Consumer Choices and Habits Related To Coffee Consumption by Poles

International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Consumer Choices and Habits Related to Coffee Consumption
by Poles
Ewa Czarniecka-Skubina 1, * , Marlena Pielak 1 , Piotr Sałek 1 , Renata Korzeniowska-Ginter 2
and Tomasz Owczarek 3
1 Department of Food Gastronomy and Food Hygiene, Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences,
Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Str. Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
marlena_pielak@sggw.edu.pl (M.P.); piotr_salek@sggw.edu.pl (P.S.)
2 Department of Quality Management, Gdynia Maritime University, Str. Morska 81-87, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland;
r.ginter@wznj.umg.edu.pl
3 Department of Management and Economics, Gdynia Maritime University, Str. Morska 81-87,
81-225 Gdynia, Poland; t.owczarek@wznj.umg.edu.pl
* Correspondence: ewa_czarniecka_skubina@sggw.edu.pl; Tel.: +48-(22)-593-7063
Abstract: Coffee is one of the most popular drinks consumed in the world, also in Poland. In the
literature, much attention is paid to the influence of coffee on human health, especially daily intake
of caffeine, and also purchasing consumer behavior. There is a lack of research devoted to consumer
choices and habits in relation to coffee consumption and brewing method. Therefore, the aim of this
study is to describe the characteristics of coffee consumers and present their segmentation based
on consumer choices and habits towards coffee consumption. The study was performed using
the computer-assisted web interviewing (CAWI) method on a group of 1500 adults respondents

in Poland reporting the consumption of coffee. We collected information about consumer choices
Citation: Czarniecka-Skubina, E.;
and habits related to coffee consumption, including brewing method, place of consuming coffee,
Pielak, M.; Sałek, P.;
and factors determining coffee choices. Using cluster analysis, we identified three main groups of
Korzeniowska-Ginter, R.; Owczarek,
coffee consumers. There are “Neutral coffee drinkers”, “Ad hoc coffee drinkers”, and “Non-specific
T. Consumer Choices and Habits
Related to Coffee Consumption by
coffee drinkers”. The respondents in the study are not coffee gourmets; they like and consume coffee,
Poles. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public but these are often changing choices. To conclude, it can be stated that the Polish coffee consumer
Health 2021, 18, 3948. https:// prefers conventional methods of brewing coffee (like a “traditionalist”) but is open to novelties and
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083948 new sensory experiences. Based on study results it is possible to know the coffee drinking habits
in Poland.
Academic Editor: Paul B. Tchounwou
Keywords: coffee; consumer habits; coffee brewing; Poles
Received: 26 February 2021
Accepted: 7 April 2021
Published: 9 April 2021
1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
Coffee is the second most traded commodity in the world. In 2017–2018, the global
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
production of coffee beans from around 60 countries reached approximately 9513 million
published maps and institutional affil-
tones, and achieved USD 200 billion annually [1,2]. In 2018–2019, the consumption of
iations.
coffee beans was over 165 million 60-kg packages [3]. It is estimated that 500 billion cups
of coffee are consumed every day [4]. According to available sources, the highest coffee
consumption in Europe is in Scandinavia at approximately 10 kg of coffee per capita per
year. In Finland is 12 kg per capita per year; in Norway, 9.9 kg; in Iceland, 9 kg; in Denmark,
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
8.7 kg, and in Sweden, 8.2 kg. In other European countries, coffee consumption is lower, in
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
Netherlands—8.4 kg, Switzerland—7.9 kg, Belgium—6.8 kg, and Luxembourg—6.5 kg [1].
This article is an open access article
In Poland, coffee consumption is an average of 2.2–3 kg per capita per year [5].
distributed under the terms and
Many studies [6–11] concentrate on the effects of coffee on the body and health, es-
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
pecially disease risk, and daily intake of caffeine with coffee [12–14]. Coffee, apart from
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the unique, characteristic taste and aroma, contains caffeine, and several antioxidants,
4.0/). including chlorogenic acid, lignan, melanoids, cafestrol, trigonelline, and kahweol, which
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18083948 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3948 2 of 21
may show a protective effect at the cellular level. The ingredients contained in the cof-
fee infusion are responsible for many beneficial processes that take place in the human
body [14–34]. Excessive, long-term consumption of caffeine (above 500–600 mg daily) may
lead to addiction and many negative symptoms from the body but also show that coffee
becomes a risk factor for various diseases while consume above five number of cups per
day [35–43].
Many studies [44–49] focus on the coffee markets, including purchasing consumer
behavior and quantified consumption, as well as sustainable development and ethical con-
sumption in line with the principles of fair trade. Few data [47,50–55] concern consumption
motives, consumer behavior, and preferences as to the method of coffee brewing or aspects
related to the proper preparation of the infusion. Coffee is considered a high-quality food.
In the minds of consumers, consumption of coffee is more and more often equated with
pleasure and positive experiences and is related to lifestyle and social status. Various stud-
ies confirm that drinking a cup of coffee is associated with a personal moment of pleasure
for the consumer [56–58], and characterize coffee as: pleasure, health, and sustainable
development [59].
The mentioned previous studies concern on habits, changes in consumer behavior
and preferences related to coffee, marketing aspects, and also related to the impact on
health, without addressing “technological” issues connected with preparing and consume
coffee infusions. The topic of coffee research is related to the cultural and geographic
context in which it is conducted [52–55,60]. In Western economies, a lot of emphasis is
placed on issues of sustainable development, including fair trade. In Asia, an important
aspect is mainly the behavior and preferences of consumers in relation to café brands or
consumption of coffee products [61]. Consumer habits related to choose the coffee brew
methods are also changing with technological development. Studies among European
consumers [62] indicate that they use different coffee preparation methods. Italians, Swiss,
and Portuguese use espresso machines: fully automated, capsule, and drip coffee maker.
While Germans mainly use a filter coffee makers to brew coffee. In turn, in the South Africa
foodservice market espresso based coffee dominate [63].
Coffee drinking habits, methods of coffee infusion, coffee amount consumed, and
additive use in coffee are differentiated between countries and population [57,64–69].
Although much research on coffee has been published, there is still a lack of research
related to the technological practices of coffee preparation. The available results do not
cover the topic in such a comprehensive way as our research, and they refer to the topic
in a different context. This study fills this research gap. Coffee is one of the most popular
drinks in Poland. Over 80% of adult Poles consume coffee regularly and 60% of adult
Poles drink it every day [70,71]. Its price is relatively low, from USD 1.65 (PLN 6.09) per
250 g in 2010, rising to about USD 1.86 (PLN 7.54) for 250 g in 2019 [72]. Drinking coffee is
becoming a lifestyle. It is also encouraged by the changing coffee market in Poland, where
there is an increasing prevalence of cafe chains. The largest coffee shop chains, such as
Tchibo, McCafé, Starbucks, and Costa Coffee, are increasing the number of their outlets all
over Europe, including in Poland [1].
The Polish coffee market is worth about PLN 6 billion per year, of which about half
is household expenditure [73], which indicates buying coffee by consumers for home
preparation. Polish consumers buy coffee beans more often (30% of households). At the
same time, their interest in instant coffee is decreasing—in 2014–2019 by 13% in terms of
value and by 14% in terms of quantity. This is likely due to the increase in the purchasing
of domestic coffee machines. In terms of the sale of coffee machines in the first half of 2020,
Poles became the fourth market in Europe in terms of value, after Germany, France, and
the Netherlands. A significant proportion (60.8%) of the coffee machines purchased in
Poland are automatic machines, which in 2020 accounted for 92% of the value of the whole
coffee machine market [74]. The consequence of this was an increase in the coffee bean
segment by 28.4% [75]. The market for coffee capsule machines, and thus the demand for
coffee capsules, is also growing [76]. The COVID-19 pandemic may also have contributed
to the increase in the sales of automatic coffee machines, and thus the increase of demand
for coffee beans in 2020.
Therefore, this research aimed to analyze Polish consumer habits towards coffee
consumption and their choices connected with coffee, as well as factors influence on choose
kind, brand, and method of preparation of the coffee infusion. The second aim of this
study was to identify, describe, and compare consumer segments based on differences in
individual choices and habits related to coffee consumption.
2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Questionnaire
The questionnaire structure is presented in Table 1. The questionnaire consists of two
parts, of which the first part consists of 14 questions relating to coffee consumption and
consumer habits with coffee. The questions concern consumer preferences, decisive factors
for purchasing, the frequency of coffee consumption, and the method of preparing coffee
infusions. The second part of the questionnaire relates to the respondent’s sociodemo-
graphic details—gender, age, education, dwelling place. The questionnaire was designed
based on the literature. Questions in questionnaire were based on previous studies: Q1,
Q2, Q4, Q12, Q13, Q14 [50]; Q1, Q3, Q5, Q6, Q14 [51]; Q6, Q11, Q12, Q13 [77]; Q2, Q11 [78];
Q1, Q13 [79]; and Q7, Q8, Q9, Q10 [80,81].
Table 1. Questionnaire structure.
Question Answer Options

