Physics Practical Manual

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL
Physics practical manual for secondary schools
Mbogocian
0768738249/0620241910 Page
TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Introduction to physics practical……………………………………….......................0
1.1. Meaning of data………………………………………………………………………0
1.2. Meaning of graph…………………………………………………………………...1-2
1.3. Hints of graph………………………………………………………………………2-4
1.4. Uses of graph…………………………………………………………………………5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0. Mechanics……………………....................................................................................6
2.1. Acceleration due to gravity with simple pendulum…………………………….....6-19
2.2. Principle of moments………………………………………………………….....20-32
2.3. Density of materials ……………………………………………………………..33-40
2.4. Acceleration due to gravity with spiral spring ………………………………......41-50
2.5. Young‟s modulus………………………………………………………………...51-57
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. Light…………………………………………………………………………………58
3.1. Reflection of light………………………………………………………………..58-73
3.2. Refraction of light………………………………………………………………..74-75
3.2.1. Glass block……………………………………………………………………76-102
3.2.2.. Triangular glass prism………………………………………………………103-108
3.2.3. Refractive index of liquids…………………………………………………..109-114
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. Electricity………………………………………………………………………115-117
4.1. Verification of ohm‟s law……………………………………………………...117-121
4.2. Determination of internal resistance (r) and Electromotive force of a cell…….121-130
4.3. Determination of unknown resistances of material…………………………….130-132
4.4. Resistivity………………………………………………………………………133-144
4.5. Meter bridge……………………………….…………………………………...145-164
4.6. Potential meter………………………………………………………………….165-179
4.7. Potential divider………………………………………………………………...180-186
Revision questions and source of errors……………………………………………..187-202
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0. PRACTICAL
Is the process of translating a virtual idea into a real activity.
1.1. DATA
These are information collected from the practical work
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The experimental results can be divided into two types
i. Recorded value results.
ii. Calculated value results.
RECORDED VALUE RESULTS
Recorded value results are results that measured and recorded during the experiment.
In order to plot a graph reasonable accuracy, the least number of readings needed are five for
a straight line graph. Also readings should be evenly spaced (altered in regular steps) over the
range required. Recorded value results are given in a form of table of values.
EXAM PLE: In simple pendulum experiment, recorded value results are the measured length
of a pendulum (l) and the time of oscillation.
Length L (m) Time t for 50 osc(s) Period T(s) T2(s2)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
CALCULATED VALUE RESULTS

Calculated value results are results that calculated or derived from the recorded results.
Calculated value obtained by calculation from a given formula.
Example: In simple pendulum experiment, the value of gravitation acceleration, g may be
calculated from a given equation
√ ⁄
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1.2. GRAPH
Is the diagram which used to summarize the data obtained or collected from the practical so
as to draw a lowest conclusion.
GRAPH OF AN EXPERIMENT
A graph of an experiment drawn from recorded results. The aims of plotting the graph are;
i. To show any general connection between the two quantities plotted.
ii. To provide the way of finding the best estimate of true connection of quantities.
iii. To produce a means of averaging the results.
TYPES OF GRAPH
The main types of graph plotted are
i. straight line graph,
ii. A curve.
I. A STRAIGHT-LINE GRAPH
A straight line graph has general equation y = mx + c where y and x are dependent
variable and independent variable respectively, m is a slope (gradient) of a graph and
c is the y-intercept of the graph.
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II. A CURVE
General equation of a curve;

Y = k xn Let the index (exponent) be any value n, the general equation of a curve is Where k
is constant of proportionality of quantities y and x, n is any integer. It is usual to find some
method by which a straight line can be plotted to have the slope and intercepts in order to
have physical significance meaning. The usual method is to take the logarithms in both sides.
Y = k x n,
Log y = log (kx)n
Log y = log k + n log x
Since the variables are x and y .Then
Log y = n log x + log k
Compare with y = mx + c.
It is seems that a graph of log y against log x should be straight line with gradient n and
intercept log k on the vertical axis (log y).
1.3. HINTS OF GRAPH

The following are hints when drawing or plotting a graph.
TITLE OR HEADING.
A title must be in capital letter and must be underlined
Write a title or heading in Ink
Examples
i. THE GRAPH of Sin i AGAINST Sin r.
ii. THE GRAPH of T2 AGAINST l
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SCALE
In order to get a good and under stable scale some must know the nature of the graph. The
nature of graph depends on slope/gradient of relation intercepts.
A graph with positive slope and positive y-intercept- y = mx + c
 A graph with positive slope and zero intercept. y = mx
A graph with positive slope and negative y – intercept .y =mx-c
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A graph with negative slope and positive intercept . y = -mx + c
But choose a simple scale division (using one, two, five or ten divisions). Example
Horizontal scale; 1cm: 5 sec or 1cm represents 5 sec. Don‟t WRITE as 1cm = 5cm,
Vertical scale, 1cm: 10cm or 1cm represents 10cm.
NOTE:
In choosing the scale, make sure that you choose appropriate scale so that the drawing
(graph) must be large enough to fill the space.
AXIS
i. Draw the axis in pencil‟s
ii. Label the axis in ink, showing the quantity (values) and their units.
iii. Mark the axis in ink.
NOTE:
The number marked should be ≥100 (rather than using 0.001 it will be 1.0 x 103)
POINTS
Plot the points in pencil using a dot inside a circle or cross + in the position of the
point. Since reading may have an error .Not good practice to use a single dot (.) or x
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IN DRAWING
When drawing a straight line. Use a transparent ruler through clear points. For points
which diverged from clear line, are left up and down the line in the approximately
equal space.
SLOPE (GRADIENT).
Slope =
The slope shows the way in which one variable changes relative to another. The slope
of a graph often has a physical significance.
NOTE:
In finding the slope of a graph, always use the largest convenient length of straight
line, so that percentage error is reduced to small value as possible.
Remember to give the units of gradients.
INTERCEPT:
The Intercept often has a physical significance.
1.4. USES OF GRAPH

The shape of the graph gives the physical relation of quantities. The straight line
graph gives the directly proportional between the two quantities. The curve gives
inversely proportional of quantities.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0. MECHANICS
Is the science which deals with physical energy and force and their effects on an objects. In
mechanics for ordinary level the following substance may be applied
i. Simple pendulum bob
ii. Hook‟s law
iii. Strength of the material
iv. Density
v. Strength of materials (Young modulus)
2.1. SIMPLE PENDULUM

Is a small heavy body suspended on an extensible string? It is used to study
i. The effects of acceleration due to gravity
ii. Energy change (P.E and K.E).
CASES
DETERMINATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
The main aim of the experiments with bob is determine the acceleration due to gravity. But
the experiments are differing from one set up of another. Also the set-up of the experiment is
analyzed from the following mother formula
√ ⁄
Where T is a periodic time which is a time taken for a bob to completer one
oscillation
Period is a time taken for oscillating body to complete one oscillation
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QUESTIONS
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity using a
simple pendulum. You‟re provided with a thread, pendulum bob, metre rule, cork,
retort stand and a stop watch or stop clock.
i. Hang the pendulum bob on one end of 100-cm length of thread and clamp the
other end firmly on the retort clamp using cork. The clamp should be fixed at
the edge of the laboratory bench as shown in side and front view diagrams
below clamp
ii. Pull the pendulum bob aside at a small angle so that it swings with small
amplitude. Find the time t for 20 oscillations
iii. Repeat this procedure with the lengths of thread of 80cm, 60cm, 40cm and
20cm and 10cm
iv. Tabulate your results including the column of period T (second) and T2
Length L (m) Time t for 50 osc(s) Period T(s) T2(s2)

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
v. Plot a graph of T2 against lengths of the thread L(m)
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vi. Find the slope of the graph
L
vii. Using the relationship T= 2 Find the value of acceleration due to gravity
g
g
viii. State all possible sources of errors in this experiment and state the
precautionary measures that are to be taken in order to reduce the effect of
those error
2. Your provided with meter ruler, retort stand, thread, bob and stop watch
i. Set experimental diagram and measure the length of thread of 100cm
ii. Pull the pendulum bob aside at a small angle so that it swings with small
amplitude. Find the time t for 10 oscillations. Repeat this procedure with the
lengths of thread of 90cm, 80cm, 70cm, 60 and 50cm.
iii. Tabulate your results including the column of period T (second) and T2
Length L (m) Time t for 50osc (s) Period T(s) T2(s2)

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
(a) Plot the graph of lengths L(m) of the thread against T2

(b) Find the slope of the graph
L
(c) Using the relationship T= 2 Find the value of acceleration due to gravity g
g
(d) State all possible sources of errors in this experiment and state the precautionary
measures that are to be taken in order to reduce the effect of those errors
3. The aim of this experiment is to find the acceleration due to gravity g and the ratio Q
defined in part (d) by using a simple pendulum
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i. Suspend the pendulum bob with its upper part of the string fixed on a retort
clamp as shown in fig.1 below. Make a knot N at a distance of b =10cm from
the bob B. While X is the distance between the point of suspension S to a knot
N on the string
ii. Set X=60cm and pull the bob aside at a small angle so that it can start
swinging vertically
(a) Record the time t for 30 oscillations of the pendulum bob

(b) Repeat the above procedure for the values of X= 50, 40, 30, 20 and 10cm and
record all the time t for each respective oscillations and calculate the period T.
tabulate your results as shown below
A TABLE OF RESULTS
Length X (m) Time t for 20 osc Period T (s) T2(s2)
(s)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
(c) (i) Plot a graph ofT2 against X

(ii) Find a slope S of the graph
(iii) From the graph read and record the value of T2 when X =0
T2
(d) Evaluate Q where Q= S
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4 2
(e) Find the acceleration due to gravity g given that g =
S
(f) What is a physical meaning of Q
(g) State all possible sources of errors in this experiment and state the precautionary
4. You are required to determine the height of the laboratory bench and the acceleration
due to gravity g. Proceed as follows;
(a) Tie one end of the pendulum bob to the pendulum bob and fix the other end of the
thread to the edge of the bench with a small nail keeping the height from floor to the
pendulum bob as h = 20cm
As shown in fig 1
(b) Displace the pendulum through a small angle to one end and set it to oscillate with
small amplitude. Record the time for 30 oscillations hence determine the period T for
one complete oscillation
Increase the height h above the floor by 10cm interval such that you obtain four other values
of h and repeat the procedure in (b) above
(c) (i) Tabulate your results
(ii) Plot the graph of T2(y- axis) against h (x- axis)
(iii) Determine the slope of the graph and find the acceleration due to gravity g using the
relation
4 2 h 4 2 H
T2   
g g
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(iv). Determine height H of the bench and give physical meaning of H
(c) State all possible sources of errors in this experiment and state the precautionary
i. From the assumption and your answer in (ii) deduce the form of the equation
governing the motion of the simple pendulum.
CASE II
In this experiment you are required to find the relationship between the length of a simple
pendulum and its period. Proceed as follows;
a) suspend a simple pendulum of length L = 150cm. displace the pendulum through a

small angle so that it swings parallel to the edge of the bench or table, determine the
time for 20 oscillations . Continue reducing the length of the pendulum by 10 cm each
time and obtain a total of six readings.
b) Record your readings in a table as shown below
Length (l) cm Log l Time (t) s Period (T) s Log T
c) Assuming that T α l, we have T = k la and taking logarithms to base ten on both sides
we get log T = a log l + log k.
ii. Plot a graph of log T (vertical axis) against log l (horizontal axis) hence determine
the values of a and k each correct to one decimal place.
iii. From your answer in (i) above write down the values of a and k each in the form
of). where b and c are integers (i.e. whole numbers
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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. The aim of the experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity you are
provided with meter rule, step watch pendulum bob, string retort stand with its constant
and wooden cork
Procedure
a) Set up the apparatus as shown below
b) Measure the distance from the table to the bob such that
c) Displace a bob in a small angle and allow it to oscillate and find the time for 20
oscillation
d) Repeat the procedures I and c) above for a value of
d(cm) t(s) T(s) T2(S2)

10
20
30
40
50
a) Plot a graph of T2 against d
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b) Determine gradient from the graph
c) Find the value of g from the relation below

4 2 h 4 2 H
T2   
g g
d) Find the value of H and its physical meaning
e) State any source of errors and its precautions

2. The aim of the experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity you are
provided with meter rule bob with string having a node (N) stop watch return stand its
extents. Procedures
(a) Arrange the apparatus and draw experimental diagram. Suspend the pendulum bob
with its upper part of the string fixed on a retort clamp. Make a knot N at a distance
of b =10cm from the bob
(b) Measure the length of “a” using a meter rule such as way that value be 60cm
(c) Displace as bob in small angle in such a way that when it will be released it escalate
to and fro motion. Record the time per 20 oscillation
(d) Repeater the procedure b and c above when the value “a” is 50cm, 40cm, 30cm,
20cm, and 10cm
(e) Tabulate your result in tabulate form in such a way that it contain period square
i. Plot a graph T2(s) against a (cm)
ii. From your graph determine slope and T2 – intercept
iii. Find the ratio between T2 – intercept and slope of a graph.
iv. What is the physical meaning of the ratio above
v. If the relation between T and a is given by b
Determine the acceleration due to gravity
3. The main aim of this experiment is to determine the acceleration due to gravity “g” at
your school. Proceed as follows:
i. Suspend a simple pendulum of length 120cm.
ii. Displace the pendulum through a small angle so that it swings in a vertical
place parallel to the edges of the bench.
iii. Determine the time for 10 oscillations of the pendulum. Reduce the length “l ”
of the pendulum by 20cm each time and obtain a total of five readings .
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iv. questions
(a) Prepare a table of results containing l (cm), Time (t) (sec), period time T (for
one oscillation) and T2 (s2) .
(b) Plot a graph of l (cm) against T2.
(c) Find the slope (s) of your graph.
(d) If T = is the equation for the motion of the pendulum. Calculate the
acceleration due to gravity of the pendulum. T2 = (39.438)
(e) Mention any three sources of error in your experiment
4. The aim of this experiment is to determine acceleration due to gravity (“g”) and the
length of a pendulum (“H”). Proceed as follow:
a) Suspend the pendulum from a fixed point. Using a retort stand such that it is a
distance of d = 10cm from the floor. „H‟ is the height of a point of suspension above
the floor.
b) Displace the pendulum through a small angle less than 10 degree to one side and
record the time „t‟ for 10 complete oscillations. This will allow you to find the
periodic time, „T‟, of one complete oscillation.
c) Vary „d‟ in the interval of 10cm to obtain five more values of „d‟ and repeat the
procedure from (b) above.
d) Tabulate your results for the values of d, t, T and T2.
e) Plot the graph of T2 against d.
i. Determine the slope of the graph
ii. Determine the intercept along the d-axis.
iii. What does the intercept along the d-axis in (ii) above represent?
iv. if T2 = -39.438[ Is the equation for the motion of the pendulum,
calculate the acceleration due to gravity of the pendulum.

v. Mention any three sources of error in the experiment.
5. Aim: To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity
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Procedure
i. Tie a thread to pendulum bob made a knot a short distance from the bob of
distance 10cm
ii. Measure and record the distance b between the knots N and bob B
iii. Adjust the value of x to be 10cm and then displace a bob to a small angle and
release so that it swing to and for with a small aptitude of vibration.
iv. Find the time for 30 oscillation and hence determine the period time for one
oscillation
v. Repeat the above procedure for the value of x 30cm, 50cm 70cm and 90cm.
vi. Tabulate the value of
(a) Plot a graph of against
(b) Find the slope of your graph
(c) If the periodic time is related to by √
I. Calculate the value of g. (acceleration due to brevity)

