HE/IE 732 DAM ENGINEERING III – APPURTENANT STRUCTURES

Shaft Spillways
Introduction
The shaft spillway is simply a closed conduit in which the flood flow is carried rapidly from a high
to a low elevation. It is similar to a siphon spillway except for the absence of siphon action.
Spillways of this general type are used not only for dams (where they are commonly known as
morning glory spillways or glory holes), but also for erosion-control structures and as highway
culverts (commonly known as drop-inlet spillways or drop-inlet culverts). This type of spillway can
be used advantageously at dam sites in narrow canyons where the abutments rise steeply or
where a diversion tunnel or conduit is available for use as the downstream leg. Another
advantage of this type of spillway is that near-maximum capacity is attained at relatively low
heads and this characteristic makes the spillway ideal for use where the maximum spillway
outflow is to be limited. For this reason, they are most suited where temporary storage space in
the reservoir is large enough to significantly attenuate the incoming flood.

Types of Shaft Spillways

Shaft spillways are classified according to hydraulic action.
I. Spillways with axial flow in the shaft as well as in the downstream leg or tunnel.
Different combinations of flow conditions are possible:
A. Free flow in the shaft as well as in the tunnel.
B. Free flow in the shaft and pressure flow in the tunnel.
C. Pressure flow in the shaft and free flow in the tunnel.
D. Pressure flow in both, the shaft as well as in the tunnel.
II. Spillways with vortex or swirling flow in the shaft and axial flow in the tunnel.
III. Spillways with axial flow in the shaft and swirling flow in the tunnel.
IV. Siphon-shaft spillways.

Shaft Spillways with Axial Flow

The principal elements of a shaft spillway are an intake including spillway crest, transition from
the crest to the shaft, the bend, and the downstream leg, and a tunnel and energy dissipator, as
shown in Figure 1.

Although, most of the shaft spillways have their intakes with a crest of circular plan form and
cylindrical shafts, rectangular plan forms are not uncommon. Shaft spillways with arrangement of
double shafts, to increase the discharge capacity, have also been constructed.

Elbow type shaft spillways, as shown in Figure 2, can be conveniently constructed, where
topography does not permit radial inflow conditions.

Figure 1 Elements of a shaft spillway.

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Figure 2 Shaft spillways of other shapes.

Hydraulic Action

Typical flow conditions and discharge characteristics for a shaft spillway with axial flow
are depicted in Figure 3.

Generally, a free weir flow prevails over the crest for Ho/Rs up to about 0.45, partly
submerged weir flow for Ho/Rs values between 0.45 and 1.0, and above this value the
weir is completely submerged and the coefficient of discharge sharply falls.

Since it is impractical to construct a conduit with varying diameter, it is generally made a

constant size beyond the inlet formation. Thus, the conduit from the control point to the
downstream end will have an excess area. If atmospheric pressure can be maintained
along the portion of the conduit flowing partly full, it will continue to flow at that stage up
to certain discharge.

As the discharge over the crest increases, the overflowing annular nappe becomes
thicker and converges into a solid vertical jet. The point where the annular nappe joins
the solid jet is called the crotch. After the solid jet forms, a boil occupies the region

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above the crotch and both the crotch and the top of the boil rise progressively higher
with an increase in the discharge. For high heads, the crotch and boil may almost fade
out as a slight depression on the surface.

Figure 3 Flow conditions and discharge characteristics (USBR)

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With the increase in the discharge, submergence of the crest begins and the control
section moves gradually from the vertical bend to the throat, reaching finally a
relationship Q= f(Ho1/2). The onset of this condition is unstable and often violent, marked
by severe pressure fluctuations.

For a still higher discharge, if the condition of pipe flow is reached, both the inlet and
outlet ends may be sealed and siphonic action may set in. The discharge function is then
given by Q=f(Ht - Hl). If air vents are not provided, or if aeration is inadequate, a make-
or-break siphon action will accompany the flow with a range of discharges approaching
full flow conditions. Erratic discharge vibrations and surges accompany this action. It is
therefore necessary to ensure at the design stage what the expected hydraulic action is
for the entire range of discharges and to provide for them. This becomes all the more
obligatory when the existing diversion tunnels are utilized as downstream legs of the
shaft spillway.