(1) once a day; (2) twice a day; (3) three or four times a day; (4) three
Q1. How often do you drink coffee (one cup of coffee)?
or four times a week; (5) once a week; (6) three times a month; (7)
Choose the answer that suits you the best (only one
once a month; (8) never (if respondents choose this answer, they end
option).
the questionnaire)
(1) roasted coffee beans; (2) grain coffee (from cereals); (3)
decaffeinated coffee; (4) ground roasted coffee (coffee powder); (5)
Q2. What kind of coffee do you like usually drink?
flavored coffee; (6) instant coffee; (7) low-acid coffee; (8) coffee
beverages
Please list: Nescafe, Tchibo, Jacobs, Segafredo, Lavazza, MK Café,
Q3. What brands of coffee do you choose most often?
Maxwell House, Pedros, Woseba, Astra, other (please specify)
(1) black, unsweetened; (2) with sugar; (3) with sugar substitutes
Q4. How do you drink your coffee?
(sweetener); (4) with milk; (5) with cream; (6) other (please specify)
Q5. Is the method of preparation of the coffee infusion
(1) yes; (2) no; (3) sometimes
important to you?
(1) in a drip coffee maker; (2) flooded with boiling water in a cup or
glass; (3) in a French press coffee maker; (4) cold brew method; (5) in
Q6. How do you brew your coffee?
a pressure coffee machine; (6) in a moka pot; (7) percolator coffee
maker; (8) AeroPress coffee maker; (9) I don’t brew coffee
(1) <3 min; (2) 3 min; (3) 4 min; (4) 5 min; (5) 6 min; (6) I do not pay
Q7. How long do you brew your coffee?
attention to the brewing time
Q8. What type of water do you use to prepare the (1) tap water from the mains water supply; (2) filtered water; (3)
infusion? oligocene water; (4) mineral water still
(1) “more or less”; (2) according to the recommendations on the coffee
Q9. How many spoons of coffee do you use for brewing package; (3) other; (4) 1–1.5 teaspoons; (5) 2–2.5 teaspoons;
(per cup)? (6) 3–4 teaspoons; (7) 5 teaspoons or more; (8) a measuring cup for a
coffee machine, capsules.
Q10. At what temperature do you brew your coffee? (1) 100 ◦ C; (2) 93 ◦ C; (3) 98 ◦ C; (4) I don’t pay attention to it
Table 1. Cont.
Question Answer Options

(1) Americano—a type of coffee drink prepared by diluting an
espresso with hot water; (2) espresso—strong coffee brewed in an
espresso machine, served in a small cup; (3) cappuccino—espresso
with hot, strongly frothed milk (with a fluffy foam); (4) iced coffee; (5)
Q11. What kind of coffee drink do you prefer?
latte—espresso with a lot of hot, gently frothed milk or latte
macchiato—hot milk, espresso, and a fluffy foam; (6) caffé
mocha—espresso served with hot milk and dark or milk chocolate;(7)
other (please specify)
Q12. What do you appreciate the most about the quality of
(1) color; (2) flavor; (3) aroma; (4) appearance; (5) coffee strength
coffee you drink?
Q13. When I buy coffee, I usually take into consideration: Choose a comment for each statement (Likert scale):
13.1: Price; 13.2: Quality; 13.3: Brand; (1) Definitely do not agree;
13.4: Packaging (attractiveness, information); (2) Do not agree;
13.5: Friends’ opinions; (3) I tend to disagree;
13.6: Presentation on a shelf in a store; (4) Undecided;
13.7: Promotion; 13.8: Habits; 13.9: Advertisement; 13.10: (5) I tend to agree;
Flavor (taste and aroma); 13.11: Convenience; 13.12: (6) Agree;
Health reasons; 13.13: Others (please specify) (7) Definitely agree
Q14. Where do you drink your coffee? Choose the (1) at home; (2) in canteens; (3) in a café; (4) at friends’, family
answers that suits you the best. members’ homes; (5) at work
Sociodemographic data: Choose the right answer:
Gender: (1): women; (2): men;
(1): 18–25 years old; (2): 26–30 years old; (3): 31–40 years old;(4):
Age:
41–50 years old; (5): 51–65 years old
(1): vocational or primary school; (2): secondary school;
Education:
(3): higher education (university);
(1): city over 100,000 inhabitants;
(2): city between 50,000–100,000 inhabitants;
Dwelling place:
(3): city between 10,000–50,000 inhabitants;
(4): city below 10,000 inhabitants and village;
The questionnaire was assessed by determining its repeatability. The reliability of the
questionnaire was validated using its internal consistency. Cronbach’s alpha test was used
to measure internal consistency and reliability. Cronbach alpha coefficient was above 0.74,
which indicated acceptable internal consistency. Therefore, the questionnaire and scale
used is valid.
2.2. Data Collection