II. Read and record a value of x – axis intercepts
III. What is the physical meaning if x axis intercept
(d) Read and record the axis intercept y
(e) Calculate the value of b by using the value of g calculated in (d) above
(f) Show that to is related to (b) by
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6. Aim; to determine acceleration due to gravity and height H of a table using a pendulum
bob. Procedures
(a) Tie one end of the piece of thread/string provided to pendulum bob (B) and fix the
other end to be edge of the table with a pin (P) or nail so that the pendulum bob is
at a height (b) of about 10cm above the floor.
(b) Displace the pendulum bob through a small angle to one side and gently
set it oscillating. Record the time (t) taken for 15 oscillations and calculate the
periodic time T for complete one oscillation.
(c) Increase the height (b) of the pendulum bob above the floor by 10cm and repeat
the above procedure for four more reading
Question
i. Plot a graph of against b

ii. Determine
(a) The slope of the graph and hence the value of g
(b) Vertical – intercept and hence the height of the table using relation
7. The aim of this experiment is to investigate the relationship concerning the periodic
time of bifilar pendulum. Proceed as follows;
(a) Suspend the half meter rule by using threads of about 80cm each from the top of
clamps which should be about 50cm apart as shown in fig above (which is not drawn
to scale). The lower ends of the threads are looped to the rule at equal distances from
the mid-point of the rule. Record the separation X between the loops Set the
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pendulum (the rule) swinging horizontally by displacing the ends of the rule in the
opposite direction through a small angle. Determine the time t needed for 10 such
oscillations of the pendulum keeping the lengths of the thread fixed and the distance
between the clamps unchanged, are equidistance from the mid-point of the rule.
Repeat the oscillations and determine the time t for 10 oscillations. Continue this way
so that at least six different observations of t corresponding to X are obtained. Record
your observations neatly. Also record the values of periodic time T (time for one
oscillation), log 10T and log 10x
(b) Assuming that T α x n, we have T = k x n where k is a constant and n is a fraction.
Taking logarithms we obtain log 10T = n log 10 x + log 10kwith the origin at (0,0)
(c) Plot a graph of log 10T(vertical axis) against log 10x (horizontal axis) and hence
determine the values of n and k each correct to one decimal place
(d) Rounding the values of k and n, deduce the form of equation concerning the
relationship between the periodic time T and the separation x.
8. The aim of this experiment is to find the acceleration due to gravity g and the ratio Q
defined in part (d) by using a simple pendulum
 Suspend the pendulum bob with its upper part of the string fixed on a retort
clamp a retort. Make a knot Q at a distance of d =10cm from the string.
Measure length L of the string from Q to the bob.
 Set L=70cm and pull the bob aside at a small angle so that it can start
swinging vertically
(a) Record the time t for 30 oscillations of the pendulum bob
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(b) Repeat the above procedure for the values of L= 60, 50, 40, 30 and 20cm and
record all the time t for each respective oscillations and calculate the period T.
tabulate your results as shown below
A TABLE OF RESULTS
Length L (m) Time t for 30osc (s) Period T (s) T2(s2)
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
i. Plot a graph ofT2 against L

ii. Find a slope S of the graph
iii. From the graph read and record the value of T2 when L =0
T2
(h) Evaluate Q where Q=
S
4 2
(i) Find the acceleration due to gravity g given that g =
S
(j) How is d relate to Q
(k) What is a physical meaning of Q
(l) State all possible sources of errors in this experiment and state the precautionary
SOURCES OF ERRORS AND THEIR PRECAUTIONS IN SIMPLE

PENDULUM EXPERIMENT
1. ZERO ERROR
i. A zero error of a meter rule in measuring the length of a pendulum.
ii. A zero error of analogy stopwatch (if it was used) in measuring the time for
oscillation.
Precautions;
i. To measure from a zero mark of a meter rule or measure from a clear mark (eg 2 cm
mark) and subtract from the result.
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ii. To adjust analogies stop watch so that the pointer starts from a zero mark.
2. REFLEX ACTION (MIS TIMING OF THE OSCILLATION).
Precautions:
i. To use a reference mark when counting the number of oscillations
ii. To take the time for large number of oscillations rather than a few number of
oscillations.
3. PARALLAX ERROR.
i. Parallax error in measuring the length of a pendulum and a point of analogy stop
watch (If the analogy stop watch is used ).
ii. Parallax error in viewing the reference mark (fiducial mark).
PRECAUTIONS
i. To take a careful observation by viewing at right angle above the mark .
ii. If the scale is horizontal, view vertically, view vertically perpendicular to the scale
above the mark.
iii. To take careful observation in viewing a reference mark (fiducial mark).
4. INSTRUMENTAL ERROR.
i. Error due to improper calibration of a scale in a meter rule
ii. Error due to improper calibration of a scale in analogy stop watch ( if the analogy stop
watch is used) Error due to a small pulses per second in a stop watch.
PRECAUTIONS
i. To use correct calibrated meter rule.
ii. To use correct calibrated stop watch (if analogy stop watch is used).
iii. To use a stop watch of many pulses per second (eg 100 pulses per second).
5. MECHANICAL VIBRATION (SETTING ERROR)

i. The Error due to mechanical vibration of a pendulum or setting error.
PRECAUTIONS
i. Displace a pendulum gently a slightly in a small angle.
ii. To use two clamped cork pads or pieces of wood to suspend the string .
iii. To avoid wind
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2.2. MOMENT OF FORCE

Moment is the product of force and perpendicular distance.
Principle of moment state that “if a body is at equilibrium the sum of clockwise moment is
equal to the anticlockwise moment”
Consider the figure below
Clockwise moment =Anticlockwise moment

W2d2 =W1d1
Possible graph
i. Plot a graph of d1(cm) against d2(cm)
ii. Plot a graph of d2(cm) against d1(cm)
Nature of a graph, from the diagram above
W2d2 =W1d1
Make d1 as a subject
W2d2 =W1d1
y = mx
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( )
( )
( )
( )
DETERMINE WEIGHT OF THE METER RULE

It known that the weight of any beam it is found to the center of it.
The apparatus are arranged as follows
Given known mass labeled as w1, unknown mass labeled as w2
Table of results
( )
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( )
Nature of graph is a straight line passing through the origin
( )
( )
DETERMINE MASS OF METER RULE

Consider diagram below
From the diagram above

i. Plot a graph of y(cm) against x(cm)
ii. Plot a graph of x(cm) against y(cm)
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Nature of graph is a straight line with a positive slope and positive intercept
Lo = y + b………………………..i
y= x + a…………………………ii
From principle of moment clockwise moment is equal to anti clockwise moment
But
Lo = y + b
y= x + a
( ) ( )
MoLo –Moy =Wy –Wx
MoLo + Wx = Wy + Moy
MoLo + Wx = y(W+Mo)
Divide by (W+Mo) both side
⁄ ⁄
( )
Nature of graph
Questions
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1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the unknown mass you are provided with a
meter rule, knife edge mass( ) ( )
Procedure
(a) Find the balancing point of a meter rule and point a mark
(b) Arrange the apparatus as shown below
(c) Adjust a mass of 100g such
(d) Repeat the procedure above
( ) ( )
20
25
30
40
45
i. Plot a graph ( ) ( )
ii. Find a slope from your graph
iii. If the relationship between d1 and d2 given by w1d2 =w2d2. Find unknown mass
the w2
iv. State source of error and their ways to minimize them.
2. You are provided with a meter rule, known mass (m1) with 100g knife edge thin
thread
Procedure
(a) Find the balancing point of the meter rule
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(b) Arrange the apparatus as shown below
(c) Put a known mass (m) to be distance x from the end of the meter rule such that
Find the point when the ruler will balance and record the value of d1 and d2
(d) Repeat the procedure C above the value of
(e) Tabulate your result in the tabular form
(f) Plot a graph of d1(cm) against d2(cm)
(g) From your graph determine the slope (s)
(h) If the relation between d1 and d2 is given by
If w1 – is the weight of the rule find it
i) State any two source of error

Table of result
( )
5
10
15
20
25
3. The aim of this experiment in figure 1 is to determine the mass of the meter rule
provided
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a) Place the meter rule provided on the edge of a prism. Balance the meter rule and
record the value of L0
b) Hang a 50g mass on the meter rule as shown above at a point such that x=50cm move
the units it balance record the value of y when the meter rule is balanced.
c) Move the 50g mass to a position where x=10cm, 15cm, 25cm, 30cm, and
40cm.measure the corresponding value of y for each value of x when arrangement is
balanced.
d) Plot a graph of y against x
e) Determine the slope s of your graph and calculate the mass MO of the meter rule using
the relation
f) From your graph find the value of y when x = 0 and call it you. Calculate the value of
the constant 12 using the equation ( )
g) What is the physical meaning of the constant k?

h) State one source of error and one precaution to be taken in doing experiment.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the mass of a given dry cell, size “AA”
You are provided with a dry cell, a knife edge, two weights 50g and 20g and a meter
rule Proceed as follows;
(a) Locate and note the Centre of gravity C of the meter rule by balancing on the knife
edge
(b) Suspend the 50g mass on one side of the meter rule and 20g together with a dry cell
on the other side of the meter rule adjusting their position until the meter rule balances
horizontally as shown in the figure below
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(c) By fixing a = 5cm from Find its corresponding length, b from C

(d) Repeat and tabulate your results using a = 10cm, 15cm, 20cm and 25cm.
(e) Draw a graph of “a” against “b” and calculate the slope G
(f) Calculate X from equation
2. The aim of this experiment is to verify the principle of moments for parallel forces
Proceed as follows;
(a) Find the Centre of mass of a meter rule by placing it on the knife edge. Find the
balancing point and put a mark on the point using a piece of chalk (or pencil).
(b) Suspend 100gf = W2 on the 10cm length on the right from the Centre of the mass G of
the meter rule. Suspend the50gf = W1 on the left hand side of G and adjust the
position ofW1 until the meter rule balance in a horizontal position. Read and record
the length “a” and “b” in the fig above
(c) Repeat the process in (b) above with W2 on the length 12.5cm, 15.0cm, 17.5cm
20.0cm, 22.5cm and 25cm. each time record the corresponding lengths “a” in the
table below.
W1(gf) W2(gf) a(cm) b(cm) W1.a(gf-cm) W2.b(gf-cm)
50 100 10.0
12.5
15.0
17.5
20.0
22.5
25.0
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(d) (i) complete the table above

(ii) Compare the values in columns W1.a and W2.b of the above table
(iii) State the principle of moment for parallel forces
(iv) Comment on the relationship in (ii) and (iii) above
3. The aim of this experiment is to determine the density of wood. Your provided with
wooden bar, a knife and a 100g weight
Proceed as follows;
(a) Locate the centre of gravity C of the wooden bar by balancing freely about the
knife edge
(b) Suspend the 100g mass on the wooden bar as shown in the fig below; 10cm
from C adjust the position of the knife edge to get a balance
(c) Record the distance of the centre of gravity C from the knife edge as Y and
distance between the knife edge and100g mass as X.
(d) Repeat procedures (b) and (c) above by increasing the distance of the 100g
mass to 15cm, 20cm, 35cm, 40cm respectively from the centre of gravity C.
tabulate your results.
(e) Draw a graph of Y against X and calculate its gradient (G).
100
Calculate the mass (M) of the wooden bar given that gradient G 
M
(f) Measure the length  , width w and thickness t of the wooden bar and hence
calculate the density of wood given that
M
Density of wood,  
wt
4. The aim of this experiment in figure 1 is to determine the mass of the meter rule
provided
a) Place the meter rule provided on the edge of a prism. Balance the meter rule and
record the value of L0
b) Hang a 100g mass on the meter rule as shown above at a point such that x=5cm
move the units it balance record the value of y when the meter rule is balanced.
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c) Move the 100g mass to a position where x=10cm, 15cm, 25cm, 30cm, and
40cm.measure the corresponding value of y for each value of x when arrangement
is balanced.
d) Plot a graph of y against x
e) Determine the slope s of your graph and calculate the mass MO of the meter rule
using the relation
f) From your graph find the value of y when x = 0 and call it you. Calculate the
value of the constant k using the equation ( )
g) What is the physical meaning of the constant k?

h) State one source of error and one precaution to be taken in doing experiment.
5. You are provided with a meter rule, knife-edge, and two string of Length 100cm each.
And two weights W1 and W2 of Masses 50g and 100g respective 1y. Proceed as
follows
(a) Balance a meter rule on a knife edge, put a mark and write G and the balancing
pointer using a piece of chalk or a pencil. Measure and record the Length L, width
(W) and thickness (t) of a meter rule using a vernier calliper
(b) Place the meter rule on a knife edge so that a knife edge is at 60 cm of your meter
rule (see figure 1(a). suspend (W2) of 100g on into the right hand side of the knife
edge adjust W2 until the meter rule balances horizontally. Read and record length
“b” and “L” as been in figure 1(a).
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i) Suggest weight W1 of 50g on the left hand side of the knife edge at the
position 47cm and adjust weight (w2) until meter rule balances
horizontally as seen in figure 1(b) read and record the length “a” and
“b”
ii) Repeat the procedure in (b) (i) by adjusting the position of W1 to the
left at the Internal of 30cm to obtain other four (4) reading
iii) Tabulate your results in tabular form
(c) Plot a graph of “b” against “a”

(d) What is the value of the graph
(e) Calculate the slope S of the graph
(f) a) (i). Read the b intercept given that ( )
(ii). What does ( ⁄ ) represent in your graph
(iii). Calculate the value of W using the relation what does W
represent.
(a) (i). Find the value of the ration
6. The aim of this experiment is to determine the mass of wooden bar

Procedure
(a) Balance the wooden bar provided on the knife-edge and locate its centre of gravity
(G).
(b) Using a rubber band, fix one of the weight of mass (M) = 100g at one end of the
wooden bar
(c) Balance the wood bar with the attached mass and the knife edge and record the
value of „a‟ and „b‟ in centimeter in a tabular form.
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(d) Shift the weight (m = 100g) at 10cm away from one end of the wooden bar
(e) Repeat procedure (c) above to obtain new value of a and b.
And use the same table to record the new value
i. Use the formula ( ) to determine/ calculate the value of m each case
ii. From the results obtain in (i) above determine the value of m (the mass of a
wooden bar )
7. You are provided with meter rule, a knife edge, and string of Length 100cm each
weight A of masses 100gand weight B of unknown mass. Proceed as follows
(a) Locate and record the centre of gravity G of the meter rule by balancing on the
knife edge
(b) Suspend the 50g mass on left hand side at 10cm mark and adjust the position of
weight B on the right hand side of the knife edge until the meter rule balances
horizontally.
(c) Read and record the value of distance of 100g mass and weight B as a and b
(d) Repeat the procedure in 1(b) when the mass is at 15cm, 20cm, 25, and 30cm.
(e) Draw the diagram for your experiment
(f) Tabulate your results
(g) Plot a graph of “a” and “b”
(h) What is the nature of the graph?
(i) Determine the slope of your graph
(j) Use the slope to calculate the mass of B
(k) Name and state principle governing this experiment and suggest the aim of this
experiment
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SOURCE OF ERRORS AND THEIR PRECAUTIONS

1. Parallax error
i. A parallax error in measuring the length from the fulcrum (knife edge).
Precaution
i. To take careful observation in viewing the mark on scale
2. Error due to improper calibration of a scale in a metre rule.
Precautions
ii. To use proper calibrated metre rule.
3. Error due to improer weight ( or mass) of masses used.

Precautions
i. To use proper masses or weight of masses
4. Mechanical vibration.
i. Error due to mechanical vibration of a system.
Precautions
i. To put a mass / weight gently on a level or to suspend the mass gently.
ii. To avoid wind.
5. Error due to the thickness of the edge of a fulcrum (knife edge).
Precaution
i. To use a thinner or sharp edge
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2.3. DENSITY
Density is the ratio between mass of substance and its volume. The SI unit ⁄
Density is denoted by
Mathematically
( )
Cases
i. Volume against mass
ii. Mass against volume
From relation
Nature of graph
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EXAMPLES
1. You are provided with staled masses, eureka, can, water, leaker, thread and test tube
procedures
(a) Arrange the apparatus as shown below

(b) Fill the water eureka until it flow to its month and leave it.
(c) Tie a mass of 500g with a thread gently put it into a eureka can while an empty
beaker is at the mouth of a eureka can so that to correct water which will flow
after a slotted mass inserted in a eureka can
(d) Use a test tube to measure the volume of water you have collected in the beaker
(e) Repeat the procedure c) and d, above for different mass of 100g, 150g, 200g and
250 and tabulate your data in tabulate form as show below
Mass (m)g 50 100 150 200 250
Volume (cm3)
i) Plot the graph of M against V

ii) From your graph find the slope
iii) What is the physical meaning of the slope above?
iv) Write the equation which given this relationship
v) State the source of error and its way to minimize it
2. You are provided with a measuring cylinder, eureka can, Nylon thee ad, standard
messes of water procedure as follows
a) Put water into Eureka can until it just beginning of over
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b) Hold a suitable measuring cylinder under the spout and immerse a stand mass of
50g into Eureka can as shown in figure 1. Water will pass through the spout will
be collected by the measuring cylinder wait for it to drop until it starts to cease
and collected
c) Repeat the procedure in (b) for standard masses of follows
d) Tabulate your results showing the quantities as follows.
Mass(g) Volume(cm3) Mass/volume(g/cm3)

