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THERMAL
PROCESSING OF
METALS
Dr. Aneela Wakeel
16-01-2018
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Binary phase diagram (Types of invariant

reactions)
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Time Temperature Transformation

Diagram

Review
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Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

➢ TTT diagram is a plot of temperature versus the logarithm of time for a
steel alloy of definite composition.
➢ It is used to determine when
transformations begin and
end for an isothermal heat
treatment of a previously
austenitized alloy.

➢ TTT diagram indicates when

a specific transformation
starts and ends and it also
shows what percentage of
transformation of austenite
at a particular temperature
is achieved.
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Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

➢ Depending on the type of heat treatment, time and temperature, final

microstructure of the steel, or any Iron carbon will be changed and so does
the properties.

Martensite
T Martensite
Strength

Ductility

Bainite
Fine Pearlite
Coarse Pearlite
Spheroidite
General Trends
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Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:

Iron-carbon alloy
with Eutectoid
(0.76 % C)
composition.

❑ A: Austenite
❑ P: Pearlite
❑ B: Bainite
❑ M: Martensite
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Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
Example 1:

➢ Iron-carbon alloy with

eutectoid composition.

➢ Specify the nature of the

final microstructure (%
bainite, martensite, pearlite
etc) for the alloy that is Bainite,
subjected to the following 100%
time–temperature
treatments:

➢ Alloy begins at 760˚C and

has been held long enough
to achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.

➢ Treatment (a)
➢ Rapidly cool to 350 ˚C
➢ Hold for 104 seconds
➢ Quench to room temperature
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Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
Example 2:

➢ Iron-carbon alloy with

eutectoid composition.

➢ Specify the nature of the

final microstructure (%
bainite, martensite, pearlite
etc) for the alloy that is
subjected to the following
time–temperature
treatments:
Austenite,
➢ Alloy begins at 760˚C and 100%
has been held long enough
to achieve a complete and
homogeneous austenitic
structure.

➢ Treatment (b) Martensite,

➢ Rapidly cool to 250 ˚C 100%
➢ Hold for 100 seconds
➢ Quench to room temperature
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Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) Diagram:
➢ Example 3:
Austenite,
➢ Iron-carbon alloy with eutectoid
100%
composition. Almost 50% Pearlite,
50% Austenite
➢ Specify the nature of the final
microstructure (% bainite,
martensite, pearlite etc) for the
alloy that is subjected to the
following time–temperature
treatments: Bainite, 50%
➢ Alloy begins at 760˚C and has
been held long enough to achieve
a complete & homogeneous
austenitic structure.

➢ Treatment (c)
➢ Rapidly cool to 650˚C Final:
➢ Hold for 20 seconds 50% Bainite,
50% Pearlite
➢ Rapidly cool to 400˚C
➢ Hold for 103 seconds
➢ Quench to room temperature
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Heat Treatment
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Heat Treatment
➢ Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used
to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material.
The most common application is metallurgical.

➢ Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to

extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as hardening or
softening of a material.

Heat treatment techniques include:

➢ Annealing,
➢ Case hardening,
➢ Precipitation strengthening,
➢ Tempering, and
➢ Quenching.
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Purpose of Heat Treatment

➢ The various purpose of these heat treatments is to:

1) Relieve Internal stresses developed during solidification,

machining, forging, rolling or welding,
2) Improve or restore ductility and toughness,
3) Enhance Machinability,
4) Eliminate chemical non-uniformity,
5) Refrain grain size, &
6) Reduce the gaseous contents in steel.
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H eat Treatment
Annealing:
➢ Annealing involves heating the material to a predetermined temperature
and hold the material at the temperature and cool the material to the room
temperature slowly. The process involves:

1) Heating of the material at the

elevated or predetermined
temperature
2) Holding the material (Soaking) at
the temperature for longer time.
3) Very slowly cooling the material
to the room temperature.
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Annealing: Process Annealing

➢ In this treatment, steal (or any material) is heated to a temperature

below the lower critical temperature, and is held at this temperature for
sufficient time and then cooled.

➢ Cooling rate is of little

importance as the process is
being done at sub critical
temperatures.