The Computer-Assisted Web-based Interviewing (CAWI) method was used to collect
all data. The survey was conducted on a group of 1500 adult respondents in Poland that
reported the consumption of coffee.
Inclusion criteria of respondents for study were as follows:
1. Each respondent in age between 18 to 65 years old of who agreed to participate in the
survey was invited to complete the questionnaire.
2. Everyone consuming the coffee.
The exclusion criterion of respondents was people who do not consume coffee.
This paper were designed as a study with a convenience sampling.
The respondents completed an online questionnaire. A link to the questionnaire in
Polish language Google Forms format was sent via Facebook, WhatsApp® , e-mail, and
students forum. A questionnaire provided on a webpage increases the sense of anonymity
and gives an opportunity to participate in the study at a time convenient for the respondent,
and in time of pandemic COVID-19 was very useful.
The questionnaire was validated by means of a pilot study with 20 people. All prob-
lems were identified, for example, unintelligible questions and questionnaire construction,
as well as the lack of response request, which can lead to omitted answer for some questions.
Then the questionnaire was completed and amended.
It was estimated on a pilot test that it would take each participant around 10–12 min to
complete the form. Each adult respondent who agreed to take part in the study was invited
to fill in the questionnaire. The respondents were free to participate in the research. Because
the research was non-invasive and the details of the participants remained undisclosed,
the research does not fall within the remit of the Helsinki Declaration.
2.3. Characteristics of Respondents

The characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 2. The study involved
mainly women, with secondary or higher education, living in different types of dwelling
places. The respondents were in the range of 18–65 years old, who had access to a computer,
the Internet, and had computer literacy skills.
Table 2. Characteristics of the surveyed sample of respondents.
Number of Percentage of
Population Features Group
Respondents (n) Respondents (%)
Total – 1500 100.0
women 1049 69.9
Gender
men 451 30.1
18–25 years old 435 29.0
26–30 years old 239 15.9
Age 31–40 years old 258 17.2
41–50 years old 312 20.8
51–65 years old 256 17.1
vocational or primary
165 11.0
school
Education
secondary school 605 40.3
higher education
730 48.7
(university)
city over 100,000
646 43.1
inhabitants
Dwelling place city between
50,000–100,000 212 14.1
inhabitants)
city between
10,000–50,000 396 26.4
inhabitants
city below 10,000
inhabitants and 246 16.4
village
2.4. Data Analysis

The statistical analysis of the results was performed using Statistica software (version
13.3 PL; StatSoft Inc., StatSoft, Krakow, Poland). The ANOVA test was used. Significance
of differences between the values was determined at a significance level of p < 0.05.
A multi-dimensional cluster analysis calculation was performed to coffee consumer
classifications. Segmentation was performed using the hierarchical (connectivity-based)
clustering. Specifically, the agglomeration clustering method and k-means clustering
method were used. The analysis was aimed at creating groups of respondents with a
homogeneous approach to the purchase and consumption of coffee.
The measure of similarity used in cluster analysis is the distance in a multidimensional
coordinate system. This distance can be defined in many different ways. All the variables
are therefore categorical, most on the nominal scale and some on the ordinal scale. For this
reason, the analysis uses a measure called percent discrepancy, which is the quotient of the
number of dimensions with inconsistent values and the number of all dimensions. When
studying distances between clusters of multiple elements, it is also necessary to establish a
method for calculating the distances of clusters. The analysis used the complete linkage
method, also known as the farthest neighborhood method. The distance between clusters
is the distance of the farthest elements of both clusters. After separating the clusters, it
was examined whether they really differentiate the studied group. For this purpose, the
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test with the significance level p < 0.05 was used. For all
clusters, the means and medians were calculated for all variables [82,83].
The analysis consisted of three stages. In the first stage, the system of variables (ques-
tions) was reduced. Using the agglomeration method, variables with similar values were
combined into clusters, and then all questions were removed from this cluster, leaving one
representative. This allows to eliminate from the study questions that are highly correlated
and carry the same information, without losing overall information. In the second stage,
clusters of cases (respondents) were built using the agglomeration method. The purpose of
this stage is to determine the optimal number of clusters. Due to the extremely difficult
interpretation of the obtained results, it was decided to create as few reasonable clusters as
possible. In the third stage, the elements were finally assigned to clusters using the k-means
clustering method and the properties of the obtained communities were analyzed. Due to
the large number of numerical values, the article does not present detailed values of the
measures and test statistics used, but only the conclusions obtained from them, confirmed
by graphs.
3. Results
3.1. Type of Coffee Consumed by Respondents
Respondents primarily choose instant coffee (50.9% of respondents), ground roasted
coffee (45.9%), and roasted coffee beans (37%). A significant percentage of respondents
also choose grain coffee (17.7%), coffee beverages (13.1%), and flavored coffee (11.5%). Few
people reported a consumption of decaffeinated coffee (7.7%) or low-acid coffee (1.3%).
The choice of the type of coffee correlated with age, education, and dwelling place
(p < 0.05). Roasted coffee beans were significantly more often chosen by people aged
18–25 years, with higher education, and living in cities with above 100,000 inhabitants,
while ground roasted coffee was chosen by people aged 31–40 years. Young people
(18–25 years of age) significantly more often drink flavored coffee and coffee beverages than
others group of consumer. People aged 25–30 years and inhabitants of rural areas consumed
grain coffee significantly more often. In turn off, people aged 51–65, with secondary
education, and living in cities up to 100,000 inhabitants more often drink instant coffee.
Among the coffee brands, the respondents most often chose Jacobs (44% of indications),
Nescafe (36.8%), Tchibo (30.9%), MKCafe (34.9%), and Lavazza (28.4%). Less frequently
mentioned were Maxwell House (8.7%), Prima (8.1%), Segafredo (6.8%), and Pedro’s (6.1%).
Other brands were mentioned by less than 1% of the respondents. The large variety of
coffee brands on the market means that everyone will find something for themselves, and
the choice of the brand depends on consumer preferences.
3.2. The Frequency and Place of Coffee Consumption