50
100
150
200
250
e) Plot a graph of mass against volume

f) State the nature of the graph
g) From your graph
i) Calculate the slope
ii) What does the slope of the graph shown
iii) What is relationship between mass and volume
iv) Establish the formula governing the experiment
h) Identify with reasons the best to the least satisfactory method of finding the
constant volume
i) State two position errors in this experiment
j) How can you minimize error
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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the volume of a glass marbles. Proceed as
follows
i. Using the rubber bands provided fix the test tubes (boiling tubes on the half meter
rule. Clamp the half meter rule as shown in the figure below
ii. Measure the radius of spherical glass marbles by using micrometer screw gauge
and the measure and record
iii. Measure out 20cm3 of water and pour it into the boiling test tube. Measure and
record height y of water in the test tube.
iv. Gently introduce one glass marble into the test tube. Measure and record the
height y and number of marbles (n)
v. Repeat the procedure above for 2,3,4, and 5 marbles. Tabulatevyour resultsof
height of y and the number of marbles (n)
vi. Plot a graph of y against n
vii. Determine the slope G1 of your graph
a) Without detaching the test tube from the half meter rule, remove the half meter
rule from the clamp and pour out the content of the boiling tube. Clamp the
meter rule as shown in the figure above
b) Measure out a volume(v) equal to 10 cm3 of water and pour it into the boiling
tube and measure and record the height h of water in the test tube.
c) Reat the procedure in (c) above for v= 20,30,40, and 50 cm3 respectively
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d) Tabulate your results

i. Plot a graph of v against h
ii. Find the slope G2 of your graph
iii. Find K= G1 G2
iv. What is the physical mearning of K
v. Comment on the value of k and M if M=4/3
vi. Mention five sources of error its precautions
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine a density of liquid (M). You are provided
with relative density bottle, measuring cylinder, liquid (M), and beam balance
Proceed as follows
i. Measure the mass of empty bottle and record it as M0. By using beam balance
ii. By using a measuring cylinder measure a volume of liquid (M) as v=10 cm 3
and poured it into a relative density bottle and measure its mass M1
iii. Repeat the procedure above for a value of v= 20, 30, 40 and 50 cm3
iv. Find the mass of liquid (M) by substract M0 from M1 i.e (M1 – M0).
v. Tabulate your results in a tabular form
vi. Plot a graph of (M1 – M0) against volume (v)
vii. Find the gradient of your graph
viii. Write down the equation which govern this experiment
ix. Comment on the slope
x. Mention at least three source of error and its precautions
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3. The aim of this experiment is to determine a relative density of liquid (R). You are
provided with relative density bottle, measuring cylinder, liquid (M),water and beam
balance. Proceed as follows
i. Measure the mass of empty bottle with its stopper and record it as M 1. By
using beam balance
ii. Using a measuring cylinder measure a volume of water as Vw =10 cm3 and
poured it into a relative density bottle and measure its mass M2
iii. Repeat the procedure above by increasing Vw to the interval of 5 cm 3 so as to
obtained five reading
iv. Find the mass of water by substracting M1 from M2 .
v. Remove water from the relative density bottle and repeat procedure (i) –(iv)
by measuring a mass of relative density bottle with liquid (R) and record it as
M3
vi. Find the mass of liquid (R) by substracting M1 from M3
vii. Tabulate your results in tabular form
viii. Plot a graph of (M3 - M1) against (M2 – M1)
ix. Find the slope of your graph
x. What is the physical significance of your slope
xi. List two sources of error and how to minimize it
4. The aim of this experiment is to determine a density of spherical glass marbles

provided by using measuring cylinder. Proceed as follows
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i. Measure the radius of spherical glass marbles by using micrometer screw gauge
and the measure and record its mass M0,using beam balance
ii. Pour some water into the measuring cylinder,measure and record initial volume
(Vo) of water
iii. Put one spherical glass marble into measuring cylinder containing water then read
the volume of water (V)
iv. Repeat the experiment from (iii) above by adding another spherical glass marbles
one at time five times
v. Tabulate your values
vi. Plot a graph of mass (m) against V-V0
vii. Find the slope (P) of your graph (vi)
viii. What is the physical significance of the slope(P) ?
ix. Calculate the value of 4/3 and call it (M)
x. Determine the value of (M0/ M) and state its physical meaning
xi. Compare the results obtained in (vii) and (x) above
xii. List down any two possible sources of error and its precautions taken in this
experiment.
5. The aim of this experiment is to determine a relative density of liquid (X). Proceed as
follows
i. Measure the mass of empty bottle with its stopper and record it as M1.
ii. Fill the bottle with liquid X then replace the stopper and wipe out any excess
liquid. Measure and content and record as M2
iii. Replace the liquid X with water, measure its and record it as M3
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Questions
a) Record your results as follows
i. Volume of R.D bottle …………….. cm3
ii. Mass of empty R.D bottle ……………..g
iii. Mass of R.D bottle full of liquid X……………..g
iv. Mass of R.D bottle full of water……………..g
v. Mass of liquid X……………………………..g
vi. Mass of equal volume of water………………g
b) Observe the R.D bottle, what is the significance of the narrow hole in the
bottle
c) Calculate the relative density of liquid X
d) What will be the density of liquid X in kg/m3
e) Mention two sources of errors and two precautions taken in this experiment.
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2.4. HOOKE’S LAW

The law state that “the tension is directly proportion to extension if an elastic limit
will not exceed”
Mathematically
CASES
Verification of Hooke‟s law
Determine of acceleration due to gravity
Determination of unknown mass
Spring constant
Extension (e), is the difference in length after force being applied to the object.
Example
Tension (T), is the force applied an object causing it to change its direction
Example
Verification of Hooke‟s law
Apparatus
Spiral spring, retort stand different slotted mass, meter rule
Mathematical formula
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Slope (s)
S=k
Physics meaning of the slope spring constant, coefficient of stiffness or
proportionality constant
DETERMINE OF A SPRING CONSTANT

From hook‟s law
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√ ⁄
( )
( )
( )
Let s= mo
( ) ( )
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Note physical meaning of s is the value of unknown mass or effective mass of spiral
spring
EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the spiral constant k, by using a spiral
spring
(a) Clamp the given spring provided and a meter rule
(b) Read and record the position of the painter on the meter rule before placing the mass
on the scale pan
(c) Place a mass, m, equal to 100g on the scale pan and record the new position of the
pointer on the meter rule
(d) Find the extension of the spring, e, in meters
(e) Remove the meter rule
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(f) Pull the scale pan downwards through a small distance and release it.
(g) Measure and record the time for twenty oscillations. Find the time T, for one
oscillations
(h) Repeat the procedures i(F) and (g) for value of m equal to 200g, 300g, 400g, and 500g
(i) Tabulate your results
(j) Plot a graph of T2 against M
(k) Find the slope S of the graph
(l) Use the slope S of the graph
Use the relation
(m) Suggest any source of errors of and one precaution taken in the experiment
Table of results
Load(g) t(s) T(s) T2(s2)
100
200
300
400
500
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the mass of a given object “B” and the
constant of the springs provided
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Set up the apparatus as shown in above with zero of the meter rule at the top of the
rule and record the scale reading, by the pointer SO
i) Plot the object “B” and standard weight (mass) w equal to 50g in the pan and
record the new pointer reading SI. Calculate the extension. E= SI – S0 in cm.
ii) Repeat the procedure in (ii) above with
a) Record your table of result in tabulate from as shown below
Load(g)
Force, Pointer reading SI (cm) extension – SI – S0
F(N) (cm)
50
100
b) Plot graph of force (Vertical axis) against extension e (horizontal) axis

c) Use your graph to evaluate
d) (d). Mass of B
e) . Spring constant k, that force, extension, constant and weight of B related
as follows F = k e – B
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. In this experiment you‟re required to the unknown mass labeled Mo using a spiral
spring. You are provided with the following apparatus. A meter ruler, retort stand
0768738249/0620241910 Page 46
with two clamps, a spring, pointer, scale pan, and masses. Arrange your apparatus as
shown in the following diagram
(a) Read and record the initial position of the pointer So while there is no any mass in the
scale pan. Add onto the scale pan a mass of 50g and note the new position S of the
pointer.
(b) Calculate the extension e = S – So.
(c) Repeat the same procedure for the rest of the masses and tabulate your results as
shown in the table below.
So = ……….cm
Mass M (gm) S(cm) e = S – So (cm)
50
100
150
200
250
Mo
(d) (i) plot a graph of mass M(vertical axis) against extension e (horizontal axis)
(ii) Obtain the slope S of your graph
(i) What does the slope represent?
2. Determine the mass of a spring and the acceleration due is gravity to by using an
oscillating mass attached is a spiral spring
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Procure as follows
i. Suspended a spring from a retort stand provide. Attend mass of 100g at the
end of the spring. Slightly pull down the mass such that it oscillates up and
down measure and record the time of 30 oscillations
ii. Repeat the procedure in (i) above by attaching mass 200g, 300, 500 and
600gm. Respectively each time measuring the time taken to make 30
complete oscillations
iii. Record your measurements in a table Shown below
Load m(gm) Time t for 30 Periodic T2(sec)2
T(sec)
100
200
300
400
500
600
(a) Plot a graph of m against T2
(b) Find the slope and the intercept on the M axis
(c) T and M as related to the equation
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Where k is the spring constant of magnitude 40/cm. use the equation are your
graph to calculate the value of the acceleration due to the gravity and the mass (m)
of the spring
3. You are provided with spiral, retort stand meter rule, 6 slotted masses of 50g optical
pin/pointer and placed as following
(a) Clamp the meter rule vertically with the zero mark on top
(b) Suspend the spring on the clamp optical pin (pointed) is its lower end with aid of
plastic/masking tape.
(c) Record the initial reading ( ) of the pointer at the meter rule
(d) Attach a 100g weight at the lower end the spring then record the new reading of
the pointer y
(e) Repeat part (L) above by adding 50g weight at a time until the total weight of the
suspended weight is 300g
(f) Tabulate your results including column of load (in Newton)
(g) Plot the graph of extension against Load
(h) What is the nature of the graph
(i) Determine the nature of the graph?
(j) From the graph, calculate the spring constant
(k) What is the aim of this experiment
(l) Give one Limitation of the experiment
(m) State the lair governing this experiment and state one of source of error one
precaution to be taken when performing the experiment
(n) The aim of this experiment is to determine to spring constant and effective the
spiral spring provided
4. Suspend the spiral spring with its Scale pan from support. Load it with mass M. Pull
the scale pan slighting below the equilibrium position and release it so that the system
executes vertical oscillations of small amplitude
i. Record the time for 20 vertical oscillation and determine the period T. Repeat
this procedure with five other different masses in steps of 20g,
ii. The period T, and the spring constant, K are related by an expression of the
form
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Where S is the effective mass of spiral spring,

iii. Plot a graph of T2 against M
iv. Using the given equation and your graph determine the quantities of K and S
5. The aim of this experiment is to determine acceleration due to gravity (g) and constant
it.
a) Set your apparatus as shown in figure below, whereby spiral spring is tied to the
clamp of a retort stand with an inextensible cotton string and height (h) should not
exceed 100cm
b) Hang mass of 100g on the lower part of the spring, Measure the corresponding
height (h) from the floor to the point of attachment of the mass.
c) Pull the mass downward and release it so that it can swing with vertical
oscillations. Measure the time (t) for 20 complete oscillations and hence determine
the period T for the motion and calculate the value of T2
d) Repeat the procedure by changing the mass to M = 150g, 200g,250g,300g,and
350g in each time record the value of the height (h) from the floor
e) Tabulate the values of M, t, T, T2
f) Plot a graph of h against T2
i. Determine the slope of your graph
ii. If h and T related through the equation
The values of g and H
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2.5. YOUNG’ S MODULUS

Stress is the force per unit area
Mathematically
The SI unit of stress is Newton per square metre (N/m2)

Strain is the ratio between change in length to its original length
Mathematically
Strain has no SI unit because it involve the ratio of the same dimension
Young‟s modulus is the ratio between stress to the strain
Mathematically
( )
The SI unit of young‟s modulus is Newton per square metre (N/m2)

Note; young‟s modulus depends on the following effects. These are
i. Stretching effect
ii. Bending effect
Stretching effect when force applied on elastic material tend to increase its size and
shape
Example rubber
( )
CASES
i. Stress Vs strain
ii. Strain Vs stress
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Note physical meaning of slope is young‟s modulus (E)

Bending effect of a meter rule
When force applied to the material which is supported either two ends or one end the
effect occurred is bending
The formula for a meter rule supported one end is given by
This is the general formula for finding the force which cause a bar to bend
Where;
I-Moment of inertia
d- Depression
E-Young‟s modulus
L-lengths
Moment of inertia (I) is a tendency of a body to resist against angular acceleration
Moment of inertia depend on the shape and cross section area of material
For rectangular material
Where;
a- Width of a meter rule
b- Thickness of a meter rule
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CASES
i. F Vs d
ii. M Vs ho-h
iii. d Vs F
From
But
( )
( ) ( )
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Change in length
i. l3 Vs d
ii. d Vs l3
( )
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EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the Young`s modulus of the material of the
meter rule provided
a) Clamp the meter rule firmly with a distance L of about 90cm. overhanging
from the bench. The free end is such that it acts as a pointer along the meter
rule clamped in the vertical position.
b) Note the scale reading, So, on the vertical meter rule when the horizontal
meter rule is not loaded.
c) Fasten the weighing pan at the free end of the horizontal meter rule with a
piece of strong thread. Add on t o the weighing pan a mass of 100g and record
the scale reading So on the vertical meter rule. Calculate the depression, D = S
– So, corresponding to the added mass.
d) Keeping the length L constant, add a series of masses from say 100g to 300g
in steps of 50 or 100g with each added mass, record S and calculate D
e) Use vernier calipers to measure the breadth b and thickness d of the horizontal
meter rule
f) Plot the graph of mass(m) against depression(D)
g) From your graph determine the slope
h) Calculate the Young`s modulus Y of the material of the rule using the formula
Where g = 9.8 ms-2
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2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the Young`s modulus of a given meter rule
Proceed as follows;
Use a vernier calipers to measure the breadth and thickness of the meter rule provided
i. Take a meter rule and fix it at its 10cm mark by means of a G clamp. Record
the height ho above the ground. Take a 50g weight (L) provided and suspend
it on the meter rule at 90cm mark using a string. Note the new height h above
the ground. Repeat the above procedure by suspending the weights of 100g,
150g, 200g, 250g and 300g from the same position, each recording the new
height h
ii. Record your reading in a suitable table and include the column for (ho - h)
iii. Plot a graph of L (load) vertical axis against (ho - h) horizontal axis
iv. From your graph find the slope G.
v. Determine the Young`s modulus Y of the wooden meter rule given that
a. Where L is the distance of point of the weight from the clamp, b is the
breadth of the meter rule and t is the thickness of the wooden meter rule
3. The aim of this experiment is to determine the Young`s modulus of a given meter rule
Proceed as follows
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a. Take a meter-rule (L) whose weight is provided and fix it at its 10cm mark by
means of a G- clamp. Record the height (do) above the ground of the 50cm
mark of the rule. Take the 50g weight provided and suspend it on the meter
rule at 50cm mark using a string. Note the length  of the rule between the
position of the clamp and the position 50g- weight. Note also the new height
(d) of the 50cm mark above the ground.(see the fig above)
b. change the position of the 50g-weight to 60cm,70cm, 80cm, 90cm and
100cm respectively and repeat the measurements as in (a) above each new
position.
c. Record your readings in a suitable table and include columns for X = do – d
and L3
d. Plot a graph of L3 (vertical axis) against X = do – d(horizontal axis)
e. Determine the slope of the graph
f. Calculate the Young`s modulus (E) using the relation : Giving your answer
in SI units X= WL3∕ 3IE Where W = 50g-weight of the rule.
b.d 3
I
12
b = width of the rule

d = thickness of the meter rule (Should be measured using the vernier callipers
provided)
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0. LIGHT
INTRODUCTION
Light: is the form of energy that causes the sensation of visions. Light ravel in a straight
path or line as the main properties of it. This path is known as a ray.
Ray: is the path taken by a light in moving from the source to another point. It is indicated
by the line with arrow to show the direction.
NOTE
If there is a collection of many rays they are known as a beam of light rays.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT
Light have got many characteristics but some of them are as follow.
i. Reflection
ii. Refraction
iii. Polarization
iv. Interference
v. Refraction
Those are some of the characteristics of light. But in physics practical work, we will discuss
two characteristics which are:
i. Reflection of light and
ii. Refraction of light.
3.1. REFLECTION OF LIGHT

Reflection of light Is the throwing back of rays of light after striking an object, but there
are some objects which can reflect light rays than the other. Example of those materials
and shine bodies they reflect light rays than others example of such materials are mirrors.
In this section of practical the mirror which is going to be discussed is that of a plane
mirrors.
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The following are thing which were going to be discoursed and make a practical on it.
These parts are:-
a. Verification of laws reflection
b. Determination of image distance
c. Verification of relationship between the angle of incidence and angle of rotation.
d. Determination of number of image into two mirrors.
A. VERIFICATION OF LAWS OF REFLECTION BY USING PLANE

MIRROR
The laws of reflection are;
The first law state that.
“The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, all lie in the same plane”
2nd law states that
“The angle of incidence ( ) equal to the angle of reflection (r)”
Terms
Incident ray, is the ray of light which strikes the shine surface?
Reflected ray, is the light ray which is bounce back when they encounter an obstacle.
Normal line is the line which is perpendicular to the ray selecting surface (mirror).
Incident angle ( ), is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal of the mirror.
Apparatus needed
Soft board, thumb pins, optical pins white papers, mirror, protractor, and ruler.
From the 2nd law of reflection
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=r
= (1) r
y=mx
Nature of the graph will have positive slope and path through the origin.
Slope (M) =
M=
But if the data will be collected well slope = 1