➢ The purpose of this

treatment is to reduce
hardness and to increase
ductility of cold-worked steel
so that further working may
be carried easily.
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Annealing: Process Annealing

➢ This process is extensively used in the treatment of sheets and wires.

➢ Parts which are

fabricated by cold forming
such as stamping,
extrusion and drawing are
frequently given this
treatment as an
intermediate step.
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Annealing: Stress Relieving

➢ As the name suggests, this process is employed to relieve internal
stresses. No microstructural changes occur during the process.

➢ Internal stresses are those stresses which can exist within a body in the
absence of external forces. These are also known as residual stresses are
locked-in stresses.

➢ These stresses are developed in operations like:

Solidification of castings, welding, machining, grinding, shot peening,

surface hammering, cold working, case hardening, electroplated coatings,
precipitation and phase transformation.
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Annealing: Stress Relieving

➢ These internal stresses under certain conditions can have adverse effects:
example: Steels with residual stresses under corrosive environment fail with stress
corrosion cracking.

➢These stresses also enhance the tendency

of steels towards warpage and dimensional
instability.

➢ Fatigue strength is reduced considerably

when residual tensile stresses are present
in steel.

➢ The problems associated with internal

stresses are more difficult in brittle
materials than in ductile materials.
Stress – Corrosion Cracking
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Annealing: Stress Relieving

➢ The process of stress relieving consists of heating materials uniformly to a
temperature below the lower critical temperature, holding at this temperature for
sufficient time, followed by uniform cooling.
➢ Uniform cooling is of utmost
importance as non-uniform cooling
will itself result in the development of
internal stresses. Thus the very purpose
of stress relieving will be lost.
➢ Plain carbon steels and low alloy
steels generally temperature is limited
to 600 oC. Higher temperature is used
for high alloy steels.
➢ The extent of the stresses relieved
depend upon the temperature employed
and holding time.
Stress – Corrosion Cracking
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H eat Treatment
Annealing: Normalizing
➢ Normalizing is similar to full annealing, except steel is generally cooled
in still air.
➢ The normalizing consists of
heating steel to about 40-55 oC
above critical temperature
(Ac3 or Accm), and holding for
proper time and then cooling
in still air or slightly agitated
air to room temperature.

➢ In some special cases,

cooling rates can be controlled
by either changing air
temperature or air volume.
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H eat Treatment
Annealing: Normalizing
➢ After normalizing, the resultant micro-structure should be pearlitic.

➢ Since the temperature involved

in this process is more than that
for annealing , the homogeneity
of austenite increases and it
results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
➢ Results in better dispersion of
ferrite and Cementite in the final
structure.
➢ The grain size is finer in normalized structure than in annealed structure.
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Annealing: Normalizing
➢ Normalized steels are generally stronger and harder than fully annealed
steels.

➢ Steels are soft in annealed

condition and tend to stick during
machining. By normalizing, an
optimum combination of strength
and softness is achieved, which
results in satisfactory level of
Machinability in steels.

➢ Normalizing is the effective

way to eliminate the carbide
network.
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Annealing: Normalizing

➢ Normalized treatment is frequently applied to steel in order to achieve

any one or more of the objectives, namely:

➢ To refine the grain structure,

➢ To obtain uniform structure,
➢ To decrease residual stresses,
➢ To improve Machinability.
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H eat Treatment
H ardening:
➢ Hardening and Hardness are two very different things. One is a process
of heat treatment and other is a extrinsic property of a material.

➢ Hardening is a heat treatment

process in which steel is rapidly cooled
from austenitising temperature. As a
result of hardening, the hardness and
wear resistance of steel are improved.

➢ Hardening treatment generally

consists of heating to hardening
temperature, holding at that
temperature, followed by rapid cooling
such as quenching in oil or water or salt
baths.
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H eat Treatment
H ardening:
➢ The high hardness developed by this process is due to the phase
transformation accompanying rapid cooling. Rapid cooling results in the
transformation of austenite at considerably low temperature into non-
equilibrium products.
➢ The hardening temperature depends on chemical composition. For plain
carbon steels, it depends on the carbon content alone. Hypoeutectoid steels
are heated to about 30 – 50 oC above the upper critical temperature, whereas
eutectoid and hyper eutectoid steels are heated to about 30 – 50 oC above
lower critical temperature.