All the participants in the study reported drinking coffee. The majority of respondents
(76.8%) consume coffee daily, either once, twice, or several times a day (Figure 1). A smaller
percentage of respondents drink coffee once or three or four times a week or less. The fre-
quency of coffee consumption was associated with age (p = 0.000) and education (p = 0.000).
However, it did not correlate to gender (p = 0.517) or type of dwelling place (p = 0.151).
People aged 26–50 and people with higher education consume coffee significantly more
often—twice to three or more times a day. People aged 51–65 years significantly more often
Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20

reported coffee consumption once a day, and people aged 18–25 years significantly more
often declared coffee consumption once a week or rarely.
Frequency of consumption a
once a month
three times a month
cup of coffee
once a week
three or four times a week
three or four times a day
twice a day
once a day
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Percentage of respondents [%]
Figure 1. Frequency of consumption coffee

Figure 1. Frequency by respondents.
of consumption coffee by respondents.
The respondents most often drink coffee at home (95.5%) and at work (79.7%), Table 3.
The respondents Themost
choiceoften drink
of place coffee
to drink coffeeatmainly
homecorrelated
(95.5%)with
andgender,
at workage, (79.7%), Table
and dwelling place.3.
The choice of place to drink coffee mainly correlated with gender, age, and dwelling place.
In the canteen, coffee was consumed significantly more often by people aged 18–30 years
old and living in large cities above 100,000 inhabitants. Women, people aged 18–30 years,
In the canteen, coffee was consumed significantly more often by people aged 18–30 years
with higher education, living in big cities, significantly more often chosen other catering
old and living in large cities above
establishments (cafés)100,000 inhabitants.
to consume coffee. YoungWomen,
people up people aged
to 30 years, 18–30
women years,
and people
with higher education, livingeducation
with higher in big cities, significantly
significantly morecoffee
more often drink often chosen
at work other
and with catering
friends.
establishments (cafés) to consume coffee. Young people up to 30 years, women and people
Table 3. Places of respondents drink coffee.
with higher education significantly more often drink coffee at work and with friends.
Response p-Value *
Place Dwelling
Table 3. Places of respondents drink coffee.
Number Percentage Gender Age Education
Place
at home 1432
Response 95.5 NS NS
p-ValueNS
* 0.024
in canteens 687 45.8 NS 0.000 NS 0.000
Place Dwelling
NumberPercentage
in a café 922 Gender0.006Age0.000
61.5 Education
0.0006 0.000
Place
at friends’, family
994
at home members’ homes 1432 95.5 66.3 NS 0.039NS 0.000 NSNS NS
0.024
in canteens at work 687 119645.8 79.7 NS NS0.0000.002 NS0.000 0.000
NS
* NS—no significant, p < 0.05
in a café 922 61.5 0.006 0.000 0.0006 0.000
at friends’, family members’
3.3. Factors Affecting Coffee Purchasing
994 factors
The most important 66.3 0.039 the0.000
(Table 4) affecting NS
purchasing of NS
coffee included quality
homes
and flavor (taste and aroma) of the coffee, as well as habits of consumers (median 5.5–6).
at work Less important1196 factors for the79.7
respondentsNS 0.002
are coffee 0.000
price, brand, NS and
friends’ opinions,
* NS—no significant, pthe
< features
0.05 of coffee such as origin, acidity, strength, or degree of roasted (median 5). The
least important factors for the respondents were packaging, presentation on the shelf in
the store, promotion, advertising, convenience, and coffee health aspects (median 4). The
3.3. Factors Affecting Coffee Purchasing
The most important factors (Table 4) affecting the purchasing of coffee included qual-
ity and flavor (taste and aroma) of the coffee, as well as habits of consumers (median 5.5–
6). Less important factors for the respondents are coffee price, brand, friends’ opinions,
smallest differentiation of respondents’ assessments was obtained in the Convenience and

Promotion factors. These factors were assessed as insignificant. Respondents do not pay
attention to these factors. While the greatest differentiation of ratings was obtained for the
Flavor (taste and aroma) factor. Respondents also assessed this factor as important from
the point of view of purchasing coffee. For many people, this factor is extremely important,
but some respondents do not pay much attention to it.
Table 4. Factors affecting coffee purchasing.
The Importance of the Factor *

Factors Median Quartile
Q25 Q75
Me Deviation Q
Price 5 ±1 4 6
Quality 6 ±1 5 7
Brand 5 ±1 4 6
Packaging (attractiveness,
4 ±1 3 5
information)
Friends’ opinion 5 ±1 4 6
Presentation on a shelf in
4 ±1 2 4
a store
Promotion 4 ±0.5 4 5
Habits 5.5 ±1 4 6
Advertisement 4 ±1 2 4
Flavor (taste and aroma) 6 ±1.5 4 7
Convenience 4 ±0.5 4 5
Health reasons 4 ±1 3 5
Others (origin, acidity,
5 ±1 4 6
strength, degree of roasted)
* Likert scale: (1): Definitely do not agree; (2): Do not agree; (3): I tend to disagree; (4): Undecided; (5): I tend to
agree; (6): Agree; (7): Definitely agree; Q25—lower quartile, Q75—upper quartile; Q = (Q75−Q25)/2.
3.4. Preparation Methods and Types of Coffee Drunk by Respondents