Conclusion
If the experiment wars done and the graph drawn to give the slope of one and
a straight line then the law of reflection will be verified
EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to verify laws of reflection your provided with, soft
board, optical pins, thumb pins, protractor ruler, plain paper and plane mirror.
a. Pin a plane paper on a soft board using thumb pins.
b. Draw a mirror line mm, across the paper and alight the mirror on it.
c. Stick a pin O into the paper so as to same as an object, 8cm from mm.
d. Sick two pins, P1 and P2 so that they are in line with the image of O as seen in the
mirror.
e. Remove the pins and mark their positions.
f. Repeat procedure C, d and e on the opposite side of O
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g. Remove the mirror. Join the points where you had stuck the paper held by pins
and extend the line to join mm, and beyond until they intersect behind the mirror.
h. Constrict the normal
i. Repeat for = 30o, 45o, 50o and 55o and find r.
j. Record your result in tabular form.
k. Plot a graph of VS r.
l. What is the size of corresponding angle r when = 20.
m. Comment on your graph.
CHARACTERISTICS OF IMAGE FORMED BY PLANE MIRROR

i. Image distance is equal to object distance
ii. The size of image is equal to the size of object
iii. The image is virtual image (not real image)
iv. The image is upright
v. The image is left-right reversal
B. DETERMINATION OF IMAGE DISTANCE FROM A PLANE

MIRROR
Image distance is the distance from the mirror to the image of the object
Magnification (M) is the ratio of image distance to the object distance
From the formula
( )
Magnification (M) = ( )
Consider diagram below,
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M=
V=MU
y=mx
Nature of the graph is straight line with positive slope and passes through the origin.
( )
Slope (m) = ( )
Slope =
NOTE:
The slope is around one (1) because the image distance will be equal to the object
distance.
EXAMPLE
1. Set up the experiment a shown in the diagram below using a plane mirror, soft board,
three pins and white sheet of paper
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i. Fix a white sheet of paper on the soft board. Draw a line across the width at about the
middle of the white sheet (MP). Draw line ONI perpendicular to MP.
ii. Fix an optical pin O to make ON = U =3cm. by using mirror holder or otherwise, fix
plane mirror along portion of MP with O in front of the mirror. With convenient
position of the eye, look into the mirror and fix optical pins A and B to be in line with
image I of the pin O
iii. Measure and record NI = V.
iv. Repeat procedure for U = 6cm, 9cm and 12cm
v. Tabulate your results as follow;
U(cm) 3 6 9 12
V(cm)
(a) Plot a graph of U against V
(b) Calculate the slope M of the graph to the nearest whole number
(c) State the relationship between U and V
(d) Write equation connecting U and V using numerical value of M with symbols U and
V
(e) From your equation give position of image when object is touching the face of the
mirror
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C. DETERMINATION OF NUMBER OF IMAGE OF TWO PLANE

MIRROR PLACED AT AN ANGLE
When two plane mirrors are placed at an angle (Q) and an object placed in front of them,
then the number of image will depend on the since of an angle between them.
Nature of the graph will be straight line, with positive slope

From the equation
CASES
i. Plot a graph of n against
( ⁄ )
Nature of the graph will be straight line, with positive slope
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Analysis from graph
Slope (M) =
Slope (M) = =
From the relation
( )
Slope (M) = 360o

Intercept (c) = -1
Other cases are

a. ⁄
From
( ⁄ )
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Nature of the graph will be straight line with positive slope and positive intercept
From the graph
Slope (M) =
Also
From the relation
Slope (M) =
b. n Vs ( )
From the relation
Nature of the graph will be positive slope with negative intercept.
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Analysis from the graph
Slope (M) =
( )
( )
c.
( )
( ) ( )
Nature of the graph will be positive slope, and positive intercept
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Slope (M) =
From the relative
( )
EXAMPLES
1. You are provided with the following resource. The plane mirrors, an optical pin a
sheet of driving paper mirror holder or office pins, of protractor, a ruler and a drawing
board.
Proceed as follows
a. Draw two lines at right angles.
b. Place the two mirror a long two lines uses the mirror holders or office pins
c. Put an optical pin at 0
Where Q= 90o
Look at the mirror to current number of images n you can see.
d. Repeat at the procedures in C above you the angles such that you obtain your more
radii.
e. Tabulate your results for the value of images, n, and
f. (i). Plot a graph of a number of images n against
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(ii). Determine the slope of the graph

(iii). Find the value of y-intercept from your graph
(iv). Using the graph derive the equation relating the number of images and
g. (i). What is the aim of this experiment

(ii).What happens to the number of images when Q=
2. Given the following apparatus, Soft board, white sheet of paper, protractor, two plane
mirrors, five optical pins and mirrors holders. Proceed as follows
a. On white sheet of paper provided draw two lines AB and BC such that the angle ABC
is equal to950 (the length of the lines AB and BC should be about equal to the lengths
of the two plane mirrors provided). Draw a line QM making an angle of 450 with the
line AB with point Q at about the middle of AB. Fix two pins P 1and P2 along QM.
Place the other pins P3 and P4 in the line with the images I1and I2 of P1 and P2 as seen
through the mirror BC.
b. Remove the mirrors and draw the lines P2P2and P3P4produced to meet at T. Measure
and record the angles QTR(y) and ABC(x).Repeat the above procedure with the angle
ABC(x) equal 1000, 1050, and 1150.
c. Tabulate your results
d. Plot a graph of y against x
e. From your graph determine
(i) The slope
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(ii) The value of x when y is equal to zero

(iii) The value of y when x is equal to zero
D. VERIFICATION OF THE RELATION SHIP BETWEEN ANGLES OF

RERACTION AND ANGLE OF ROTATION
It is known that the incident ray of light reflected on the plane mirror has equal angles
of incidence and reflection.
NOTE:
From the above relation it was show that, the reflected ray moves through an angle
twice the angle of rotation
From the figure above
Practically was shown as ,

If a graph of VS was to be draw for different values of and being obtained
from the experiment. Then the graph will be straight live passing through the origin
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Slope (M)
Also from the relation
Slope (M) = 2
QUESTIONS
1. You are provided with a white sheet paper, drawing a board, plane mirror with holder,
transparent ruler, protractor, Optical pins, office pins and Thumb pins, proceed as
follows.
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a. Place reflecting surface of the mirror a log AB-place other optical pins R and S to
appear in straight line with images of P and Q. Remove the pins R and S and join
the line ORS
b. Turn the mirror through an angle of so that its reflecting surface lie along
CD stick pins T and U to appear in line with images of P and Q join the line OUT.
Record the angle b formed by PQ and UT.
c. Repeat the experiment for
d. Tabulate your results
e. Plot a graph of against
f. Determine the slope of your graph
g. Find the reciprocal of the slope
h. What does the answer in 2(h) represent?
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the relationship between the angle of
rotation of the reflected ray from a plane mirror and the angle of rotation of the
mirror.
Proceed as follow
i. Pin the drawing paper provided to the board and draw two straight lines A1B1and
A2B2 to enclose an angle α = 100.Draw a line through O making an angle of 750
with A1B1. This represents the incident ray. Insert two pins P and Q on this line.
Place the reflecting surface of the mirror labeled M along A1B1. Place pins Rand S
to appear in line with the images of P and Q.
ii. Draw the line QRS. Remove the pins Rand S. turn the mirror through an angle α
so that its reflecting surface lies along A2B2. Sticks pins T and U to appear in line
with the image P and Q. join the line OTU.
iii. Record the angle α and β.
iv. Repeat the experiment with angle α equal to 150, 200, 250, 300 and 350. Record
your results in a table below
Angle α Angle β.
100
150
200
250
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300
350
(a) Plot a graph of α (horizontal axis) against β (vertical axis)

(b) Determine the slope of the graph
(c) From the graph, give the relation between α and β.
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3.2. REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Is the bending of light when travelling from one media to another or
Is the process by which the direction of light ray changes it passes obliquely from one
media to another.
NOTE:
For refraction to occur the two media must be of different optical density. Is the
degree to which a refractive media retards transmitted light rays.
Example of refraction
Is when the coin appears raised in the clean water when viewed due to the change of
direction of light ray at the boundary between the medium.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
i. First law of refraction of light
ii. Second law of refraction of light
First law of refraction of light
States that
“Incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane”
Second law of refraction of light / Snell‟s Law
States that
“For a particular material, the ratio 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒊0 and 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓0 is constant value called
refractive index”
The constant from Snell‟s law is known as refractive index ( )
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Refractive index between vacuum/air to any other materials is called absolute refractive
index or refractive index
Refractive index between medium to medium except vacuum/air is called relative
refractive index. For example if light passes from water to glass.
Any material has its own refractive index due to fact that each has optical density
individual
Medium Refractive Index

Diamond 2.417
Ethyl alcohol 1.360
Glass/crown 1.520
Quartz 1.553
Water(200C) 1.333
Air (at stp) 1.00029
Benzene 1.50
Glycerin 1.47
Refraction of light deal with,

i. Glass block or Rectangular prism
ii. Triangular prism
iii. Liquid (water)
3.2.1. GLASS BLOCK
I. DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX BY LAW OF

REFRACTION
The laws of refraction which will be used hear is that of Snell‟s law.
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Table of value
Graph
From
CASES
a.
b.
a.
From
Nature of the graph passing through the origin and have positive slope
( )
From the relation
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The physical meaning of the slope (m) is refractive index
b.
Nature of the graph pas single through the origin and have positive slope
( )
From the relation
( )
NOTE:
The physical meaning of the slope is the reciprocal of the refractive index
EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index of the glass block
provided. Proceed as follows;
 Place a white sheet paper on the drawing board. On top of this white paper place the
glass block with one of its largest faces top most. Mark its outline ABCD on the paper
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with a sharp pencil. Remove the block and draw a line that cuts AB normally at E and
G (call it FEG)
 Draw a line HE making an angle of incidence i =300 with EGF at O. Put the glass
block in its original position and stick the first pin P1and second pin P2along the line
HE of angle i = 300. The third and the fourth pins P3 and P4 respectively, should be
stuck on the opposite side of the block such that they appear in a straight line withP1
andP2when viewed through the side AB of the glass block. Remove the glass block
and trace the straight path taken by the ray IP3P4. Join E and I using a rule
 Measure the angle of refraction r and the calculate the value of the values sini 0and sin
r0
(a) Repeat the procedures above for an angle of incidence i= 400, 500, 600 and 700 and in
all cases calculate the value of respective Sin i and Sin r
(b) Tabulate your results as shown below
Angle of incidence i Angle of refraction Sin i Sin r
0
r
300
400
500
600
700
(c) (i) Draw the graph of sin i (y-axis) against sin r (x-axis)
(ii) Find the slope of the graph
(iii) What is the physical meaning of the slope obtained in (c) (ii) above
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2. The aim of this experiment is to determine relative refractive index of glass for light
passing from air to glass proceed as follows
a) Place a rectangular glass block flat on a drawing paper fixed on the board. Using a
sharp pencil, trace the outline of the block. Remove the block and draw the normal
line NAB. Near left end of the block
b) Draw line making an angle Ɵ= 20֯, with the surface of the block. Erect two pins P1
and P2 on this time at a suitable distance apart.
c) Replace and erect two more pins P3 and P4 at a position to appear to be on a
straight line with the other two as seen through the block. Again remove the block
and draw the complete path of the ray as shown in a figure above measure
distance BC and AC
d) Repeat procedure in b and c above for Ɵ= 35, 45, 55, and 65. Each time make
your drawing on afresh part of drawing paper
e) Record the value of Ɵ, BC, AC and calculate K=
f) Plot a graph of Cos Ɵ Vs K
g) Determine the refractive index given ռ= , the slope of the graph
h) State two sources of errors and precautions that should be taken for this
experiment
3. The aim of this experiment is to determine relative refractive index of glass for light
passing from air to glass proceed as follows
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a) Place a rectangular glass block flat on a drawing paper fixed on the board. Using a
sharp pencil, trace the outline of the block. Remove the block and draw the normal
line AOM. Near left end of the block
b) Draw line making an angle Ɵ= 20֯, with the surface of the block. Erect two pins
Q1 and Q2 on this time at a suitable distance apart.
c) Replace and erect two more pins Q3 and Q4 at a position to appear to be on a
straight line with the other two as seen through the block. Again remove the block
and draw the complete path of the ray as shown in a figure above measure
distance MN and MO
d) Repeat procedure in b and c above for Ɵ= 30, 40, 50, and 60. Each time make
your drawing on afresh part of drawing paper
e) Record the value of Ɵ, MN, MO and
f) Plot a graph of Vs Cos Ɵ
g) Find the value of G

h) Determine the refractive index given ռ= ,
i) State two sources of errors and precautions that should be taken for this
experiment
II. DETERMINATION OF CRITICAL ANGLE

Critical angle is a unique angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90 0.
Consider a diagram below
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Formula for critical angle is given as

ռ=
Sin C=ռ
Experimental diagram
CASES
i. Plot a graph of Cos Q Vs sin r
ii. Plot a graph of sin r Vs Cos Q
Nature of graph (i)
From refractive index ( ) =
But sin i = Cos Q
y=mx
Slope =
Physical meaning of slope is refractive index of glass block
Nature of the graph in (ii) above
From =
Make sin r as the subject
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Divide by both sides
y =m x
Slope =
S=
But sin c=
Slope = sin c
Where C is a critical angle
EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the critical angle C of the glass block.
Proceed as follows; Place a white sheet on the drawing board. On top of this white
paper place the glass block with one of its largest faces top most. Mark its outline
ABCD on the paper with a sharp pencil. Remove the block and draw a line that cuts
AB normally at E and G (call it FEG)
(a) Measure angle  = 300with protector. This is the angle of incidence.( angle between
AE and HE)
i. Put the glass block in its original position and stick the first pin P1 and second pin
P2
ii. along the line of angle  = 300 .The third and the fourth pins P3and P4 respectively,
should be stuck on the opposite side of the block such that they appear in a
straight line with P1 andP2when viewed through the side AB of the glass block.
Remove the glass block and trace the straight path taken by the ray IP 3P4. Join E
and I using a rule
iii. Measure the angle of refraction r0 and the calculate the value of the values Cos 
and sin r
iv. Using a fresh page repeat the same procedure (as (a) above) for values of  = 400,
500, 600, 700, and 800. Tabulate the values of  , r0, sin r, and Cos 
(b) Plot a graph of Sin r against Cos 
(c) Find the slope S of the graph.
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(d) Calculate the value of C, where S = sin C
(e) State all possible sources of errors in this experiment and state the precaution and
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the critical angle of glass block. You are
provided with rectangular glass block, an optical pin, drawing board, optical pins and
a white sheet of paper. Proceed as follow
a. Trace a rectangular glass block on the white sheet of paper fixed on the board.
Using a sharp pencil trace the outline of the block ABCD. Remove the block and
draw a normal NOn at point O on AB.
b. Draw a line starting with angle XOA=60 then 40, 20 and 0.
c. Place pins P and S Such that they appear to the line with pins X and Y when
viewed through the glass block for each case.
d. Record the values of angles CRS (ѳ) and angle NOR (Ic) respectively.
e. Tabulate your results as follows
XOA֯ Ic֯ Ѳ֯ Sin Ic Cos ѳ
60
45
35
25
0
f. Plot a graph of Cos ѳ against Sin Ic
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i. Calculate the gradient (M) of the graph.

ii. From the equation Sin C= , Calculate the value of C.
iii. Mention at least three sources of error and its precautions
III. DETERMINATION OF WIDTH OF A GLASS BLOCK

The triangle method can be used to determine the width of the rectangular glass of
block. This is done by following instructions given by the one who instruct you to do
so.
NOTE:
The refraction of light through the transparent materials depends on the width and the
thickness of the transparent medium. Consider the figure below
Consider triangle ONP
From trigonometric ratio
()
()
From eqn ….(ii)
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( )
Substitute eqn (iii) into eqn (i)
( )
But
( )
( )
But
From the diagram
NP = x
NO = w.
x=w
Where W is the width of the prism
Now experimentally x and r can be found and the result being tabulated
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( )
From the data collected, the graph can be drawn

CASES
a. x Vs tan r
b. Tan r Vs x.
a. x Vs tan r
From the relation
x= W tan r
y=mx
Nature of the graph the graph will pass through origin with positive slope.
From the graph
( )
The physical meaning of the slope is the width of the rectangular black.
b. Tan r Vs x
From the relation
Nature of the slope will pass through the origin and have positive slope
From the graph
Slope (m) = ( )
From the relation