Analysis of Alternatives
As discussed earlier, shaft spillways with axial flow in the shaft, as well as in the tunnel,
have four possible alternatives: free flowing shaft with tunnel flowing free or pressurized,
and pressurized shaft with tunnel flowing free or pressurized. The decision whether the
tunnel should be free flow or pressurized is crucial.

Whether to design the tunnel as free flow or pressure flow should be based on the
influence of the parameters such as total head (H), tunnel slope (i), and its length (L).
For this analysis, H is greater than 13–15 m, slope i may be supercritical or sub-critical,
and length L is considered to be long when hydraulic jump stays out for the tunnel for
30% design discharge and above. Generally, straight and short tunnels, steep
slopes, existing large cross sections, and flat and low tail waters favor a free flow
tunnel; whereas long and curved tunnels, existing small cross-sections, and high
and sensitive tail waters lead to the selection of a pressure tunnel. Table 1
indicates preferences for various combinations of H, i, and L.

FREE SHAFT SPILLWAYS

Shaft spillways for flood disposal that have a relatively short length of the tunnel should
preferably be designed as free shaft spillways. Commonly the free flow condition in the
shaft spillway comprises two reaches: the shaft itself and the tunnel. For low flows, weir
control may exist and the shaft may run free, whereas for high flow the shaft may be
pressurized while the tunnel remains in free flow condition for the entire range of
discharges. Generally, the tunnel section is selected so that it will not flow more than 75
to 80% full at the downstream end for the maximum discharge. Under this condition, air
will access from the downstream portal and prevent sub-atmospheric pressure in the
tunnel. However, vertical or horizontal curvatures in the tunnel profile have to be
designed so that sealing along any portion is avoided.

The shaft spillways where both the shaft and tunnel run free flow involve the following
design considerations:
-Crest profile
-Transition from crest to shaft
-Discharge characteristics
-Air entrainment in shaft
-Air entrainment in tunnel flowing partly full

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Crest Profile
The crest profile of a morning glory intake conforms to the lower surface of a nappe
flowing over an aerated sharp crested circular weir for various combinations of P/Rs and
Hs/Rs as shown in Figure 4. Rs and Hs are with reference to the theoretical sharp crest.
The head over the spillway crest Ho is considered for calculating discharging capacity.
Ho is related to Hs, Rs, and P.

The converging flow over the crest is influenced by head Hs, radius Rs, and height of the
crest P, and is so complex that a generalized mathematical equation defining the complete
profile—as in the case of straight ogee spillway—has not been possible. USBR have
compiled data in tabular form, in respect of coordinates of crest profiles for values of P/Rs =
0.15, 0.30, and 2.0, and Hs/Rs of 0.2 to 2.0 based on a study by Wagner (1956). Use of these
tables requires relationship between Ho and Hs, as shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4 Crest profile of a morning glory spillway intake: P =Height of the crest above the bed, Rs = Radius
of the crest circle, and Hs =Total head above the theoretical sharp crest.

In contrast to the crest profiles of straight spillways, where the profiles become flatter
with increasing heads, the crest profiles for circular weirs become steeper as the head
increases, as can be seen from Figure 5.

If the crest profile is designed for heads where Hs/Rs exceed 0.25–0.30, sub-atmospheric
pressures will occur on some portion of the profile for heads less than design head. If

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this is to be avoided, crest profile should be designed corresponding to an increased

radius R′s as per the graph given in Figure 6 and with H′s/R′s =0.3.

Figure 6 Increased crest radius needed to minimize sub atmospheric pressures. (USBR)

Values of coordinates that define the shape of the lower surface of a nappe flowing over
an aerated sharp-crested circular weir for various conditions of P/Rs and Hs/Rs are shown
in tables 2, 3, and 4. These data are based on experimental tests conducted by the US
Bureau of Reclamation. The relationships of Hs to Ho are shown on figure 8.

