle/cause of all things
o Things that are alive possess a soul o It deals with the existence of everything
 Cyclical Argument o For Plato, being is the form/absolute
o Contraries are generated from contraries standards
o If generation were in a straight line only, and there were  Form = essence of all things. All
no compensation or circle in nature, no turn or return of things participate under a form.
elements into their opposites, then you know that all All things are imitations of
things would at last have the same form and pass into forms. Forms are what makes a
the same state, there would be no generation of them. If being a being.
all things which partook of life were to die, and after  Before Plato, there were 2 other Philosophers
they were dead remained in the form of death, and did 1. Heraclitus
not come to life again, all would at last die, and nothing o Reality is change, is becoming because we
would be alive. see change
 Does this mean that wisdom can only be attained during death? o We say reality is change through our
o Yes. When a person dies, his body decays and senses/experiences
disintegrates rapidly. But the soul, the invisible part is o “You cannot step twice into the same river”
released and “carries with it no contamination with the 2. Parmenides
body, because it has never willingly associated with it o Change is just an illusion
in life but has stunned it and kept itself from regular o Reality is constant, is being
practice. o Thinking/logic
o Man can only attain wisdom after death for it is only
o For him, becoming is an illusion because for
then that the mind is liberated from the distraction from
him, reality is categorized in to 2: being &
the body
nothing
o The body is a source of endless trouble to us by reason
 Nothing can come out of
of the mere requirement of food; and is liable also to nothing
diseases which overtake and impede us in the search  Something cannot come out
after the being: it fills us full of love, and lusts, and of something
fears, and fancies of all kinds, and endless foolery, and o Parmenides took the view that nothing
in fact, as men says, takes away from us the power of
changes in reality; only our senses convey
thinking at all
the appearance of change.  Heraclitus, by
o The soul in herself must behold thing in themselves:
contrast, thought that everything changes all
and only then we shall attain wisdom which we desire, the time, and that "we step and do not step
not while we live but after death into the same river," for new waters flow
 Those who are the happiest become good animals ever about us.
 Soul - ghost (shadowy apparition)  Soul is composed of 3 parts
- If the person has not cultivated his mind and not 1. Rational Part = awareness of a goal
regulated his sense organs 2. Spirited Part = drive towards action
- If a person is always associating himself with the body, 3. Appetitive Part = bodily desires
he will have no peace - Bothe the spirited part and the appetitive part is
- Souls become ghosts because they are attached to the perishable while the rational part is imperishable. When
world of senses we die, only the rational part of the soul will remain
- Ghosts reincarnate; souls are pure after death
- Those who are still attached to bodily desires and
material needs become ghosts or reincarnated to bad
animals
 To live a good life is to live a rational life.
- Only philosophers can go to WOF - since they
reasoned, are not attached from bodily desires and
material needs
- Those who are the happiest become good animals. To
live a happy life does not mean that they lived a rational
life.
- Socrates is a moral philosopher. He believes that to live
a moral life or a good life is to live a rational life. This
means that…
- Even if you get a good life, without philosophy, it does
not mean that you will be excluded from reincarnation
 - Substance is composed of matter and form which
coexists with each other
- Theory of Hylemorphism
o Hyle = matter
o Morphism = form
- Matter
o principle of potentiality or principle of
indetermination
o for every matter, there is a potentiality to
exist
o body falls under matter because it has the
potential to be alive
- Form
o Principle of actuality or principle of
determination
o Form allows the matter to exist; it is what
gives them life
o Soul falls under the form because the soul is
what gives life to the body. It activates the
body.
o Life is actualized by the soul
- Both the body and the soul are interdependent
o Without the body, the soul is useless
because it has nothing to activate it to. It has
nothing to give it life
o Without the soul, the body is useless
because the body will not be activated and
there will be no life
 Aristotle looks into the natural bodies VS manmade bodies
- Natural Bodies: living things
- Manmade Bodies: non-living things
 2 Definitions of a Soul
1. The soul is the essential “whatness” of a body
- A soul is a type of form
- All bodies have a form but not all bodies have a soul
- Soul is a “what of something”
- Body is the “that” of something
- That is a marker but what is a marker
- That is a person but what is a person
2. The soul is an actuality or formulable essence of something
that possesses a potentiality of being asouled (alive)
- The soul is what gives life to the body
 For Aristotle, there is no general definition of soul because there is
a specific soul for a specific body for their specific
purpose/function.
- The definition of a thing is based on what it does
- Different bodies have different souls because of its
different functions
 Aristotle’s Psychology
- There are only 3 things that exist in the world that has a
soul:
1. Plants
2. Animals
3. Human Beings

Type of Soul Function

Plants Vegetative Soul Self-nutrition,
= it is the most basic reproduce, growth
because it is the most
common/widespread
among all
 On the Soul (by Aristotle) = “Originative Power”
 For Aristotle, there is no absolute standards/world of forms. There = first signs of life
is only a world of senses because of the 3rd Man Argument. But = everyone has this
this doesn’t mean that he regrets/rejects forms. Animals Sensible Soul Movement, sensation
 Aristotle refuted Plato’s belief in the world of forms using the 3 rd = animals and plants = idea of pleasure and
man argument have this pain
 Aristotle is a nominalist (people who looks into the words) = seek pleasure and
 3rd Man Argument avoid pain
- According to Plato, all corresponding form has an ideal Humans Rational Soul Think, communicate,
form. (most complex = only humans have reason
- EXAMPLE: beings) this

- Plato: man  soul

o For him, man is the soul; the body is just the
prison house of the soul
- But for Aristotle, - Aristotle: man  body with a soul (rational soul)
o Particular man = ideal man = more ideal o Man is a rational animal
man = more and more ideal man.... - Zoon Logon Echon
o Zoon = man is an animal
o Logon = capable of language
o Echon = capable of speaking/speech
 Aristotle’s Ethics
- Theory of Causes (how things came to be)
- This is called an infinite regression (ad infinitum 1. Formal Cause = form/essence of an object
absurdum) 2. Material Cause = matter/out of which an object is
- This argument called Plato’s argument on forms absurd. made; what is it made out of
 Aristotle’s Metaphysics 3. Efficient Cause = agent to let something be made;
- Being = substance; substance is the cause of all things who made it
 4. Final Cause = purpose/goal of an object
 These are interdependent

EXAMPLE:
Chair
Formal Cause “chairness”
Material Cause Wood
Efficient Cause Carpenter
Final Cause To be sat on -

- Purpose of Man
Human Being/Man
Formal Cause Soul (rational)
Material Cause Flesh/body
Efficient Cause Himself
Final Cause Happiness
= it is the ultimate goal of a human
being

- For Aristotle, happiness is not pleasure because

pleasure is the highest form/level for animals.
According to him, we are much greater than animals
because we have the capability to think and
communicate. He said that we should not step down to
the level of animals.
- For Aristotle, happiness is not a feeling but an activity.
It is the activity of the rational soul in accordance with
virtue.
o Virtue Ethics
 Virtue = “golden mean” or the
midpoint between excess and
deficiency (x)
 Excess = (x + 1)
 Deficiency = (x – 1)
 Examples of Virtue: courage,
justice, temperance, prudence
 You have to use your rational
self to get to the middle

EXAMPLE:
(deficiency) Cowardice  Courage  Rashness (excess)

- For Aristotle, to attain happiness is not only by living a

rational life, but also by living a virtuous life
- Despite the attainment of happiness, happiness is
relative because it responds to different degrees of
excess and deficiency
- Happiness cannot be achieved alone but it can be
achieved with others
- Happiness is the cultivity/activity of rationality.