Slope (m) =
m=
w=
Physical meaning of the slope in the inverse of the width of the rectangular prism
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EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the width of the glass block provided.
Proceed as follows;
(a) Place a white sheet paper on the drawing board. On top of this white paper
place the glass block with one of its largest faces top most. Mark its outline
ABCD on the paper with a sharp pencil. Remove the block and draw a line
that cuts AB normally at E and G (call it FEG)
(b) Draw a line HE making an angle of incidence i =300 with EGF at O. Put the
glass block in its original position and stick the first pin P1and second pin
P2along the line HE of angle i = 300. The third and the fourth pins P3 and P4
respectively, should be stuck on the opposite side of the block such that they
appear in a straight line withP1 andP2when viewed through the side AB of the
glass block. Remove the glass block and trace the straight path taken by the
ray IP3P4. Join E and I using a rule
(c) Measure the angle of refraction r0 and the calculate the value of the values GI=
x and Tan r
(d) Repeat the procedures above for an angle of incidence i = 400, 500, 600 and
700 and in all cases calculate the value of respective x and Tan r0
(e) Tabulate your results as shown below
Angle of incidence Angle of refraction GI(x) cm Tan r
i0 r0
30
40
50
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60
70
(f) Draw the graph of Tan r (y-axis) against x (x-axis)
i. Find the slope of the graph
ii. What is the physical meaning of the slope obtained in (c) (ii) above
(g) State all possible sources of errors in this experiment and state the
precautionary measures that are to be taken in order to reduce the effect of
those errors
Deviation (d) of the refracted ray is the extent to which the incident ray have deviated or bent
from its original pass. Therefore by considering this extent to which a light ray deviated from
its original pass the width of the rectangular can be determined.
From the figure above consider

Triangle OAB
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Consider triangle OBC
( )
( )
( )
Take the ratio
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
NOTE:
For different values of incidence angle, the data can be obtained experimentally and
tabulated as follow
( ( Cos r ( )
) )
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CASES
( )
a.
( )
b.
( )
a.
From the relation

( )
( )
Nature of the graph will pass through the origin with positive intercept.
From the graph
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
M=w
The physical meaning of the slope is the width of the rectangular prism
( )
b. ( )
From the relation
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
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Nature of the graph will have positive slope and passes through the origin
From the graph
( )
( )
( )
From the relation

( )
( )
( )
The physical meaning of the slope is the inverse of the width of the rectangular prism
IV. DETERMINATION OF BREADTH OF THE GLASS BLOCK

Sin A=
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Cos c=
Sin A= Cos C
But Cos c= 90-A by using concept of trigonometry
Sin2A + Cos2A= 1
Sin2A=1- Cos2A
But
Cos2A= c2/b2
Sin2A=1- c2/b2
Sin2A= - c2/b2 +1
Sin2r = Sin2A= - c2/b2 +1
So refractive index (n) =
CASES
i. Plot a graph of Sin2i against 1/ b2
ii. Plot a graph of 1/ b2 against Sin2i
n2 = Sin2i / Sin2r
n2 Sin2r= Sin2i
But, Sin2r = - c2/b2 +1
Sin2i= n2 (- c2/b2 +1)
Sin2i = - c2 n2 / b2 + n2
y = -m x + c
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Slope of the graph (S) = -c2 n2

-S = c2 n2
-S / C= a2 but C= n2
-S / n2 = c2
c= √( )
Where c is a breadth of a glass block, S is a slope, C is the intercept, n is a refractive
index of glass block
EXAMPLE
1. You are provided with the following;
 A rectangular glass block
 4 optical pins
 A soft board
 A plain paper
Proceed as follows:
(a) Place the glass block on the plain paper with one of the largest face upper most. Trace
round the glass block using a pencil as shown below.
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(b) Remove the glass block and construct a normal at B. Construct an incident ray AB of
angle of incidence, i = 20o.
(c) Replace the glass block and trace the ray ABCD using the optical pins.
(d) Remove the glass block and draw the path of the ray ABCD using a pencil. Measure
length L and record it in the table below.
Angleio L (cm) L2(cm2) 1/ 2(cm-2) Sin2 i
20
30
40
50
60
70
(e) Repeat the procedure above for the angles of incidence given.
(f) Calculate the value of L2 and 1/ 2. Record in the table
2
(g) Plot a graph of 1/ against Sin2 i
h) Calculate the gradient, S.
Given that the equation of that graph is: 1/ 2= − [1/ 2 2
] in2 i+ 1/ 2
2
(i) Determine the 1/ – intercept C and the Sin2 i – intercept B.
C = _______________________________________
B = _______________________________________
(j) Calculate the value of Q given by;
=− / ÷
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2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index of a glass block
a. Fix the plane sheet of paper provided on the soft board using optical pins
b. Place the glass block on the sheet so that the largest face is topmost as shown
figure below and trace out the outline of the glass block .
c. Stick pins P1 and P2 on the soft board in such a way that the angle of incidence is
250 and make sure that AO is less than one third of AB
d. Place pins P3 and P4 so that they may appear to be in line with P1 and P2 as
observed through the face CD of the block
e. Remove the block and trace the ray through it
f. Measure and record the distance L
g. Replace the block and repeat the procedure (c) to (f) for angle i= 350, 450, 550.
And 650
h. Tabulate your results including the value of Sin2i and 1 / L2
i. Plot graph of Sin2i against 1 / L2
j. Determine the slope(S) of your graph and intercept C1 on the Sin2i
k. Find the value of “n” from the relation n=√ and the breadth of the glass block
from the relation b= √( )
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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. You are provided with rectangular block, soft drawing board, drawing pins, optical
pin, white paper and drawing equipments. Proceed as follows
a) Fix the white sheet of paper on the drawing board, using drawing pins.
b) Put the glass block with one of its largest surface top most on top of the plane
paper
c) Trace the outline of the glass block on the paper by using a pencil. Remove the
glass block and draw a normal extending to opposite sides as show in the
figure
d) Draw a line making an angle of i =300, stick two pins ; P1 and P2 in a

reasonable distance apart on the drawn line
e) Replace the glass block on the outline and stick two pins; P3 and P4 at position
which will make all pins ; P1, P2, P3 and P4, appear to be in a straight line as
seen when observed through the glass block from the opposite side.
f) Remove the glass block and draw the complete path of the ray through the
block. Measure and record the angle of refraction and distance x
g) Repeat the procedure in (a) to (f) for i = 400, 500, 600, and 700 and record your
data as shown in table.
Block length……… Width………Thickness………
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i0 r0 Tan r x (cm)
30
40
50
60
70
h) Using data in the table
i. Plot the graph of x against Tan r
ii. Determine gradient of the graph
i) Explain what the value of the gradient means
j) State sources of errors in this experiment
k) Mention any two precautions to be taken in doing the experiment
2. You are provided with a rectangular glass block, a drawing board, four optical pins
and a white sheet of paper.
Proceed as follows;
(a) Place a rectangular glass block on the drawing paper fixed on the board. Using a
sharp pencil trace the outline of the block ABCD. Remove the block and draw a
normal NZG at a point o on AB near A.
Draw a line making an angle of incidence i of 600and erect two pins P1and P2on
this line at a suitable distance apart. Replace the glass block and erect two more
pins P3and P4at the positions which appear to be in a straight line with the other
two pins as seen through the block from side DC.
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Remove the block and draw the complete path of the ray (see fig). Measure the
angle of refraction r0
(b) (i) produce the direction of the incident ray from O to Z as shown by the dotted
line in fig above
(ii) Measure the perpendicular distance between the line OZ (direction of the
incident ray) and the emergent ray IQ at three positions Q, R and I call them d 1,
d2and d3respectively. Find the mean d of the three measurements where
d1  d 2  d 3
d
3
(c) Repeat the procedures in (a) and (b) for angle of incidence 500, 400 and 300 in each
case make your drawings on a fresh part of the drawing paper.
(d) Tabulate your results as shown below
Incident Refracted (i - Sin (i- Cos sini  r  d1 d2 d3 d
angle i angle r0 r)0 r) r cos r (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
600
500
400
300
sini  r 
i. Plot a graph of d (cm) against
cos r
ii. Determine the slope M of the graph
iii. Measure the width W of the glass block (equal to AD). Give your answer in
centimeters.
iv. How do results in (ii) and (iii) above compare
v. What do you think is the aim of the experiment
3. You are provided with a rectangular glass block, a drawing board, four optical pins
and a white sheet of paper. Proceed as follows; place a white sheet paper on the
drawing board. On top of this white paper place the glass block with one of its largest
faces top most. Mark its outline ABCD on the paper with a sharp pencil. Remove the
block and draw a line that cuts AB normally at E and G
(a) Draw a line HE making an angle of incidence i= 300 with EGF at O. Put the glass
block in its original position and stick the first pin P1and second pin P2 along the
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line HE of angle i= 300 . The third and the fourth pins P3and P4 respectively,
should be stuck on the opposite side of the block such that they appear in a
straight line with P1 andP2when viewed through the side AB of the glass block.
Remove the glass block and trace the straight path taken by the ray IP 3P4. Join E
and I using a rule. Measure angle r with protector
(b) Produce the direction of the incident ray as shown by the dotted line in fig above
and measure the perpendicular distance D between the incident ray and the
emergent ray
(c) Repeat the procedures above for an angle of incidence i = 400, 500, 600 and
700and in all cases draw the outline of the block in a same paper and calculate the
value of respective sin(i- r)and cosr0
(d) Record your results in a table below
Angle i Angle r0 D (cm) D Cos r(cm) sin(i - r)

300
400
500
600
700
i. Plot a graph of D Cos r(vertical axis) against sin( i – r ) (horizontal axis)

ii. Find the slope S of the graph.
iii. What is the significant of the slope obtained in (e) above
4. The aim of this experiment is to find the apparent thickness of a glass rectangular
block.
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a. Place a rectangular glass block on a white paper which is on a drawing board.

Trace (draw the sides of the glass block on that paper by using a pencil. Remove a
glass block and draw the line PE which meets line AB at 900 (perpendicular) see
figure above.
b. Place back glass block and stick a pin at P looking through the block (using only
one eye) from the other side of the block, stick pin Q and R to be in one straight
line with the image of P on one side of E in order to be in a straight line with the
image of P and remove the glass block after wards
c. Join point Q and R and produce that line to meet line PE at I, measure the length
IE and PE and record.
d. Repeat the procedure in (b) and (c) above by sticking pins at different position to
obtain at least four values and record them in the table
Length IE Length PE
e. Find the average length IE

f. What is the apparent thickness of a given glass block ie the average value of
length IE.
g. Give two sources of errors in this experiment
5. The aim of this experiment is to find the critical angle A of the given glass block.
Proceed as follows:
(a) Place a white piece of paper on the horizontal surface of the bench.
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(b) Place the glass block with one of its largest surface top most on top of the white
paper.
(c) Mark the outline of the glass block on the paper with a pencil.
(d) Remove the glass block and draw a line which cuts its longest sides normally at T
and D as shown in figure OP 5 above.
(e) Using a protractor, draw angles α = 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 and 800 as shown in the
above diagram.
(f) Replace the glass block in its original position and stick the first pin Q1 and second
pin Q2, along the line of angle 300
(g) Stick the third and fourth pin Q3 and Q4 respectively, on the opposite side of the
glass block such that Q3 and Q4 fall on a straight line with Q1 and Q2 when viewed
through side LM of the glass block.
(h) Remove the glass block and trace the straight path taken by the ray SQ3Q4.Using
a ruler join S and T.
(i) Measure the angle of refraction, r , then calculate the values of Cos α and
Sin r
(j) Repeat the same procedure for values of α = 400, 500, 600,700 and 800.
(k) Record your results in a tabular form for the values of α, Cos α and Sin r
Required:
i. Plot a graph of sin r against Cos α
ii. Find the slope of the graph
iii. Calculate the value of A when slope = sin A.
iv. State any sources of error and precaution taken during the experiment.
6. Show the passage of ray of light through a rectangular block of glass. You are
required to:
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(a) Measure the perpendicular distance L between the incident ray AB and emergent
ray CD for various angles of incidence i
(b) Trace the outline of the given rectangular block of glass.
(c) Construct the incident ray AB by pushing two pins P1 and P2 into the paper as
shown in fig OP6.The emergent ray CD is constructed by pushing two more pins P3
and P4 into the paper so that they appear to be in line with the images of P1 and P2
when viewed through the block. Join the appropriate pin marks and then measure L
and i
(d) Repeat this process with at least four other values for i covering a wide range of
angles of incidence, using a new drawing for each.
Required
i. Draw a graph of L against i
ii. Measure the width EF of the block and use the graph to find the value of i for
which
iii. Without using the graph, state the value of L for which, (i) i = 900 and (ii) i =
00
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3.2.2. A TRIANGULAR PRISM
Is the wedge shaped piece of any material which is transparent. A triangular prism have got
two refracting surface after the incidence ray refracted through and it will transmitted through
it and there emerge from another refracting surface. In other way we can say that it will
refried the incident ray twice a where the first side will allow the light through the prism
while the other surface will allow the light ray to emerge from the prism.
Apical angle (A) is the angle made by two refracting surface of the triangular prism
Angle of deviation ( ) is the angle which measures the extent to which the refracted
ray has deviated from its original pass of the incidence ray.
Minimum angle of deviation ( ) is the angle of deviation which occurs when the
angle of incidence result in a refracted ray that travels through the prism parallel to
the base of a prism
Aim to find the refractive index of the triangular prism by different cases
i. To determine angle of deviation
ii. To draw the graph of incidence angle against deviation angle ( ) to
determine minimum angle of deviation.
iii. To find the refractive index.
I. DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF DEVIATION ( )

The deviation angle can be found by drawing the line portaged from the indent ray and
the refracted ray. Those are some steps to be followed during the determination of
refractive index.
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Determination of angle of deviation ( )

The deviation angle can be found by drawing the line portaged from the indent ray
and the refracted ray. Then for different value of incidence angle (i) then the deviation
angle ( ) can be measured also and the data can be collected and tabulated as follow.
If the graph of against will be draw it will have a nature of as shown below.
Determination of minimum angle of deviation ( )
The minimum angle of deviation is found from the graph. This is done by drawing the
horizontal line which will touch to the minimum point of the graph drawn.
Snell’s law
( )
, where , will be obtained from the graph of against
( )
is the apical angle after tracing the edge of the prism and complete the triangle, the
apical angle will be elected and measured by the protractor
EXAMPLES
1. Consider diagram below
Procedures
i. Plate the given prism on a sheet of paper and trace its cut line.
ii. Remove the prism and construct the normal line and incident ray containing
objective pins P1 and P2
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iii. Replace the prism and mark images of P1 and P2 by using search pins P3 and P4
such that the four pins form a straight line when viewed through other side of the
prism.
iv. Remove the prism and join P3 P4 to make a complete path.
v. Construct a normal N2 at E and measure the angle d of deviation between the
incident ray and emergent ray. Repeat the above procedure for four more reading
of is 40o, 50o, 60o,70o, and 80o each time using a fresh part of the paper,
Questions
a. Tabulate the value of , e, d and d-e
b. Plot a graph of d against
c. Record D the minimum value of d.
d. Find the refractive index
e. Plot a graph of e against
f. From the graph.
g. Calculate D from D = (e+ i –A)
h. Find the refractive index
( )
Nature of the graph of (b) above
Nature of the graph of (e) above
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2. Draw the figure which shows the passage of a ray of light through a glass prism. Place
the given glass prism on a sheet of paper and trace its outline. Remove the prism.
i. Construct a normal at B and a line AB such that the angle of incidence, i is
300. Push the two pins P1 andP2 into the paper along AB and thereafter
replace the prism. Construct the emergent ray CD by pushing two more
pins P3and P4 into the paper so that they appear to be in line with the
images of pins P1 andP2 when viewed through the prism.
ii. Again remove the prism. Join the pins marked P3and P4 so that line CD
results
iii. Produce CD so as to meet ABEF at E. measure the angle of deviation d.
construct a normal at C and hence measure angle e
iv. Repeat this procedure for i = 300, 400, 500, 550and 650. Note that a
separate diagram should be drawn for each value of i
v. Tabulate the values of i, e, d and (d-e)
(a) Plot a graph of d against i. from your graph, read and record D, the minimum
value of d.
(b) Plot a graph of (d- e) against i. from your graph read and record the intercept, I, on
the i-axis
sin
1
I  D 
(c) Find the value of 2
1
sin I
2
3. The aim of this experiment is to find the value of n
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Proceed as follows;
i. Place the prism on the paper and trace its outline with a sharp pencil. Remove the
prism and draw a normal at a point on AB and an incident ray making an angle i =
300 with a normal as shown in the fig above. Return the prism and insert pins P1 and
P2 to define this incident ray. View the pins through the prism from the opposite face
AC and insert pins P3 and P4 so that they appear in line with the images of pins P1and
P2. Remove the prism. Join P4P3 to give the emergent ray. Produce both the incident
and emergent rays to intersect and enclose the angle of deviation ( d). Draw the
normal at a point on AC Measure angle of incidence i, the angle of deviation D, and
the angle of emergence (e)
ii. Repeat the experiment for angles of incidence 400, 500, 600, and 700using different
parts of the paper in each case.
(a) Tabulate your results as follows
I 300 400 500 600 700
D
E
(D - e)
(b) Complete the table by Calculating the values of (D - e).