Transition from Crest to Shaft

The circular crest should converge to the shaft; the shaft’s diameter would generally be
the same as the diameter of the downstream leg or tunnel. USBR proposed a transition
on the basis of continuity equation, considering the flow as a free falling, circular jet
issuing from a horizontal orifice. Thus, Q = Area of the jet x Velocity of the jet, i.e.,
Q= πR 2 2gH a , where Ha is the difference between the water surface and the elevation
under consideration. Assuming losses to account for contraction, friction, etc. as 10% of
the head

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(1)
A similar criterion has been proposed that the velocity head should be lower than the
total available energy at a given point, to prevent separation and instability and hence

-------------------------------------(2)
Which is nearly the same result as given by Equation 1.

The curve R = f(Ha) for the design discharge is plotted along with the crest profile and
the transition is adjusted for the shaft diameter.

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Discharge Characteristics
The discharge characteristics of the crest (Fig. 4) is defined by the circular crest
coefficient Co as

--------------------------------------------------------------------(3)
C0 depends on Ha/Rs and P/Rs. The experimental discharge coefficients for design head
on spillway crest H0 have been published by USBR on the basis of studies by Wagner
(1956). These curves transformed in SI units are shown in Figure 7(a). It will be seen
that C0 increases with reduction of approach depth P, in contrast to straight spillways.

Coefficient of discharge for heads other than the design head can be determined from
Figure 7(b), for preparing the discharge-rating curve. However, this relationship is valid for
the crest profiles free of sub-atmospheric pressures, i.e., for profiles designed based on
radius according to Figure 6 and for Hs /Rs= 0.3. It is also not applicable for He / Rs > 0.4.

Figure 7 Discharge characteristics based on studies by Wagner (1956): Curves shown – – are extrapolated (USBR).

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Figure 8 Relationship of Hs/H0 to HO/Rs for circular sharp-crested weirs (USBR).

Illustrative Examples
1. Design a shaft spillway to pass a design discharge of 410 m3/s, without exceeding the
depth of overflow of 2.35 m. Assume P/Rs=0.3.
Solution
The design involves a trial method. The calculations begin with an assumed value of radius of the
crest circle and finding the discharge corresponding to Ho=2.35 m.

Starting with an assumed value of Rs=5m, Ho/Rs=0.47 gives a coefficient of discharge of 1.96,
corresponding to P/Rs=0.30.
Q = C0 (2πRs )H 0 2 =222,
3
which is much less. With Rs=10 m, Ho/Rs = 0.235, Co=2.16 and
3
Q=489 m /s, indicating a larger than required radius.

Finally, Rs= 8.5 m gives Ho/Rs=0.276,Co=2.15 and Q = 414 m3/s, which is acceptable.

For working out the coordinates of crest profile, the value of Hs/Rs is required. For Ho/Rs=0.276
and P/Rs=0.3, Hs/Ho=1.085 (Figure 8). Thus, Hs=2.55 m and Hs/Rs=0.30. Accordingly, the crest
profile worked out is shown in Figure E1. The coordinates corresponding to Hs/Rs=0.20 are also
plotted therein for comparison.

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Figure E1 Illustrative example.

The profile of the transition is given by Equation 1:

A shaft diameter of 3m is indicated as shown in Figure E1.

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Table 2. Coordinates of lower nappe surface for different values of Hs/Rs when P/Rs= 2.0.

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Table 3. Coordinates of lower nappe surface for different values of Hs/Rs when P/Rs= 0.30.

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Table 4. Coordinates of lower nappe surface for different values of Hs/Rs when P/Rs= 0.15.

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Air Entrainment in Drop Shafts

Air entrainment and air release in the axial flow shaft spillways and drop shafts are the
most important, yet complicated, design problems. Air entrainment in drop shafts occurs
when the flow strikes the water column in the lower portion of the shaft, regardless of the
type of intake whether radial, elbow, or vortex.

The air entrainment mechanism is closely related to the type of flow conditions in the
shaft and has been schematically illustrated in Figure 9. At the beginning of overflow
with low water levels, the discharge characteristics are similar to a weir control and the
flow in the shaft clings to the walls as a relatively thin sheet. The volume flow rate of air
is determined by the shear action of the air-water interface and by entrainment into the
mass of water. This type of flow has been designated as Region I. The quantity of air
entrained increases with discharge and with the increase in discharge, a point is reached
when the sheet of water is sufficiently thick to completely seal the air passage at the
lower end of the shaft.