➢ Ferrite and pearlite transform to austenite at hardening temperature for

hypoectectoid steel. This austenite transforms to martensite on rapid
quenching from hardening temperature. The presence of martensite
accounts for high hardness of quenched steel.
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Hardening:
➢ Hardening is applied to cutting tools and machine parts where high hardness and
wear resistance are important.
➢ The Process Variables:

Hardening Temperature: The steel should be heat treated to optimum austenitising

temperature. A lower temperature results lower hardness due to incomplete
transformation to austenite. If this temperature is too high will also results lower
hardness due to a coarse grained structure.

Soaking Time: Soaking time at hardening temperature should be long enough to

transform homogenous austenite structure. Soaking time increases with increase in
section thickness and the amount of alloying element.

Delay in quenching: After soaking, the steel is immediately quenched. Delay in

quenching may reduce hardness due to partial transformation of austenite.
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H eat Treatment
H ardening:
➢ The main purpose of hardening tool steel is to develop high hardness.
This enables tool steel to cut other metals. High hardness developed by
this process also improves wear resistance. Gears, shafts and bearings.
Tensile strength and yield strength are improved considerably y hardening
structural steels.

➢ Because of rapid cooling, high

internal stresses are developed in
the hardened steel. Hence these
steels are generally brittle.
Hardening in general is followed
by another treatment known as
tempering which reduces internal
stresses and makes the hardened
steel relatively stable,
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Phase diagram of Al-Cu for precipitation

hardening
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Heat Treatment
Tempering:
➢ Hardened steels are so brittle that even a small impact will cause
fracture. Toughness of such a steel can be improved by tempering.
However there is small reduction in strength and hardness.

➢ Tempering is a sub-critical heat

treatment process used to improve
the toughness of hardened steel.

➢ Tempering consists of reheating

of hardened steel to a temperature
below Lower critical temperature
and is held for a period of time, and
then slowly cooled in air to room
temperature.
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Tempering:
➢ At tempering temperature, carbon atoms diffuses out and form fine
cementite and softer ferrite structure left behind. Thus the structure of
tempered steel consists of ferrite and fine cementite.

➢Thus tempering allows to precipitate

carbon as very fine carbide and allow the
microstructure to return to BCC.

➢ The temperatures are related to the

function of the parts. Cutting tools are
tempered between 230 – 300 oC. If greater
ductility and toughness are desired as in case
of shafts and high strength bolts, the steel is
tempered in the range of 300 – 600 oC.
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Heat Treatment
Tempering:
➢ Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.

➢ Depending on temperatures, tempering processes can be classified as:

1) Low- temperature tempering

(150 – 250 oC),

2) Medium – temperature
tempering (350 – 450 oC),

3) High – temperature tempering

(500 – 650 oC).
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Tempering:
➢ Tempering temperatures are usually identified by the colour. Tempering
temperatures for tools and shafts along with temper colors.
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Heat Treatment
Quenching:
➢ Quenching is a process of rapid cooling of materials from high
temperature to room temperature or even lower. In steels quenching
results in transformation of austenite to martensite (a non-equilibrium
constituent).

➢ During cooling, heat must be extracted at

a very fast rate from the steel piece. This is
possible only when a steel piece is allowed
to come in contact with some medium which
can absorb heat from the steel piece with in a
short period.

➢ Under ideal conditions, all the heat

absorbed by the medium should be rejected
to the surroundings immediately.
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Quenching:
➢ The removal of heat during quenching is complex in the sense that heat
is removed in three stages.

1) Vapor Blanket,

2) Nucleate Boiling,

3) Convection.
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Quenching:
➢Vapor Blanket (stage 1)
As soon as the work-piece comes into contact with a liquid coolant
(quenchant), the surrounding quenchant layer is instantaneously heated up
to the boiling point of the quenchant and gets vaporized due to the high
temperature of the work- piece.
➢ This acts as an insulator, preventing
the quenching oil from contacting the
metal surface. As a consequence, the rate
of cooling during this stage is slow.