(c) Plot a graph of (D - e) on the y- axis against i on the x- axis
(d) Read from the graph the i- axis intercept and call it im
 37.5  im 
sin  
(e) Calculate the value of n given that n   2 
i 
sin m 
2
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4. The aim of this experiment is to determine the relative refractive index for the light
passing from air to glass. Proceed as follows;
 Place the triangular glass prism on the drawing paper fixed on the board. Using a
sharp pencil trace the outline of the prim. Remove the prim, and draw the normal
on one side of the prism around the middle of side AB. Draw a line making an
angle of incidence i of 300 and erect two pins on this line at a suitable distance
apart. Replace the prism and erect two more pins at the position which appear to
be in a straight line with the other two pins as seen through the prism.
 Draw a normal at a point where the ray leaves the prism (see fig) and measure the
angle of emergence, e
 Repeat this procedure for angles of incidence of 400, 500, 600and 700 in each case
make your drawings on a fresh part of the drawing paper. Each time ensure that
the incidence is always through side AB
 Record the refracting angle of the prism A
(a) Plot a graph of emergence angle ( e ) against the incidence angle(i ). Use the same
scale on both axes and include the origin (0, 0) in your graph.
(b) Draw a straight line making an angle of 450 with either axis, and produce it to
intersect your e against e graph. Read and record the coordinates of the point of
intersection (a, b).
 A  Dm 
sin  
(c) Calculate the relative refractive index    2  Where A is the refracting
 A
sin 
2
angle of the prism and Dm = (a+ b - A) and a, b are the coordinates of the point of
intersection obtained in part (c)
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3.2.3. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF LIQUID (water)
The clear water in a container is clear/appear to be shallower than its actual depth. This is due
to the refraction of light when it passes from water to air. That dept seen is what is known as
apparent depth.
The actual depth is known as real depth.
If the pins will be seen from the top of the container it will appear in wrong
position than that of the original.
Then experimentally if different H and h are to be collected the data can be
tabulated as follow
cm
cm
CASES
a. H Vs h
b. h Vs H.
c. R Vs x
From the relation

( )
Refractive index (η) ( )
(η)
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a. for H Vs h]
From
Nature of the graph will pass through the origin with positive slope.

( )
( )
( )
( )
Physical meaning of the slope will be the refractive index of water
b. H Vs h
The graph of “H” against “h” can be plotted
From the relation
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( )
The nature of the graph will pass through the origin with positive slope.

( )
( )
( )
From the relation
( )
( )
The physical meaning of the slope will be the inverse of the refractive index of water.
η η
Refractive index of water.
c. R Vs x
( )
Refractive index (η) ( )
( )
(η) ( )
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But R= A + x
A= R-x
(η)
EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index water
You are provided with beaker two optical pins measuring cylinder, clean water and
Procedure
a. Arrange the apparatus as shown below
b. Suspend the meter rule to the retort stand is such a way that zero mark is at the
lower part of it.
c. Fill the beaker with water in measuring cylinder to the known volume V1cm3.
d. Drop an optical pin at the bottom so that it rest touching the wall of the measuring
cylinder.
e. Measure the depth of containing in a measuring cylinder by reading it from the
meter rule suspended and record it as H(cm)
f. Looking in the measuring cylinder, locate the image position of the optical pin
with the help of search pin by moving search pin up and down until there no
parallax between the search pin and the image of the optical pin.
g. Measure its apparent depth and record it as h(cm)
h. Repeat the experiment above by filling the water in different volume and tabulate
your result as shown below until you get more four (4) readings.
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Volume (V) H(cm) h(cm)
i. Plot a graph of H(cm) against h(cm)

ii. Find the slope (m) from your graph.
iii. What is the physical meaning of (m)?
iv. State any 2 sources of error and precautions
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the refractive index of water by apparent depth
method. Proceed as follows
i. Set the meter rule as shown in the diagram above, the zero mark of the scale of the
rule at the bottom.
ii. Put clear water in a measuring cylinder so that the depth of water indicated by the
scale of rule is H = 5cm
iii. Drop an office pin o in the water so that it rests touching the wall of the measuring
cylinder. By using another office pin s, as a search pin, move it up and down outside
the cylinder and locate the large l of pin o by non-parallax method, read the depth x of
the image from water surface.
iv. Repeat the method (i) to (iii) above with depth of water H = 6.5,8,9.5,11 and 12.5cm
a. Tabulate the reading as
b. Plot a graph of H against x
c. Find the slope of the graph
d. What is the refractive index of water with respect to air
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e. State sources of error in this experiment

NOTE: The graph of x against H may be drawn.
3. You are provided with a retort stand, meter rule, tall beaker, 2 optical pins and clear water.
Proceed as follows
i. Clamp the ruler as shown in the diagram above put clear water in a beaker to a depth
of H = 5cm indicated by the scale of a clamped rule Drop one optical pin in a beaker
so that it rest at the bottom when touching the wall of a beaker
ii. Clamp other optical pin in a cork and use it as search pin, move it up and down
outside the beaker to locate the position of image of a pin in the beaker by non -
parallax method.
iii. Find the displacement d, of the image from the pin the beaker.
iv. Repeat procedure (ii) to (iv) above for the value of H = 7.5cm, 10cm, 12cm, and
14cm.
(a) Tabulate the results of H , d, and h , where h = H- d.
(b) Plot a graph of H against h
(c) Find the slope m of the graph
(d) What is the physical meaning of the slope
(e) Suggest the aim of this experiment
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. ELECTRICITY
Is the flow of electric current in conductors per unit time
Is the flow of electric current within a time conductor per time taken
It is unit is Ampere (A)
It is denoted by I.
Circuit: Is the complete path of an electric current to flow or pass. Types of circuit
(i) Open circuit
(ii) Close circuit
A circuit is made up with electric components. The following are some of the
common electric components and its simple classifications.
i. Galvanometer: Is an instrument used to detect the presence of an electric current.
It is connected either parallel or with time component or in series with the

circuit. This is because it detects the presence of the electric current in a
circuit.
ii. Ammeter: Is the instrument used to measure the amount of an electric current
presence in the circuit.
Principle: It is connected in series with the component or device or resistor in

which it current is to be measured, because the current flaw through it is equal
to that of the component.
iii. Voltmeter: Is an instrument used to measure the potential difference (voltage)
across through the conductor.
Principal: It is connected in parallel with resistance is device because the p.d

across it is equal to the p.d the conductors.
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iv. Variable resistors. These are the resistors whose resistance varies. There are two
main types of variable resistors used in normal laboratory. These a
 Resistance box.
 Rheostat.
- Resistance box is the variable resistor whose resistance are known.
It connected in series with ammeter but parallel with voltmeter in normal

settings of the normal laboratory experiment.
- Rheostat: Is the variable resistor whose resistance does not known, in values but it
is used current to vary the voltage of that flowing in the circuit.
Principal: It is connected in series into the component in a circuit. NOTE: A
symbol for variable resistance is
v. Resistor: Is the one which resistor the flow of electric current.
or
Principle: It is connected in series with ammeter and in parallel with

voltmeter.
vi. Connecting wire. Is the one which is used to correct ale electric equipment in a
circuit?
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Principal: It has no resistance it is used to transfer electricity from are

component to another and velum it to a cell of battery.
vii. Key or switch. Is the one which central the flow to an electric current in a circuit?
It used to able switch on or off the circuit.
Principle: It allows or not allows the flow of current in a circuit.
viii. Resistance wires. Are the wires which has resistance
Examples of them are Nichrome and constantan wires.
Principle: Its resistance depends on its length and cross sectional area.
ix. Potential meter. Is an instrument used for varying the potential difference or
voltage across the circuit?
Principle: It is vary the voltage in circuit
x. Meter bridge. Is an apparatus used to find the resistance of unknown resistance.
Principal: It is used to measure the unknown resistance by balancing the
current. When galvanometer read zero indicate that no passage of electric
current through it.
Source of current is the one which will provide the source of an e.m.f in a circuit. It may be a
dry cell or an accumulator. In physics practical the following are the cases will be discussed
this
i. Verification of ohm‟s law
ii. Determination of internal resistance (r) and E.m.f of a cell (E).
iii. Determination of unknown resistance of a material.
4.1. VERIFICATION OF OHM’S LAW

The law state that,
“The electric current in a given conductor is directly proportion to the potential
difference applied, provided that the temperature and other physical factors are kept
constant”.
The current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the
voltage.
Mathematically
V I
V=KI
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But
K=R.
There fore
V=IR
Where, I- current, R- resistance of a conductor, V- P.d (Voltage) across a conductor
From
V = RI
Y=mx
The nature of the graph, it has positive slope and zero y- intercept.
S=
From ohm‟s law
R=
Then
The physical meaning of a slope(s) is Resistance. (R)
Note:
If the time will be straight, then it will show that the quantity concerned will
be directly proportion hence will be verified.
If the line will not be straight then ohm‟s law will not be verified.
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EXAMPLES
1. The aim of the experiment is to verify Ohm‟s law
You are given with voltmeter, ammeter rheostat two dry cell, connecting wire, resistor
(R) and switch.
PROCEEDURES:
i. Set up the apparatus as shown below.
ii. Close the switch and adjust the rheostat slowly form one end to another.
iii. Read and record the value of voltage V and current I from the voltmeter and
ammeter readings respectively.
iv. Repeat the procedure in (iii) above by changing the slider of a rheostat for
different positions and tabulate your result as shown below.
Procedures on how to verify:
The procedures to verify the Ohm‟s law depend on the direction which will be
made by the one who will instruct you. But the following are one of construction
steps.
ALTERNATIVE
a. Arrange the apparatus shown above
b. Collect the data for different values of voltage (V) and current (I) with the help of
rheostat, at least five readings.
c. Tabulate the data and draw the graph.
d. Observe the situation of the graph if the graph will be straight then, Ohm‟s law
will be verified.
e. Find the slope and the slope will the resistance of which a voltmeter is connected
across.
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NOTE:
You can decide to draw the graph of I (A) Vs V (v) and the same result will be obtained.
Always adjust the rheostat until the ammeter pointer is exactly on the division of the meter
scale before taking your reading.
Voltage (V)
Current I (A)
f. Plot a graph of V against I

i. Find the slope (s) of the graph
ii. Compare the relationship between V and I.
Nature of graph depend on the formula

V = IR
V = (R)I
Y=mx
The graph is straight which shows that voltage (v) and current I they are
proportional to each other this shows that Ohm‟s law is verified.
( )
Slope (s) =
S=
Slope shows the resistance of a resistor where voltmeter were curetted in parallel.
Possible sources of error:
i. Parallax error
ii. Instrumental error
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iii. Temperature increase within the circuit.

iv. Zero error of the instrument.
Ways to overcome them
i. Parallax error.
To make sure that during making reading the eyes are at night angle with the
readings instrument
ii. Instrumental error
To make sure that the instrument used is exactly not damaged.
iii. Temperature increase within the circuit.
To open the switch soon as the reading taken.
iv. Zero error
To make sure that the ammeter and voltmeter are at zero point without any
reading.
Limitations of Ohm‟s law
The following are some of the limitations of ohm‟s law.
i. It does not applied in high temperature
ii. It does not applied in non-ohm‟s conductors such as semi – conductor
4.2. DETERMINATION OF E.M.F AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF

A CELL
E.m.f (E): Is the driving force of a cell or Is the force which driver a cell in a circuit. It is
abbreviation denoted by (E) in a formula.
Internal resistance (r) : Is the resistance which found within the chemicals of a cell.
NOTE:
The arrangement of circuit depends on the question asked. But the following
below is example of the circuit. Apparatus used are
a) Ammeter
b) Resistance box
c) Connecting wires
d) Key or switch
e) Dry cell or battery
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From the general formula

E = I(R + r)
Where the possible graph may be
a.
b.
c. Vs R.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
The nature of the graph will be positive y – intercept and positive slope.
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( ) ( )
C=
But:
( )
E= 1(R + r)
E=IR + Ir
R=
R= (E)
Y= m x – c
The nature of the graph will be position slope with negative y – intercept
From
R=E( )
y=m x – C
M=E
C= r
Apparatus used are
a) Voltmeter
b) Resistance box
c) Connecting wires
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d) Key or switch

E=I(R+r)
CASES
a. (( ) ( )
b. ( ) ( )
a. ( ) ( )

E = 1(R + r)
But:
I=
E= ( )
( )
y = m x + c.
The nature of the graph will be positive slope positive intercept.
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From ( )
y = m x + c.
( )
Slope (m) =
( )
From the relation

Slope =
M=
Apparatus used are

a) Voltmeter
b) Rheostat
c) Connecting wires
d) Key or switch

E=1(R + r)
E= 1R + Ir
E= V + Ir
Possible graph
a. V against I
b. I against V.
a. V against I
From the formula
E = 1 (R + r)
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E = 1R+Ir
E = V+I r
V= E – I r
V= (-r) I + E
y = -m x + C
The nature of the graph will be negative slope and positive intercept.
Analysis from graph
Slope (m) = =
m=
From the equation

m = -r
There fore
r = -m
b. I against V.
E = 1(R + r)
E=1R+1r
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E=V+1r
I r=E-V
I= +
( )V+( )
y = -m x + C.
The nature of the graph is will be negative slope with positive intercept
i. Slope (m) =
M= ……………….(i)
I= ( )
y=mx+c
m=( )
r = -( )
C=( )E
But = slope (m)
C=m E
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E= E.m.f From the graph I – intercept can be obtained (c)
From the relation
I=- ( )
y = -m x + C
I – intercept = c from the equation from the graph.
C=
Apparatus used are

a) Voltmeter
b) Resistance box
c) Connecting wires
d) Key or switch
f) Ammeter
Diagram
c. V against I
From the formula

E = 1 (R+ r)
E = 1R+Ir
E = V+Ir
V= E – Ir
V= (-r)I +E
y = mx +C
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The nature of the graph will be negative slope and positive intercept.
Analysis from graph
Slope (M) = =
M=
From the equation

M = -r
There fore
r = -m
d. I against V.
E = 1(R+r)
E=1R+1r
E=V+1r
Ir =E-V
= +
= ( )+( )
y = -m x + C.
The nature of the graph is will be negative slope with positive intercept
ii. Slope (m) =
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M=
I=( )
y=mx+c
m=( )
r = -( )
C=( )E
But = slope (m)
C=mE
E= E.m.f From the graph I – intercept can be obtained (c)
From the relation
I = -( )
y=mx+C
I – intercept = c from the equation from the graph.
C=
4.3. DETERMINATION OF UNKNOWN RESISTANCE OF A

MATERIAL
The unknown resistance can be determined by using the various ways. But some of the
common ways are:
i. Ohm‟s law
ii. Ammeter – voltmeter method
Both of the above method in general are the same but at the analysis of the graph is where the
resistance of the unknown.
It is obtained to the slope of the graph. The physical meaning of the slope is
the resistance of the given resistor.
Example of circuit apparatus used in this circuit are Resistor voltmeter,
ammeter, Rheostat cell/battery switch and connecting wire.
Consider a figure below.
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CASES
a. I against V
b. V against I.
a. I against V
V=RI,
I=( )
y = mx.
The nature of the graph will be positive slope with zero intercept.
Analysis of the graph
Slope (m) =
M=
From the relation

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I= ( ) ,I=( )
y= mx
m=
R=
m=
Therefore physical meaning of the reciprocal of slope is unknown resistance of a

resistor
b. V against I
V= IR
V=(R)I
y = mx
Slope (m) =
M=
But from the relation

V=(R) I
y=mx
M=R
The physical meaning of the slope is unknown resistance of a resistor
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4.4. RESISTIVITY: (₰) Is the resistance offered by the wire with the cross – sectional
area of one meter square when a current flowing through that conductor of a length of one
meter. Its SI unit is ohm – meter (Ωm). It is denoted by rho (₰)
( )
y = mx +C
C=
r=CE
NOTE:
Internal resistance for a single cell is equal to the half of the internal resistance of two
cells
This method can also be used to determine the resistivity of the wire (resistance wire).
If some of information can be given to get either the e.m.f of the cell or the internal
resistance of a cell. The common one is that information of getting the e.m.f (E) of a
cell; For example to measure directly the E.m.f of the cell by using the voltmeter. The
following are the apparatus that can be used in this experiment voltmeter, Ammeter,
resistance wire, cell/battery, connecting wires.
By using a voltmeter you may be asked to measure the e.m.f of the source given. This done
by connecting the voltmeter directly to the terminal of the cell/Battery provided and records it
From the circuit possible graphs are:-
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a. against L
b. L against
a. against L
From the general equation

E= 1(R+r)
But R is the resistance of a wire.