Almost half of the respondents (n = 666, 44.4%) reported that the way of coffee prepare
is important for them, while a significant percentage of the respondents (n = 391, 26.1%)
only sometimes paid attention on brewing methods. For others (n = 443, 29.5%), is the
preparation method was not important.
The respondents like different methods of brewing and different of coffee beverages
(Table 5). The most frequent method of brewing coffee stated was coffee made with boiling
water in a cup or glass (89.7%), followed by preparing in a pressure coffee machine (77.7%)
and in a drip coffee maker (61.5%). The most popular types of coffee were espresso (90.6%
of indications) and cappuccino (84.1%), latte or latte macchiato, and frozen coffee (approxi-
mately 75% respectively). Americano was reported by 51.4% of the respondents. Other
methods, such as lungo, flat white, frappé, with alcohol, doppio, café au lait, frappuccino,
café Corto, brewing methods without an espresso machine, and Viennese coffee, were
mentioned by less than 10% of respondents.
Table 5. Preparation methods and types of coffee beverages by respondents.
Respondents Respondents
Brewing Method Type of Coffee Beverages
n % n %
in a drip coffee maker 922 61.5 Americano 771 51.4
flooded with boiling water in
1345 89.7 espresso/double espresso 1359 90.6
a cup or glass
in French press coffee maker 231 15.4 cappuccino 1262 84.1
cold brew method 193 12.9 iced coffee 1140 76.0
in a pressure coffee machine 1165 77.7 latte/latte macchiato 1119 74.6
in a moka pot 183 12.2 caffé mocha 779 51.9
percolator coffee maker 98 6.5 other 140 9.3
AeroPress coffee maker 186 12.4 - - -
Multiple choice question.
As an addition to their coffee infusion, most respondents choose milk (69.6%), while
fewer choose cream (17.7%). A significant percentage (43.7%) of the respondents sweeten
their coffee with sugar. Few of the respondents (7.7%) use sugar substitutes (sweeteners).
Almost 40% of respondents drink coffee without additions. Other additions such as cinna-
mon, cocoa, chocolate, cardamom, syrup, or ice cream were used by 8.8% of respondents.
People aged 31–40 years, with higher education, living in large cities (>100,000 in-
habitants) drink coffee without any additions significantly more often (p < 0.05). Coffee
is more likely to be drunk with sugar by men (p = 0.0025), people aged up to 25–30 or
51–65 years, people with vocational education, and people living in cities with less than
10,000 inhabitants. Coffee with milk is more likely to be drunk by women (p = 0.00001),
people aged 31–40 years (p = 0.00001), people with higher education (p = 0.005), and people
living in both small and large cities. Cream is mostly added by people aged 51–65 years,
and people living in cities with 50,000–100,000 inhabitants (p < 0.05).
According to the respondents, the most important factors in a coffee infusion are
flavor (n = 1358, 90.5%) and aroma (n = 1086, 72.4%). Coffee appearance (n = 254, 16.9%)
and color (n = 264, 17.6%) are less important.
For the preparation of coffee, the respondents mainly use tap water (64.7%), using
1–2.5 teaspoons of ground coffee (54.3%) or using a coffee machine measuring cup or
capsules (13.8%) to measure the amount of coffee. The majority of respondents (80%) did
not know the coffee brewing temperature, which should be lower than 98 ◦ C, although this
information is given on every coffee package. Over 50% of the respondents did not pay
attention to the brewing time (Table 6). Thus, the study participants were not “experts” in
the field of coffee brewing.
Table 6. Respondents’ preferences for the preparation of coffee infusion.
Respondents Respondents
Preferences Preferences
n % n %
Water Used to Brewing Brewing Water Temperature
tap water from the
mains water 971 64.7 100 ◦ C 748 49.9
supply
Oligocene water 78 5.2 93 ◦ C 269 17.9
mineral water still 169 11.3 98 ◦C 453 30.2
I don’t pay
filtered water 654 43.6 30 2.0
attention to it
The amount of coffee for 1 cup Preferred coffee brewing time
“more or less” 312 20.8 <3 min 226 15.1
acc. to the
recommendations
85 5.7 3 min 267 17.8
on the coffee
package
1–1.5 teaspoons 360 24.0 4 min 114 7.6
2–2.5 teaspoons 455 30.3 5 min 82 5.5
3–4 teaspoons 59 3.9 6 min 30 2.0
5 teaspoons or I don’t pay
14 0.9
more attention to the 781 52.1
a measuring cup brewing time
for a coffee 172 13.8
machine, capsules
other 43 2.9 - - -
3.5. Characteristics of the Respondents in Terms of Choices and Habits Related to

Coffee Consumption
In order to reduce the number of variables present in the study, the agglomeration
method of cluster analysis was used. The role of this method is to create groups of questions
with very similar answers. This eliminates the variables which carry the same information,
and thus attempts to simplify and facilitate inference. The removal of these variables from
the study at the same time does not cause a significant loss of the information that was
obtained as a result of the survey. In the agglomeration method, percent discrepancy and
full bond were used as the distance measure.
The agglomeration of variables for a bond distance smaller than 0.2 was adopted as
the limit (over 80% of concordant responses). As a result, the variables in seven branches
were reduced (Figure 2). The variables in each branch are very closely related, and you can
replace them with one variable that represents them. The result of this operation was the
reduction of the number of variables by 18, with no significant loss of information carried
by them. Fifty-one variables were left for further analysis.
The agglomeration of variables for a bond distance smaller than 0.2 was adopted as
the limit (over 80% of concordant responses). As a result, the variables in seven branches
were reduced (Figure 2). The variables in each branch are very closely related, and you
can replace them with one variable that represents them. The result of this operation was
the reduction of the number of variables by 18, with no significant loss of information
carried by them. Fifty-one variables were left for further analysis.
Dendrogram
Complete Linkage Clustering
Distance: Percentage Discrepancy
1.0
0.8
0.6
Dissimilarity
0.4
0.2
0.0
5
.
4.4
4.2
5
4.1
12.4
12.1
6.6
6.8
6.4
6.3
2.9
2.6
8.4
4.6
4.3
6.7
8.3
2.8
2.3
4.5
2.2
11.6
11.1
8.2
2.1
13.8
13.10
13.2
13.3
13.1
14.5b
14.4b
14.3b
14.2b
7
13.7
13.5
13.13
13.12
13.11
13.9
13.6
13.4
Age
9
Education
10
14.4a
14.3a
14.2a
2.7
12.3
11.5
11.4
11.3
6.5
14.5a
12.2
14.1a
11.2
6.2
6.1
8.1
2.4
14.1b
1
Gender
Dwelling p.
2
Variable
Figure 2. Chart
Figure 2. Chart agglomeration
agglomeration of
of variables.
variables.
In
In the
the second
second stage
stage of
of the
the analysis,
analysis, the
the aim
aim was
was to
to create
create the
the smallest
smallest possible
possible number
number
of groups of cases (respondents)
(respondents) behaving in a similar way to each other. For this
behaving in a similar way to each other. For this purpose,
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, of
18,groups of cases
x FOR PEER REVIEW purpose,
11 of 20
the
the agglomeration
agglomeration method
method was
was used
used in
in the
the cluster
cluster analysis
analysis with
with the
the same
same assumptions
assumptions as as
for
for the
the reduction
reduction ofof variables.
variables. The
The agglomeration
agglomeration results
results are
arepresented
presentedin inFigure
Figure3.3.
In the agglomeration, the binding distance of 0.86 was assumed as the cut-off level
Dendrogram
(the red line in the diagram). The adopted cut-off value made it possible to distinguish
Complete Linkage Clustering
three groups of respondents.Distance:
The confirmation of the validity of the selection of such a
Percentage Discrepancy
cut-off
1.0 level is the bond distance diagram. The distance of the mates for which the plot
becomes the most vertical is taken as the cut-off level. This indicates large distances be-
tween successive agglomerations and suggests the emergence of natural case groups.
0.8
0.6
Dissimilarity
0.4
0.2
cluster 2 cluster 3 cluster 1
0.0
Cases
Figure 3. Chart agglomeration of cases.
The agglomeration method made it possible to determine the optimal number of re-
spondent groups. However, for the precise assignment of individual cases to each of the
three groups, further analysis of these groups was performed using the k-means method
of cluster analysis. The clusters of the following numbers were obtained: clusters of 1–295
cases, clusters of 2–709 cases, and clusters of 3–496 cases. The results of the analysis of
In the agglomeration, the binding distance of 0.86 was assumed as the cut-off level
(the red line in the diagram). The adopted cut-off value made it possible to distinguish
three groups of respondents. The confirmation of the validity of the selection of such
a cut-off level is the bond distance diagram. The distance of the mates for which the
plot becomes the most vertical is taken as the cut-off level. This indicates large distances
between successive agglomerations and suggests the emergence of natural case groups.
The agglomeration method made it possible to determine the optimal number of
respondent groups. However, for the precise assignment of individual cases to each of the
three groups, further analysis of these groups was performed using the k-means method
of cluster analysis. The clusters of the following numbers were obtained: clusters of
1–295 cases, clusters of 2–709 cases, and clusters of 3–496 cases. The results of the analysis
of variance performed for all the variables confirm the validity of the division performed.
lth 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW For almost all variables (except two), the proposed division significantly differentiates 12
the
of 20
community in a statistically significant manner. In other words, the mean values of almost
all variables are significantly different in the three proposed groups of respondents. The
values of these averages and the relations between them are shown in Figure 4.
Average values for each cluster
0
Cluster 1
2.7 4.4 6.3 9 12.3 13.4 13.9 14.1b 14.4b Wyksz
Cluster 2
Variable Cluster 3
Figure 4. Average values for all variables in three clusters.