➢ At this stage the work piece is cooled

only by conduction and radiation
through the vapor film.

➢ Only the surface is cooled

considerably prior to the formation of
vapor envelop.
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Quenching:
➢Nucleate Boiling (stage 2)
This second stage is also called as transport cooling stage or liquid
boiling stage. The temperature of the work-piece comes down, through
very slowly and the vapor blanket is no longer stable and collapses.
➢ Metal surface comes into contact with the liquid/
quenchant. Violent boiling quickly removes heat
from the quenched component while forming
bubbles and being pushed away, resulting in the
cooler fluid coming into contact with the work
piece.

➢This happens till the temperature of the work

piece comes down to the boiling point of the liquid.

➢ Maximum cooling rate is achieved during this

stage.
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Heat Treatment Unit 5
Quenching:
➢Convection (stage 3)

The third stage is called as the liquid cooling stage or the convection stage.

➢ I starts when the temperature of the

surface becomes equal to the boiling
point of the quenchant.

➢ Cooling at this stage takes place via

conduction and convection processes.

➢ The rate of cooling is the slowest at

this stage.
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Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium

➢ Quenching medium has the profound effect on the final phase of the
material. Quenching medium is directly related to the rate of the cooling
of the material.

➢ Some of the widely employed quenching media are water, aqueous

solutions, oils (mineral, vegetable and even animal oils), molten salts and
air.
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Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (Water)

➢ Water has maximum cooling rate

amongst all common quenchants
except few aqueous solutions.

➢ It is very cheap and easily disposed

off compared to other quenchants.

➢ Hence water is used for carbon

steels, alloy steels and non-ferrous
alloys.

➢The layer if scale formed on the

surface during heating is also broken
by water quenching, thus eliminating
an additional process of surface
cooling.
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Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (OIL)

➢ Most of the Oils used as quenchants

are mineral oils. These are in general
paraffin based and do not possess any
fatty oils.

➢ Quenching in oil provides slower

cooling rates as compared to those
achieved by water quenching.

➢ The slower cooling rate reduces the

possibility of hardening defects.

➢ The temperature difference between

core and the case of work piece is less
for oil quenching than for water
quenching.
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Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium (AIR)

➢ Many alloy steels are capable of
getting hardened by cooling either in still
air or in a blast of air.

➢ Such steels are popularly known as air

hardening steels.

➢ These steels are almost free from

distortion problem. However, the
problem of oxidation during cooling
(quenching) may be encountered in
practice. Many grades of tool steels are
subjected to air hardening.

➢ Cooling rates can be improved by

mixing air and water.
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Heat Treatment - Steel

Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium :
➢Just the drastic water quench generates a fully martensite structure.

➢ Although quenched in oil the austensite converts into suitably fine pearlite.

➢ Accurate pearlite also results if the austenised eutectoid steel is air-cooled.

➢ Though, if allowed to cool in furnace coarse pearlite is appearance.

Cooling Structure UTS Y. S. Hardness Elongation %

Media (N/mm2) (N/mm2) (Rc) (50 mm g. L)

Water Martensite 1700 - 65 Low

Oil Troostite 1100 550 35 5

Air Fine pearlite 850 270 25 8

Furnace Coarse pearlite 520 140 15 12

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Heat Treatment
Quenching: Effect of Quenching Medium

Coarse Pearlite

- Smaller T:
colonies are
larger

Fine Pearlite

- Larger T:
colonies are
smaller

Figure: Microstructure resulting

from Different Cooling Rates
Applied to Austenitized Samples of
Eutectoid Steel
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Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening:
➢ In many situations hard and wear resistance surface is required with the
tough core. Because of tough core the components can withstand impact
load. The typical applications requiring these conditions include gear
teeth, cams shafts, bearings, crank pins, clutch plate, tools and dies.