Figure 9 Flow condition in the shaft

This water discharge separates Region I from Region II. This type of flow is
characterized by an annular hydraulic jump. Further increase in the discharge merely
causes the location of the jump to move upward in the vertical shaft. The quantity of air
entrained then decreases with discharge. When the jump reaches a point near the top of
the shaft, the flow is said to become submerged. For reservoir elevations in excess of
that required to produce the submerged water flow, inflow of air to the shaft ceases, if no
air-entraining vortices occur. This is Region III where the discharge is similar to a pipe
flow.

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The air flow rate for region I is calculated assuming that the water flow on the shaft walls
is similar to open channel flow, and the lower end of the shaft is accessible to
atmosphere. The relationships are derived based on the study on a model of a drop
shaft which ensured simulation of appropriate flow conditions of Region I.

------------------------------------------------------------------(4)

-------------------------------------------------------------------------(5)

-----------------------------------------------(6)

-------------------------------------------------------(7)

Flow characteristics of region II are similar to that of a ring jump and the application of
the following relationship is suggested.

------------------------------------------------(8)
In region III, the shaft is under submergence and the airflow down the shaft ceases.
According to USBR (1973), this condition corresponds to H0 / Rs ≥ 1. No air
entrainment will take place if an air-entraining vortex does not form. With the fully
submerged condition, no air-entraining vortex will form so far as the approach flow is
radial. However, for an approach flow having some circulation, a vortex may form with
undesirable effects such as air entrainment, vibration, loss of performance, etc. A
number of investigators have suggested the required submergence for ensuring
absence of air entraining vortices. There is considerable variation in their results. The
S/d values range from 0.20 to 4.0 for F varying from 0.1 to 0.8. The results are believed
to be influenced by the approach configurations and scale effects.

A relationship applicable only for radial flow is given below,

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------------------------------------------------------------------(9)

Experiments with other models yield a similar relationship

-----------------------------------------------------------(10)
A reasonably conservative estimate of the submergence can be given by
--------------------------------------------------------------(11)
In order to ensure radial flow, at least in the vicinity of the crest, guide piers and vanes
on the crest profile are usually provided, as shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Guide piers to ensure radial flow

PRESSURE SHAFT SPILLWAYS

Designing shaft spillways, or drop shafts with long tunnels, or tunnels on curved
alignment for free surface flow may be difficult and prove to be uneconomical. In such
cases, alternatives of pressurized tunnel may prove to be advantageous.

In a pressure shaft spillway, the tunnel is permanently flowing full, the shaft itself may be
or not pressurized. The advantages of such a condition are:

- The flow conditions are less dependent on the tail water-rating curve, which is
not the case with the free shaft spillway.
- The flow conditions are more tranquil and average velocities are significantly
lower than those for the free flow tunnel. For the free tunnel these may be as
high as 35 to 40 m/s, in the pressure tunnel, the practical limit is in the range of
16 to 18 m/s and yet require smaller tunnel cross section for the same discharge.

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Some of the disadvantages are:

- The main problem is to tackle air entrainment, or rather de-aeration, to avoid
difficulties described in Section 8.3.1 earlier.
- Tunnel cross-section has to be fully concrete lined and designed for pressure
flow.
- Energy dissipators tend to be more expensive.

Devices to Ensure Pressurized Flow in the Shaft

If the shaft is not flowing full, hydro-pneumatic phenomena may occur and disturb the
flow at the tunnel. Special devices are suggested at various locations that force the
formation of a stationary water column in the shaft, with the minimum height required, to
significantly reduce the air discharges and mass oscillation. Some of these are:

These are shown in Figure 11. It must, however, be noted that such devices cause
additional head loss which may require further enlargement of cross-sections of shafts
and tunnels to meet the design capacities. The optimum solution for a specific case must
be obtained through hydraulic model studies.

Figure 11 Devices to ensure pressurized flow in the shaft: (1) Special shape of the bell mouth
entry, (2) Chute blocks on the shaft mouth, (3) Siphon at the base, (4) short radius bend, (5) T-
transition, (6) Nozzle, and (7) Stilling basin with diving flow.

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