y=
Where, ₰- resistance of the wire, R-Resistance of the wire, L-Length of the wire, A -a
cross sectional area of the wire
R=
Divide by E both side
( )
( )
y = mx+c
The nature of two graph will be positive slope with positive – intercept.
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( )
i. Slope (m) = ( )
From the graph
Slope (m) = From the relation
M=
₰=AEM
Where
A = cross – section are
A=
d = is the diameter of the wire to be measured by the micrometer screw

gauge.
₰=
While
E = V is the e.m.f of the cell measured before.
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EXAMPLES
1. You are provided with two dry cell, Ammeter, voltmeter, Rheostat and unknown
resistance R and key (K) procedures.
i. Connect the apparatus as shown below
ii. With the aid of rheostat adjust the current to a convenient value and record the
reading of ammeter and voltmeter respectively.
iii. Repeat the procedure (2) above for different value of ammeter reading and voltmeter
to get four more readings.
iv. Tabulate your result as shown below.
Ammeter reading I(A)

Voltmeter real V(v)
a. Plot a graph of voltage V(v) against current I(A)

b. From your graph find the slope
c. If the relation between V and I is grieve that , what is the value of R.
d. What is the physical meaning of the slope

e. State any two sources of error and the pre – caution to overcome them.
2. The aim of the following experiment is to determine the value of the unknown
resistance. You are provided with Ammeter, Voltmeter, unknown resistance (R),
Rheostart switch(s) and two dry cells. Procedures
a. Arrange the apparatus as shown below
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b. Adjust Rheostat until it read the ammeter reading 0.1A and record the voltmeter
reading.
c. Repeat the procedure (b) above when current (I) is 0.2A, 0.3A 0.4A, 0.5A and
tabulate your result in label form.
Questions
i. Plot a graph I against V
ii. From your graph, determine the slope.
iii. The graph use the equation V=IR, Evaluate resistance of the resistor.
iv. State one source of error and suggest one way of minimizing it
3. You are provided with voltmeter, ammeter unknown resistance (R), Rheostat, switch
and two cells.
Procedures
i. Arrange the apparatus in such a way that all apparatus in to be in series except
voltmeter which will be connected across the resistor (R).
ii. Cross the circuit and adjust the rheostat in expertly position of porter of an
ammeter to read the exactly value and the read the value of voltmeter reading.
iii. Repeat the procedure (ii) above by changing the ammeter reading with the help of
rheostat to obtain about five pair of reading.
iv. Tabulate your result in tabula form.
a. Plot a graph of V against I
b. Find the slope of the graph
c. What is the relation between V and I.
d. Find the resistance (R)
e. State the aim of the experiment.
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4. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistances of a wire W proceed as

follow.
a. Connect in series the full length of wire W of unknown resistance two dry cell, a
switch K; a rheostat (Rh), of a few ohms and an ammeter.
b. Connect the voltmeter V across W check that positive side of the ammeter A and
positive side of the voltmeter V are both on the positive side of the battery.
c. Switch in the current. Adjust the rheostat to obtain five wildly different values of
V and corresponding value of current I.
d. Tabulate your results as follow
Potential difference V (volts) Current I (Ampere)
e. (i). Draw a circuit diagram.

(ii). Plot a graph of potential difference V against current I.
(iii). Find the slope of the graph.
(iv). Determine the resistance of in wire W.
(v). Mention two main pre – cautions in this experiment.
5. You are provided with a source of power two dry cell, Rheostat (Rh) Ammeter (A)
resistor (R), voltmeter (V), key (K) and connecting wires.
Proceed as follow. Set up experimental apparatus
a. (i) Close the switch and adjust Rh by sliding slowly form one end.
(ii). Read and record the value of V and I
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(iii). Repeat the experiment by changing the position of slider on Rh for four different
positions and tabulate your results.
b. (i). Plot a graph of V against I
(ii).What is the shape of your graph?
(iii). Determine the slope of your graph.
(iv).What is the physical meaning of the slope obtained in (c). (iii) Above.
(v). From your graph, determine the value of P.d when the current is 0.25A.
(vi).What is the relationship between V and I across R?
(vii). State the law governing this experiments.
c. What is the aim of this experiment?
d. State one source of error and how to minimize it.
6. The aim of this experiment is to determine the e.m.f (E) and internal resistance of a
cell
a. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure above put R=1Ω and quickly read the
value of i on the ammeter.
b. Repeat the procedure in (a) above, for value of R=2Ω, 4Ω and 5Ω respectively.
c. Tabulate your result and complete following table.
Resistor R (Ω) Current I (A) ( )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
d. Plot the graph of R against
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i. The graph use the equation R = may be evaluated from your graph.
e.
i. Suggest how E for one cell.
ii. Evaluate r for one cell.
f. State one source of error and suggest are way of minimizing it.
7. You are provided with an ammeter A, resistance box R, dry cell, D, a key, K and
connecting wire. Proceed as follow.
a. Connect the circuit in series.
b. Put R=1Ω and quickly read the value of current I and the ammeter.
c. Repeat the procedure (b) above for R=2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω and 5Ω. Record your results in
tabular form.
d. Draw the circuit diagram for this experiment.
e. Plot the graph of R against
f. Determine the slope of the graph.

g. If the graph obey the equation
R= then
i. Suggest how E and r may be evaluated from your graph.

ii. Compute E
iii. Compute r.
h. State one source of error and suggest one way of minimizing it.
i. Suggest the aim of this experiment.
8. The aim of the experiment is to determine the electromotive force (E) and internal
resistance (r) of a cell. Provided with one cell, voltmeter, ammeter, rheostat and
connecting wires. Proceed as follow:
a. Arrange the circuit as required and draw its circuit diagram.
b. By sliding the rheostat tabulate the values of current I and V voltage V in the table
below.
I
V
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c. (i). Plot the graph of V against I

(ii). Determine the slope of the graph G
(iii). Determine the value of E and r from the graph given that E=V+ Ir.
9. The aim of this experiment is to determine the e.m.f (E) and internal resistance of a
cell. You are provided with voltmeter, resistance box, and dry cell, key and
connecting wire. Procedures
a. Arrange the apparatus as shown below.
b. Record the value of voltmeter reading when a switch K- is opened.

c. With the resistance R= record the value of voltmeter reading.
d. Repeat the procedure in (c) above when R=4Ω, 6Ω, 8Ω, 12Ω and tabulate your
result as follow.
R(Ω) 2 4 6 8 12
V(v)
⁄ ( )
( )
i. Plot a graph of against graph.
ii. Determine the slope from your graph.

iii. Determine the - intercept from your graph.
iv. If R and V are related as RE = V (R+r) Find the value of

 Emf (E)
 Internal resistance (r)
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v. State any one source of error and suggest any way to eliminate it.
10. You are provided with, ammeter, resistance wire labeled (W) meter, switch k, two dry
cells, micrometer screw gauge and connecting wires and voltmeter. Procedures
a. Arrange the apparatus as shown below.
b. Measures the diameters of the wire labeled (w) and call it as (d).
c. Measure the length L = 20cm
d. Repeat the procedure in 3 above when the value of L = 40cm, 60cm, 80cm,
100cm and tabulate your result as shown below.
I(A)
( )
Lcm 20 40 60 80 100
I. Plot a graph of Vs L
II. From your graph, find the lope (m) and - intercept
III. Correct had to head the voltmeter with the cell to obtain the voltmeter
reading without any current flowing.
IV. If the relation between I and L is given by AE = ₰LI + IrA.
Where
A= is a cross sectional area
₰= Resistivity of the wire
E= emf
r = internal resistance.
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Find the value of ₰ and r.

V. State any two source of errors and suggest the way to minimize them
Determine the resistivity P of the wire labeled W and the internal resistance of the battery
provided. Proceed as follows. Connect circuit in shown in fig 3 above with the plug key open
adjust the length of wire W to a value of 2cm
Note; the ammeter readings
NB: The plug key shown remain open throughout the experiment , Repeat procedure above
for
Tabulate your results shown in table 2 below
Length( Lw) of wire Current I(A) ⁄ ( )

(cm)
a) i). Plot a graph of ⁄ ( ) ( )

ii) Determine the slope G
iii). Determine the intercept Y on the vertical axis
b) Measure and record the diameter at four different places on the wire. Hence find the
mean value of the diameter
Given
Find the
(i) resistance P of the wire
(ii) internal resistance r of the battery
11. The aim of this experiment is to determine the e.m.f (E) and internal resistance (r) of cell
using an ammeter and voltmeter
 Your provided with voltmeter two dry cells, an ammeter, rheostat connecting wire and
key
Procedures
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 Connect the circuit of the current

 With the key open, record the reading of the voltmeter
 Close the key and adjust rheostat to the cell supplies a small current through the
circuit and make same that the pointer of the ammeter read to the exactly position,
record the reading in both ammeter and voltmeter
 Repeat the procedure B above by changing the current of the circuit until you get
other four (4) reading
i) Tabulate your results in tabula form
ii) Profit a graph of V against I
iii) From your graph find the slope and V-intercept
iv) What does the answer in 4) iii) above signify
v) Write the formula showing the relationship between V and I. If
vi) State any two source of error and suggest the ways to minimize them.
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4.5. METER BRIDGE

Meter bridge is the device which working or a principle of balance wheat stone bridge that
used to find the under resistance of a material. It work on the principle of wheat stone bridge
Wheat stone bridge is the electric circuit used to determine the unknown resistance by
balance two gaps of a bridge circuit. It use three resistance to find the unknown resistance
The formula is given by equation below
That is the principle of wheat stone bridge. Now that principle can applied to the meter bridge
Meter bridge is the modified wheat stone bridge
It is some time known as slide wire bridge because if have the wire with which a
jokey is sliding to find the balancing point.
A circuit of a meter bridge needs the following apparatus
- Meter bridge
- Galvanometer
- Known resistance (Q)
- Under resistance (R)
- Jokey
- Cell and correcting wire
Circuit
Analysis
Note: If the balance point at Q where a galvanometer will read zero then the resistance q the
wire at left side will be N with (L1) and that of the right side, the resistance with be M with
L2.
From the principle of wheat stone bridge
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But N and M are the resistance of the wire whose resistance depends on their length
From:
Resistance is directly proportion length
Recall resistance ( )
If R = M
()
( )
Then
But
Because it is of resistivity and cross sectional area of the same material
This is a general formation of a meter bridge
From the formula the unknown resistance can be found
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PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF A METER BRIDGE

The following are some of the practical application of a meter bridge
(i) Determination of unknown resistance of a material
(ii) Determination of resistivity of the wire.
4.5.1. DETERMINATION OF UNKNOWN RESISTANCE

A circuit used to determine unknown resistance is as follow
CASES
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
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( )
( )
( )
( )
Nature of the graph will be positive slope with negative R-intercept

( )
(i) ( )
(
( ) ⁄
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(ii) R – intercept
Q=C
Physical meaning of the intercept is unknown resistance
From
( )
Divide by L1 both side
( )
( )
⁄ ( )
Sketch of the graph

⁄ ( )
(i) S
( )
⁄ ( ) ⁄
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(ii) Intercept
⁄
(a)
( )
Divide by RL2 both side
Divide by Q both side
(iii) Intercept
(e) ⁄
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( )
Relative by both side
( ) ⁄
⁄ ( ) ⁄ ⁄
Nature of the graph with have positive slope with negative intercept
Sketch of the graph

⁄
(i) Slop ( ) ⁄
From the relation
⁄ ( ) ⁄
⁄
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( ) ⁄ ⁄
Sketch of the graph
⁄ ( )
(i) Slope ( ) ⁄ ( )
4.5.2. DETERMINATION OF RESISTIVITY OF THE WIRE ( )
What is resistance ( ). Is the resistance of a conductor made of the material of length one
meter and cross sectional area of the meter square. It is denoted by ( ). Its SI unit is Ohm
meter ( )
From the factors affecting resistance of a conductor
()
⁄ ( )
Combine the above relationship
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( )
( )
EXAMPLE
A circuit for finding the resistance is connected by using the following apparatus
Resistance wire Meter Bridge, jokey galvanometer cell/battery, connecting wire and one way
switch/key
Diagram:
These analysis depends on the length selected the slide wire. There are two lengths which are
i) Length corresponding to the left gap (LI).
ii) Length corresponding to the right gape (L2)
I. LENGTH CORRESPONDING TO THE LEFT GAP (LI)

From the meter bridge formula
But
( )
y= m x
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Plot a graph of Q Vs ( )
i.
ii.
From,
( )R
From the formula
( )
( )
( ) ⁄
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( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ⁄ ) ( ) ⁄
⁄ ( ) ⁄
Nature of graph will be positive slope and positive ⁄ – Intercept
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⁄ ( )
(a) Slope (m) = ⁄ ( )
( ) ⁄
Slope (M) =
Remember
A ……..Is a cross sectional area
Where:
d = is the diameter of a wire. It measured by the micrometer screw gauge
Note: The SI- Unit should be considered

(i) ⁄
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From
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
⁄ ( ) ⁄
( ) ⁄ ( )
Nature of the graph will be positive slope and negative – intercept

Sketch of the graph
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⁄ ( )
(a) Slope (M) = ⁄ ( )
From the relation
( ) ⁄ ( )
But
A - a cross sectional area
d is the diameter of a wire it supposed to be measured by the micro meter
screw gauge
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Note: The SI – Unit should be considered
II. LENGTH CORRESPONDING TO THE RIGHT GAP (L2)

From the relation
L1 = 100 – L2
But
CASES
(i) ⁄
(ii) ⁄
From
(i) ⁄
Divide by the both side
Divide by the both side
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( ) ⁄
Nature of the graph will be positive slope with negative x-intercept

( )
( )
⁄ ( )
From the relation
( ) ⁄
(ii) ⁄
From the relation
( ) ⁄
( ) ⁄ ( )
⁄ ( )
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Nature of the graph with be positive slope with positive intercept

⁄ ( )
( )
( )
From the relation
⁄ ( )
Note: Units should be considered

1. You are required to determine the unknown resistances labeled R using a meter bridge
circuit. Connect your circuit as shown below, where Q is a resistance box. G is a
galvanometer, J is a Jockey and others are common circuit components
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Procedure
With Q =1 , obtain a balances point on a metre bridge wire AB using a jockey J.
Note the length L. Repeat the experiment with Q equal to 2 , 4 , 7 and
10 .Tabulate your results for Q, L and 1/L.
(a) (i). Plot a graph of Q (vertical axis) against 1/L (horizontal axis)
(ii). Determine the slope (s) of your graph
(iii). Using your graph, find the value of Q for which 1/L =0.02
(b) Read and record the intercept Q on the vertical axis
(c) Given that
Use the equation and your graph to determine the value of R

(d) Comment on your results in (a)(iii)(b) and (c) above
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistivity of the wire (w) given you are
provide with meter bridge resistor (R) with 5 , jokey, switch, galvanometer have
wire labeled W dry cell and connecting wire and meter rule and micrometer screw
gauge .
(a) Connect the circuit as shown below
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(b) Measure the length L of a bare wire labeled (w) equation to 20cm and connect the
circuit as shown above
(c) Close a switch and find the length on the slide wire where galvanometer will read
zero (0) call it as X.
(d) Repeat the procedures in a and b above for a value of
I
L(m) X(m) /L(m-1) I
/X(m-1)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
(e) Plot a graph of I/L Vs I/X

(f) From your graph, find the slope (M)
(g) Measure the diameter of the wire provided and find its cross – sectional are in meter
square
(h) If the relation between L and X is given by
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( )
(i) State any two sources of error and pre – cautions to overcome them
3. The aim of this experiment is to determine the value of the unknown resistance and
resistivity of the material of wire x. you are provided with standard resistor Q,
resistance box R, wire x, meter bridge, jockeys galvanometer, battery, key k,
connecting wire, micrometer screw gauge, and meter rule
Proceed as follow
(a) Set up the slide wire meter bridge as illustrated in the figure above
(b) Connect the resistance box R and the wire x of 50cm long cross the right hand gap
and standard resistance at the left hand gap
(c) When R =1 find the balancing point and record that length in centimeters
(d) Repeat the procedure in c) above for value of equals to 4 , 7 , 12 , 15 and 20
each time recording the corresponding balance length L.
(e) Plot a graph of R against I/L . Using the equation
( ) Where x and Q are constants and from the graph, determine
the value of the unknown the diameter of wire x
(f) Measure the diameter of wine x hence find the resistivity of the material
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4.6. POTENTIAL METER

Potential meter is the instruction for variable voltage is a circuit or is the instruction
which is used to compare the e.m.f of a two or more cell. Example, a simple circuit of a
potential meter depends on the function which it is going perform. The following is the
example of a potential which is used to measure the E.m.f of a cell.
The circuit needs the following apparatus
Known E.m.f which will be used as a source
A cell which unknown E.m.f to be measured
Galvanometer
Potential meter
Connecting wire
Jokey
AB – Is a potential meter
The principle of operation of a potential meter states that “the potential dropper between two
points in a wire of cross –section area is directly proportion to the distance between the
points.
Where
The following are the practical application of a potential meter

i) To find the E.m.f of a cell
ii) To compare two e.m.f
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iii) To find the internal resistance of a cell
4.6.1. TO FIND THE E.M.F OF A CELL