➢ The combination of the these properties can be achieved by the

following methods:
➢ 1. Hardening and tempering the surface layers (surface hardening)
(i) Flame Hardening (ii) Induction Hardening

➢ 2. Changing the composition at surface layers (chemical heat

treatment or case hardening)
(i) Carburising (ii) Nitriding (iii) Carburising and Cyaniding
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Surface Hardening: Flame Hardening

➢ The flame hardening involves heating the surface of a steel to a
temperature above upper critical point (850 oC) with a oxyacetylene flame
and then immediately quenched the surface with cold water.

➢ Heating transforms the structure of surface layers to austenite, and the

quenching changes it to martensite.
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Surface Hardening: Flame Hardening

➢ The surface layers are hardened to about 50 – 60 HRC. It is less expensive
and can be easily adopted for large and complex shapes.

➢Flame hardened parts must be tempered after hardening. The tempering

temperature depends on the alloy composition and desired hardness.

➢ The flame hardening methods are suitable for the steels with carbon
contents ranging from 0.40 to 0.95% and low alloy steels.
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Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Induction Hardening
➢ Induction hardening involves placing the steel components within a coil
through which high frequency current is passed. The current in the coil
induce eddy current in the surface layers, and heat the surface layers upto
austenite state.

➢ Then the surface is immediately quenched with the cold water to

transfer the austenite to martensite. The principle of induction hardening
is:
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Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Induction Hardening
➢ Advantages of induction hardening over flame hardening is its speed
and ability to harden small parts; but it is expensive. Like flame
hardening, it is suitable for medium carbon and low alloy steels.

➢Typical applications for induction hardening are crank shafts,

connecting rods, gears and cylinders.
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Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Carburising
➢ Carburising is carried out on a steels containing carbon less than 0.2%.
It involves increasing the carbon contents on the surface layers upto 0.7 to
0.8%.
➢ In this process, the steel is heated in contact with carbonaceous material
from which it absorbs carbon. This method is mostly used for securing
hard and wear resistance surface with tough core carburising is used for
gears, cams, bearings and clutch plates.
2 CO → C + CO2
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Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Carburising
➢ The Following methods are used to diffuse carbon into
surface layers:
1) Pack (solid) Carburising,
2) Gas Carburising,
3) Liquid Carburising.

Liquid Carburising

Gas Carburising
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Heat Treatment
Surface Hardening: Nitriding
➢ Nitriding involves diffusion of nitrogen into the product to form nitrides.
The resulting nitride case can be harder than the carburized steel. This
process is used for alloy steels containing alloying elements (Aluminum,
Chromium and Molybdenum) which form stable nitrides.

➢ Nitriding consists if heating a component in a retort to a temperature of

about 500 to 600 oC. Through the retort the ammonia gas is allowed to
circulate. At this temperature the ammonia dissociates by the following
reaction.
2 NH3 → 2N + 3H2
➢ The atomic nitrogen diffuses into steel surface, and combines with the
alloying elements (Cr, Mo, W, V etc) to form hard nitrides. The depth to
which nitrides are formed in the steel depends on the temperature and the
time allowed for the reaction. After the nitriding the job is allowed to cool
slowly. Since there is no quenching involved, chances of cracking and
distortion of the component are less.
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Surface Hardening: Nitriding

➢ The depth of nitrided case ranges from 0.2 to 0.4 mm and no machining is
done after nitriding.

➢ Nitriding increase wear and corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of

the steel. Since nitriding is done at low temperature, it requires more time
than carburising, and also the capital cost if the plant is higher than
carburising.
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Heat Treatment Unit 5
Surface Hardening: Cyaniding
➢ Similar to carbonitriding, cyaniding also involves the diffusion of carbon
and nitrogen into the surface of steel. It is also called liquid carbonitriding.
The components are heated to the temperature of about 800 – 900 oC in a
molten cyanide bath consisting of sodium cyanide, sodium carbonate and
sodium chloride.

➢ After allowing the components in the bath for about 15 – 20 minutes, they
are quenched in oil or water. Cyaniding is normally used for low-carbon
steels, and case depths are usually less than 0.25 mm.

➢ It produces hard and wear resistance surface on the steels. Because of

shorter time cycles, the process is widely used for the machine components
subjected to moderate wear and service loads.

➢ The process is particularly suitable for screws, small gears, nuts and bolts.