Figure 4. Average values for all variables in three clusters.
Due to the fact that the variables are not quantitative, the obtained mean results cannot
be interpreted in terms of their value, but are only an indication of the relationship between
When buying coffee, the respondents belonging to Cluster 1 (n = 295) were clearly
the mean values. They make it possible to assess how often the values of variables appear
less influenced than others by compared
in one cluster the factors indicated
to another cluster. in Question 13. Taking into account
that in the case of the remaining questions their average answers were usually between
the answers of the other respondents, they can be characterized as people with a neutral
or even indifferent attitude towards coffee. They can be characterized as “coffee drinkers”
of habit: they like to drink coffee, but they do not mind what type. Representatives of this
On the basis of the diagram of means, it can be concluded that for Questions 1 to 12.4,
the respondents in all groups gave similar, but statistically significantly different, answers.
It can be seen that the means for Cluster 2 usually have the highest values, and the means
for Cluster 3 have the lowest values. Much larger differences are visible in the case of the
answers to Questions 13 and 14.
Based on the cluster analysis, the profiles of preferences of coffee consumers were
determined. Three profiles were identified:
1. “Neutral coffee drinkers”—Cluster 1,
2. “Ad hoc coffee drinkers”—Cluster 2,
3. “Non-specific coffee drinkers”—Cluster 3.
When buying coffee, the respondents belonging to Cluster 1 (n = 295) were clearly
less influenced than others by the factors indicated in Question 13. Taking into account
that in the case of the remaining questions their average answers were usually between the
answers of the other respondents, they can be characterized as people with a neutral or
even indifferent attitude towards coffee. They can be characterized as “coffee drinkers” of
habit: they like to drink coffee, but they do not mind what type. Representatives of this
group are women, people aged 31–40 years, people with higher education, and people
living in cities of 50,000–100,000 inhabitants. When buying coffee, these consumers do not
pay attention to the information on the packaging, the opinions of friends, presentation
on the shelf, or advertising. They drink the strongest coffee and often drink coffee from
an espresso machine; quite often they drink coffee outside the home, with friends, and
in canteens.
The respondents from Cluster 2 (n = 709) behaved differently. Their answers to
questions from the group of 14 questions indicate a much lower frequency of coffee
consumption than others. Coffee is drunk outside the home much more often than other
people. Most of the questions (except Question 13) were answered on average with the
highest value. It can be stated that they drink coffee sporadically and at the same time are
more likely to consume different types of coffee and prepared in more different ways than
others. This would indicate a randomness in coffee consumption: they drink coffee, but
without preferences to brewing method and type of coffee. They are young consumers, not
connoisseurs, who drink coffee as part of their lifestyle. This group is mainly represented
by women, people aged 25–30 years, people with higher education, and people living in
large cities (over 100,000 inhabitants).
Cluster 3 (n = 496) respondents constitute the rest of the respondents and cannot be
characterized in any unequivocal way. The average representative of Cluster 3 are women,
people aged 41–50, people with secondary education, and people living in cities with an
average size of 10–50,000 inhabitants. When buying coffee, they take into account factors
similar to the ones considered by Cluster 2 consumers, and they take them into account to
an average extent. However, these consumers rarely drink coffee outside their homes.
Concluding, Polish consumers do not show clear preferences as to the choice of coffee
and are not yet “specialists” in the field of coffee brewing, as evidenced by the answers to
individual questions, especially when it comes to brewing methods. It seems that they are
experimenting in this regard for the time being, choosing a considerable variety of coffees.
However, coffee is becoming an integral part of social life, especially among young people.
4. Discussion
4.1. Consumer Coffee Choices
The respondents indicated quality, flavor, habits, brand, and price as the most im-
portant factors affecting the purchase of coffee. Other authors also highlighted these
factors [51,84,85]. Numerous studies confirm that the main motive for drinking coffee, and
thus the main factor for the purchase of coffee by consumers, is its flavor and aroma, and
the feeling of pleasure when consuming it [50,52,57,68,77,86–90], as well as the atmosphere
in which coffee is consumed and the emotions that accompany the consumer while drink-
ing it [77]. Other factors include social recognition of the value of coffee and its stimulating
“magic effect”, as well as its physical impact on the body, e.g., the ability to aid digestion or
increase blood pressure. The direct factors affecting the purchase of coffee are the price
and the quality/price ratio, reported flavor and aroma, infusion intensity, and, above all,
buying habits [77,91]. It is worth mentioning that consumers are also interested in buying
coffee with “health claims” [77].
Other studies, such as this, confirm that one of the factors in consumers purchasing is
coffee habits, and family traditions, which can then influence the place of consumption and
the type of coffee consumed. Coffee consumption behavior depends on culture and tradi-
tions, especially coffee drunk at home. Culture and traditions are also a source of knowl-
edge and information, and creates behavior related to coffee consumption [56,57,60,64,77].
Samoggia and Riedel [77] report that consumers for whom flavor, pleasure, tradition,
and habits are the main factor in purchasing and reason for drinking coffee do not con-
sider its beneficial effects on health. On the other hand, if they make a purchase without
accompanying emotions, they are more likely to discover new product [77].
In the selection of coffee brands available on the market, the respondents in this study
chose typical brands known on the European market—Tchibo, Jacobs, Lavazza, Nescafe,
MKCafe, and Maxwell House—which is probably related to their greater promotion and
advertising, which affects customers, although respondents did not indicate this factor as
decisive for the purchase of coffee. This confirms the results obtained by other authors [51].
The results imply that young respondents significantly more often choose speciality
coffee. Similar results indicate Lewin et al. [92], but van der Merwe and Maree [63] found
that is no significant relationship between age and speciality coffee consumption. Only a
few respondents in this study choose decaffeinated coffee, similar like other authors [60].
4.2. Respondents’ Habits Related to Coffee Consumption

The results we obtained regarding the place of coffee consumption from the respon-
dents are consistent with other data from Poland [51,74], and in other countries like
Denmark, Sweden, Norway, UK, France, Greece, Spain, and Italy [60]. Home and work are
the most popular places to drink coffee. A significant percentage of people participating
in this study also mentioned cafés (61.5%) and canteens (45.8%). Such a high proportion
of coffee consumption in catering establishments is probably related to the specifics of
our research group, which included people aged 18–65 years who were professionally
active or studying. Such people are associated with a more mobile lifestyle, possibility of
drinking coffee in a café or for a social occasion, and also are more likely to drink their
first coffee at home and another one at the workplace. The data from the “Poland on a
plate” report [93] confirm this findings, while other data indicates that only 5–6% of Poles
drink coffee in catering establishments [51,74]. According to Euromonitor International
Coffee [61], the leading factors driving the growth of the coffee market are innovation in
the field of consumption outside the home. The other authors [56] report that consumers
who drink coffee in cafés associate coffee with the attributes of happiness and joy, as well
as companionship and stable interpersonal relationships.
Coffee drinking at home is an intimate, private activity, ensuring personal comfort
and the opportunity enjoy the experience [56]. The preferences of coffee consumption, both
at home and outside, being related to age and social status, are also indicated by other
authors [66,67,94,95]. People under 35 years of age are more likely to drink coffee in a
café, while middle-aged and older people (>65 years old) drink coffee at home [94,95] or
at work [67]. The reason for drinking coffee during a break at work may be the desire to
improve mental and physical fitness (functional benefits of drinking coffee), as well as
establishing social contacts with colleagues from work (consumption behavior facilitating
social integration) [68].
Findings reveal that, 76.8% of respondents drink coffee every day: once, twice, or sev-
eral times a day. People aged 51–65 years consume coffee once a day. Other authors [51,63]
point to a similar relationship. Elderly people usually limit daily coffee consumption
probably due to their health [94–96].
4.3. Methods of Preparing and Serving Coffee Chosen by Respondents

Finding a relationship between the preferred types of coffee or preparation methods
is difficult as they may be dependent on the traditions, culture, and customs of each
country [57].
More than half (50.9%) of the respondents choose easy-to-prepare instant coffee.
Most people (90.6%) reported drinking espresso. Consumers also willingly to choose
cappuccino (84.1%) and iced coffee (76%). This is related to the way coffee is prepared by
the respondents. Results reveal that, the respondents choose coffee made with hot water in
a cup (89%), coffee from an espresso machine (77%), and coffee from a drip coffee maker
(61%). The popularity of pressure brewing method [97], and methods without the use of an
espresso machine, i.e., alternative brewing methods are also indicated by other authors [98].
Consumers choose the easy, quick way of preparing coffee, as evidenced by the increase
in sales of capsule coffee machines, which can also be observed in Poland. They have
attracted the interest of consumers thanks to ease of use and convenience, including easy
dosing, as well as the low prices of the coffee machine [66,99].
In Poland, new trends have also been identified in the preparation of cold brew
coffee, which is drunk by nearly 13% of respondents. The trend is becoming popular
worldwide, as is the interest in consuming coffee outside the home and reducing caffè
mocha consumption [94,95].
Findings reveal that, for over half of the respondents (55.6%), the method of brewing is
not important, although this is an important stage in the preparation of coffee. Pre-infusion,
also known as “blooming”, takes place within the first 30 s after pouring a small amount of
water onto the ground coffee beans [80]. The duration of coffee brewing and the ratio of
coffee to water depend on the brewing method and machine [100].
The sensory quality of coffee infusions, especially creating aroma, is influenced by
many factors, the time passed since roasting of the beans [80,101]. An important aspect in
the coffee preparation process is brewing, including use the water, which has an optimum
pH of 7.0 (the acceptable range of pH is 6.5–7.5). In this study, 64% of respondents use tap
water to make coffee. It is worth mentioning that the water pH value affects the coffee
taste [80]. In order to improve water quality, filters can be used to reduce water hardness
and remove chlorine and organic pollutants, but only 43% of our respondents use filtered
water for brewing coffee.
In order to obtain a high sensory quality in coffee, the water temperature for brewing
should be 91–96 ◦ C [81]. Immersing coffee in boiling water may lead to bitter infusions [80].
Almost half (49%) of our study participants prepare coffee in this way, and 2% do not pay
attention to water temperature, which may also be associated with irregularities in this
regard. Coffee infusions prepared in the temperature range of 88–93 ◦ C are characterized
by a balanced astringency and bitter taste, appropriate “crema” color, and well-balanced
aroma intensity. The infusion that is prepared is also characterized by appropriate density
and taste, as well as a sufficiently high concentration of caffeine [102]. A temperature of
water below or above than mentioned, effect on coffee infusion quality [103–107]. Some of
the new methods of brewing coffee are performed at temperatures below 25 ◦ C and this
methods require a longer extraction time [108].
Coffee can be drunk on its own or with milk, sugar, condensed milk, and others
additives. The preparation method and additives affect consumer coffee choices [109].
Respondents added different additives to coffee. Almost half of respondents drunk coffee
with sugar, and about 70% drunk coffee with milk. According to Landais et al. [60] coffee
and tea have a high contribution to sugar daily intake.
4.4. Characteristic of Coffee Consumers Based on This Study

Based on the results, it can be concluded that Polish consumers do not display the
characteristics of coffee connoisseurs, but are rather experimenting with coffee. They do
not have clear preferences regarding the choice of coffee or specialist knowledge of coffee
preparation. It should be emphasized that greater knowledge leads to preferences for

different types of coffee [110].
Polish consumers consume coffee more often at work than in other places outside
home, driven by the stimulating benefits of drinking coffee—improving mental and physi-
cal fitness, the opportunity to take a break, and the social aspect. Interestingly, habits can
be the key factors influencing coffee consumption—where it is consumed, types of coffee,
preparation methods, which is related to the cultural context and traditions of consumers.
A country’s traditions and culture can influence both the occasion and the location of coffee
drinking. In countries where a tradition of coffee consumption has developed, such as Italy,
Brazil, or the USA, the habits of coffee consumption will be different than in Poland.
Limitations
There are some study limitations. The results come from a convenient sample, focused
on Poles. The study did not include the group of people over 65 years of age, who in
Poland usually do not have computer access or Internet access, or have low computer
literacy skills. For this group, access via the Internet is more difficult and it is harder to
collect data. At the same time, coffee consumption in Poland is the greatest in the over-65
age group. Another limitation is that the consumers of coffee were from only one country.
5. Conclusions
The results of the conducted study suggest that the main factors influencing coffee
consumption are sensory quality (flavor and aroma), functional (stimulating) motives,
habit factors, and socialization motives.
Polish consumers choose coffee because they like its flavor and the pleasure they
experience while consuming it. They also drink coffee because of its functional benefits,
wanting to enjoy the energizing effects. The least important factors influencing the choice
of coffee by consumers are packaging, in-store displays, advertising, and health aspects.
Failure by consumers to pay attention to the information on the packaging may result in
a lack of knowledge about the origin of the coffee and the use of fair trade practices by
the producer. This failure is also associated with improper preparation of coffee, with
particular emphasis on the correct water temperature and the right dose of coffee.
The respondents mainly choose instant coffee, ground roasted coffee, and roasted
coffee beans. Few people choose low-acid or decaffeinated coffee, which may indicate that
consumers drink coffee for its flavor and also for the stimulating effect of caffeine, and also
that health aspects are not important to them.
The conducted cluster analysis allowed for the identification of three groups (clusters)
of respondents drinking coffee. They were classified as “Neutral coffee drinkers” (1), “Ad
hoc coffee drinkers” (2), and “Non-specific coffee drinkers” (3). Cluster 1 were people
drinking coffee mainly out of habit, not overly concerned with the type or method of prepa-
ration. They were mainly women aged 31–40, living in medium-sized cities, and drinking
coffee from an espresso machine, which may indicate a preference for the stimulating prop-
erties of coffee. Consumers representing the second cluster drink coffee occasionally and,
at the same time, are more likely to consume different types of coffee, and prepare it with
different methods. They were young people with higher education, living in large cities,
treating coffee as a lifestyle, consuming it mainly outside the home, but with little frequency.
The third cluster includes the remaining respondents who cannot be characterized clearly.
To conclude, it can be stated that the Polish coffee consumer prefers conventional
methods of brewing coffee (he/she is a “traditionalist”), but is also open to novelties and
the search for new sensory experiences.
The results of the study can be helpful for coffee cafe owners, retailers, and suppliers
of coffee, as well as coffee makers sellers, all of whom aim to adapt to changing consumer
habits. Identified factors that influence consumers’ coffee choices and methods of coffee
preparation, and pointed consumer habits related to coffee consumption may allow to
understand the consumer-making process. A consumer segmentation could be helpful to
provide marketing activity among proper consumer group, and can be interesting for other
populations to cross-cultural comparison.
It would certainly be worth repeating our study after the COVID-19 pandemic is
over. It may be an interesting idea to study the impact of remote working mode on
the purchase and use of home coffee machines, as well as evaluation the behavior of
consumers consuming coffee in cafes. Further research directions may concern coffee
cold brewing, especially among consumers who are open to innovation. It would be
interesting to investigate the multisensory perception and cross modal relationships of
potential coffee consumers.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.C.-S.; methodology, E.C.-S., M.P., and P.S.; investigation,
E.C.-S., M.P., P.S., and R.K.-G.; data curation, E.C.-S. and T.O.; writing—original draft preparation,
E.C.-S., M.P., P.S., and R.K.-G.; writing—review and editing, E.C.-S.; visualization, T.O.; supervision,
E.C.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education within
funds of Institute of Human Nutrition Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS) for
scientific research.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The respondents were free to participate in the research.
Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, due to the research was non-invasive (survey
on internet panel) and details the participants remained undisclosed, the research does not fall within
the remit of the Helsinki Declaration. The data were collected by CAWI method.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this article is available on reasonable request,
from the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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International Journal of

2. Materials and Methods

Table 1. Questionnaire structure.

Question Answer Options

Question Answer Options

2.2. Data Collection

2.3. Characteristics of Respondents

Table 2. Characteristics of the surveyed sample of respondents.

2.4. Data Analysis

3.2. The Frequency and Place of Coffee Consumption

Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20

Figure 1. Frequency of consumption coffee

smallest differentiation of respondents’ assessments was obtained in the Convenience and

Table 4. Factors affecting coffee purchasing.

The Importance of the Factor *

3.4. Preparation Methods and Types of Coffee Drunk by Respondents

Table 5. Preparation methods and types of coffee beverages by respondents.

Table 6. Respondents’ preferences for the preparation of coffee infusion.

3.5. Characteristics of the Respondents in Terms of Choices and Habits Related to

cluster 2 cluster 3 cluster 1

Figure 3. Chart agglomeration of cases.

Average values for each cluster

Figure 4. Average values for all variables in three clusters.

4.2. Respondents’ Habits Related to Coffee Consumption

4.3. Methods of Preparing and Serving Coffee Chosen by Respondents

4.4. Characteristic of Coffee Consumers Based on This Study

preparation. It should be emphasized that greater knowledge leads to preferences for

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