Source of e.m.f in a primary circuit
Two cell are of known Emf (E1)
Which other with unknown Emf (E2)
Galvanometer
Potential meter
Jokey
Connecting wires
Switch
Simple circuit
The E.m.f of the cell can be found in two ways. These ways are
(a) Using a source of e.m.f of standard cell in a primary circuit
(b) Using a source of e.m.f in a primary and two deals with different e.m.f one with
known e.m.f while another with unknown e.m.f to be found
(a) Using a source of e.m.f of a standard cell in a primary circuit standard cell. Is
the cell which has known resistance and that can offer all e.m.f in a potential
meter wire. The common standard cell for normal potential meter is that which
have an e.m.f of 2V. The total e.m.f will be offered in a potential meter wirer by
that standard a cell, apparatus used
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Standard cell which often have two volts (2V) used as a source of e.m.f in a
primary cell
Potential meter
Cell with unknown e.m.f to be found
Galvanometer
Jokey
Connecting wire
Diagram
The circuit should be connected as shown in the diagram below
Note:
During the connection of a circuit the positive end of the cell should be connected to
the positive end of the cell should be connected to the positive end of the source of
e.m.f in a primary circuit at the potential meter
Analysis of the circuit, when the primary circuit and secondary circuit is connected
and the balance point will be found at a potential meter wire using a galvanometer
When the galvanometer shows there is no deflection it that there is no comment is
drawn from the cell and a potential meter said to be balance
From the principle
Actual balance
Voltage drawn equal to the e.m.f for primary circuit
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()
lo
FOR SECONDARY CIRCUIT
But
( )
“L” is the length on a potential meter wire when a secondary circuit is at balance
showing that there is no current drawn from the cell in a secondary cell.
Then
()
( )
Take the ratio between eqn (i) and (ii)
From the above formula the unknown e.m.f ( ) of cell can be obtained.
Reciprocate the above formula
Where
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By using a source of e.m.f in a primary and two cells with different e.m.f in secondary circuit
The two cells in a secondary circuit must be one with known e.m.f and another with unknown
e.m.f. Apparatus used
Battery for primary circuit
Two cells of different e.m.f are known and the other unknown
Potential meter
Galvanometer
Switch
Connecting wire
Jokey
Diagram In the circuit should be connected as shown in the diagram below
This experiment is done as following

Connect the circuit as show above with the cell of know e.m.f and find the length of
the a balancing point.
Then from the principle
()
After finding the length and make the relation, then replace the first cell in a circuit an
then connect another cell with unknown e.m.f and then find the length on which the
potential meter will balance
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Then
From the principle
At balance
( )
( ) ()
This will be the general eqn

Then
Where
From the above relation e.m.f of unknown e.m.f of cell can be found
4.6.2. TO COMPARE TWO E.M.F

To compare the e.m.f of two or more cells if a potential meter is used to compare the
e.m.f of two cells there the following apparatus may be used
Source of e.m.f in a primary circuit
Potential meter
Jokey
Connecting wires
Galvanometer
Two cell to be compare
Switch
Diagram
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 Connect the circuit as shown above and then find the balancing point
 If a balance point is at a length ( ) for a fist cell with an e.m.f ( ) it means that the
galvanometer read zero showing that there is no current drawn from that cell
 The e.m.f across the length (L1) is equal to that of the E.m.f of a cell connected in
secondary cell this is because there is no current drawn from the cell that is a
galvanometer read zero
Also from the principle if potential
At balance
()
The above experiment is repeated for the second a cell if a balancing point will be
obtained, then the e.m.f of a cell will be (E2) and balance at the length (L2).
Then from potential meter theory
( )
() ( )
( ) ( )
Then the ratio of their e.m.f will show the comparison between the two cell and it will
corresponding with the ratio of their balance length of a potential meter wire
Note:
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Even if the e.m.f of two cells will not be known but the difference in e.m.f can be
recognized. Then it can be known which cell have got higher e.m.f then other
4.6.3. TO FIND THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE CELL

To find the internal resistance of the cell another application of a potential meter is to
find the internal resistance of a cell. This done by using the following apparatus
Potential meter
Jokey
Resistance box
Galvanometer
Connecting wire
Two switch
Connecting: The connection for a simple circuit of a potential is shown in the
following diagram
Close key (KI) and open key (K2) and find the balancing point using a jokey let to be
(L0). Then close both keys (KI and K2) when a resistance of ohm‟s is connected in
parallel with the cell. Let it to be (L).
Find the different value of L with different value of R and tabulate the result
( )
( )
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( )
( ⁄ )
When both switches are close then the balancing point is to be found at balance
A galvanometer read zero shows that there are no current drown from the cell. If no
current drawn then the potential difference across the conductor will be equal to that
across will be equal to that across the cell and across the resistance, this is become all
they are connected in parallel
Then
From the principle of potential meter
But
When switch (K2) is opened then
()
( )
Then
( )
( )
From the relation
( ) ( )
( )
But
From the principle of a potential meter which gives the eqn (i) and (ii) above, it follow that
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
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( )
From there above equation the graph may be drawn and the possible graphs are
(a) ⁄
(b) ⁄
A. ⁄
⁄ ( ) ⁄ ⁄
Nature of the graph
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⁄ ( )
( )
⁄ ( )
⁄ ( ) ⁄ ⁄
( )
( )
( ⁄ )
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Where;
From the slope
Recall
( )
From the relation
⁄ ( ) ⁄
Nature of the graph

The graph will have positive slope with negative intercept
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From the graph
( )
⁄
( )
⁄ ( )
From the relation
( ) ⁄ ⁄
( )
To find r
Alternative
⁄ ( ) ⁄
-
C = -1/r, 𝒓
Precautions
(i) Do not run the joke continuously on the potential meter wire. This will cause
to possible source of error which are
Self – induction
Over heating
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(ii) Do not leave the circuit switch the current will continue to law within the
resistance wire (potential meter wire) which may cause the battery to be
exhausted
The circuit should be opened up soon after obtaining the balance
point
(iii)Make sure that all connections are tightly closed to avoid the loss of the
connection. Which lead the circuit to be incomplete
EXAMPLES
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the internal resistance of the cell
You provided with, potential meter galvanometer jokey, battery cell two switches
resistance both and connecting wire
Procedures
a) Arrange the apparatus as shown below
b) When switch K1 is opened and K2 is closed, Find the balancing point and note
that length as L0
c) Close a switch K1 and K2 and then find the balancing point when resistance of
is placed on the resistance box (R) on a resistance wire of a pollination meter and
record the length between that point as shown on the figure above as ( ).
d) Repeat a procedure c) above for different values of R such that
e) Plot a graph of ⁄ ⁄
f) From your graph, Find the slope (s) and the ⁄ ( )
g) Find the ratio of between (s) and (c) as ⁄ .

i) What is the physical meaning of
h) If R and l are relate as
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( )
I. Find the value of r

II. Comment on the answer in h) and J(i) above
III. State any two source of error and the way to minimize them
2. You have provided a dry cell labeled E of unknown internal resistance (r), 2 dry cells
of 0.5V of size D labeled B, two keys K1, and K2, galvanometer a jokey resistance
box potential meter and connecting wires.
Procedure
(a) Connect a battery B, key K1 and terminals of a potential meter in the primary circuit
(b) Connect a dry cell of unknown internal resistance parallel to a resistance box
connected together with key K2 in series as shown in the circuit above. Galvanometer
and jockey should be connect in series as shown in the figure above
(c) Close key K1 open key K2. Find the point P on the potentiometer wire with using a
jockey where the galvanometer read zero, second the length as L0.
(d) Close both keys K1 and K2, Find the another balancing point P, on the potentiometer
wire when the galvanometer read zero, record the corresponding length (L) When
resistance
(e) Repeat the procedure d) above to find the value of L when
𝒏 record yur data in labella form
i) Using your data obtained, plot a graph of ⁄ ⁄.
j) From your graph find the value of
- ⁄
⁄ - intercept
ii) Calculate the internal resistance (r)
(f) What is the aim of the experiment
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4.7. POTENTIAL DIVIDER

Is the instrument which is used to device the potential difference in a circuit.
The principle of a potential meter is used in the potential device for purpose of providing
a variable voltage from the supply
NOTE: The instrument used as a potential divider in normal laboratory practical is that of
a potentiometer. A potential is the one which used as a potential divider but what change
is the settings of the circuit
Circuit of a potential divider as follow, Apparatus
Two known resistance with known resistance; voltage supply (v in), voltmeter connecting
wire
Circuit
V out – Is the p.d across the resistance of interest or required

Analysis
From the ohm‟s
()
( ( )
Take the ratio between eqn (i) and (ii)
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( )
Potential divider equation
In practical method the one which used is that of a potentiometer and the circuit can be set by
using the following apparatus
Rheostat
Voltmeter
Potentiometer
Jokey
Switch
Source of power supply V in
Diagram
Rheostat help you to adjust the voltage across the circuit such when a jockey is the end point
B read almost full deflection, analysis from the circuit
From the potential divider equation
( )
( )
V in
But; on the circuit above the resistance used is the of a potentiometer resistance wire. Then it
is known that the resistance of a wire depends out its length
()
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Then
Substitute the above relation into the equation of a potential devider
( )
Then
( )
( ) ( ⁄ ) V in
( ⁄ )
( ⁄ )( )
But
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CASES
( )
( )
A.
( )

( )
( )
( )
From the relation
( )
( )
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B. .
( )
Nature of the graph passes through the origin and have positive slope

( )
( )
( )
From the relation
( )
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( )
( )
EXAMPLES
The aim of this experiment to determine the potential fall along a uniform resistance wire
carries a steady current
Proceed as follows
Connect up the circuit as shown above, and close key K and make a contact with J so that
. Record the potential difference V volts along L as registered on the voltmeter:
Repeat this procedure for
(a) Tabulate your results for values of L and V
(b) Plot a graph of V against L
(c) Calculate the slope of the graph
(d) What is your current on the slopes‟?
(e) State any pre-cautions on the experiment
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The aim of the experiment is to verify the Ohm`s law

Proceed as follows;
 Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram. Close the key K and make contact
with jockey J that
 AJ = 10cm. record the potential difference V between A and J.
 Repeat this procedure for AJ = 20cm, 30cm, …. 90cm.
 Note the current flowing through the circuit
 Tabulate your results and plot a graph of V (vertical) against L (horizontal).
 Calculate the slope S. using your graph, answer the following questions;
(a) (i) How could the actual resistance of any part of the wire be calculated?
(ii) Calculate the value of R for 100cm for slide wire S.
(b) If the current remains constant to what do you attribute the differences in the fall of
potential difference in different lengths of the wire?
(c) What proportion can be established between the falls in different parts of the circuit
and the resistance of those parts of the circuit?
(d) With the resistance of the wire constant, how does the fall of potential difference
change with the change of current
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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. The aim of this experiment is to determine the emf, Eo and internal resistance, ro of a
dry cell
(i) Set up the circuit in fig above

(ii) Measure the diameter of the wire AB using a micro meter screw gauge
(iii) Close the switch K and touch the wire AB at C so that AC=L= 10cm, 20cm,
25cm, 30cm, and 35cm. for each value of L record the corresponding
ammeter(I) and voltimeter(V) reading
(iv) Find 𝒏 tabulate your results
(v) Plot a graph S against from your graph record
a. The intercept So on S axis and 1/So

(vi) Determine the slope of your graph and hence calculate resistivity( ) of wire
AB given that
2. The aim of this experiment is to determine a value of an unknown resistance S by

using the Wheat stone-Bridge principle
Proceed as follows:
a. You are provided with a metre-bridge, one dry cell E, a switch K, a resistance box R
or any type of variable resistor capable of providing resistance of magnitude
0,5,10,15,20,25 and 30 Ohms, galvanometer G, a jockey J and some connecting wires.
b. Connect the circuit as shown in figure below
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c. Starting with R = 30Ω find the balance length AC= L1 along the metre-bridge wire
AB to the nearest centimeter.
d. Repeat the procedure in (c) above for other values of R obtained by decreasing in
steps of 5Ω up to R = 0Ω.
e. Tabulate the values of R against L1 in increasing order of magnitudes as follows
f. Plot a graph of P against R.
g. Evaluate:
(i) The slope M of the best line. What its units?
(ii) The reciprocal N of M where: N=1/M
h. Write the formula of the balanced bridge; hence explain the physical meaning of N.
(i) Identify any two sources of errors in this experiment. For each source of error,
(ii) what precaution must be taken
3. You are to determine the resistance of the wire per cm length and the length of the
wire wound on the wooden block as illustrated in Fig.
Proceed as follows;
a. Set up the metre-bridge circuit as shown in the diagram above, where E is an

accumulator or a 2 volt battery and G is a galvanometer. Place the 2 ohm standard
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resistor provided on the left hand gap of the metre-bridge. Connect the resistance wire
M provided, which consists of a length of uniform wire part of which has been
permanently wound on a wooden block, to the right hand gap of the metre-bridge,
with AB = 60cm.
b. Determine the balance point for the 2 ohm standard resistor and the resistance R of
the wire M. Record L1 and L2 for which the galvanometer gives zero deflection when
the slider is tapped onto the resistance wire of the metre-bridge and hence determine
the value of R of wire M. (NB: Terminal B is adjustable to allow for different lengths
of the wire M).
c. Repeat the procedure in (b) above for values of AB = 50cm, 40cm, 30cm, 20cm and
10cm. Tabulate your results.
d. Plot a graph of R against AB. Start your axes at the origin.
(i) Calculate the slope S of the graph. What are the units of S?
(ii) Use your graph and the formula R=S(AB + X) to determine the value of X,
where X is the length of the wire wound permanently on the wooden block.
e. Measure the diameter of wire M. Calculate the resistivity, ρ of the wire, given that =
SA, where A is the cross sectional area of the wire.
f. What does the value of S represent physically?
4. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistance per centimeter r, and
resistivity, of the wire W provided
Proceed as follows;
a. Connect the accumulator E and switch S to the terminals A and B of the resistance
wire AB. Connect the standard resistors X and Y and the galvanometer G as shown in
Fig. above
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b. Measure a length Lw =100 cm of the wire W and connect it in parallel with the
standard resistor Y. Close the switch S and obtain a balance point, D using the jockey
J. Record the length AD = L and open S.
c. Repeat the above procedure with length of wire W equal to Lw = 80, 60, 50, 40 and
20cm and in each case record the corresponding values of L.
d. Remove the wire W and obtain a balance point C as described above. Record the
length AC = L0.
e. Using your readings determine the distance d given by d = L – L0.
f. Plot a graph of 1/d against Lw.
g. Measure the diameter of the wire W and hence determine its cross sectional area.
( )
h. Given that the gradient G of the graph is: ( )
i. Calculate the value of r. (hint: use information from step (d) above to
determine a value of Y first).
ii. Determine the resistivity, of the wire W. (The value of X = 1ohm)
5. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistivity, of the material of the wire
labeled W.
Proceed as follows;
Set up the circuit as in Figure above. AB is the metre-long wire of the wheat stone
bridge, E is an accumulator and Rs is a standard resistance of one ohm. G and C are
the galvanometer and contact maker, respectively.
a. Cut the given wire W into six equal pieces, each piece of about 30 cm. Connect in the
left-hand gap a single piece of length, ℓ0 of W of about 20 cm, and obtain the balance
length AC = x.
b. Repeat this procedure with 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 pieces of equal length, L0 of W in the gap
and record the corresponding values of x.
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c. Given that:
Where: n is the number of pieces of W in the gap, A is the cross-sectional area of

the wire, and L = AB:
(i) Measure the diameter of the wire W and calculate A.
(ii) Plot a graph of n against 1/x and use it to determine the resistivity, of the
wire W
d. Determine the value of the intercept along the 1/x axis and hence, find a value of L
call it L1.
6. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistivity of the wire of coil C
Proceed as follows
a. Set up a meter-bridge circuit as shown in figure above. G, C, E, and K are

galvanometer, jockey, an accumulator and key, respectively. Connect the coil\C and
the one-ohm standard resistor, Rs in series and connect the system across the right –
hand gap. Across the left hand gap, connect up the resistance box (RB) provided.
b. Put a resistance, r of 1- ohm from the resistance box and find the balance length, AC.
Record the value of x of length CB repeat this procedure with values of R = 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6 ohms, each time recording the corresponding value of x.
c. Given that:
Where L0 is the length of the coil C, A is the cross-sectional area of coil, C
and L = AB:
(i) Calculate A.
(ii) Plot a graph of R against 1/x and use it together with the equation to
determine the resistivity, of the coil, C.
d. If you were to plot a graph of 1/x against R, show that the resistivity, would be given
by:
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( )
e.
Where: S is the slope of the graph
7. Using the experimental procedure and the circuit diagram below), determine the
resistivity, of the wire labeled C.
Proceed as follows
a. Set up a meter-bridge circuit in which exactly 100 cm of the bare wire labeled C is
connected in the left-hand gap and a 1.0 Ω standard resistor is connected in the right-
hand gap, M. Obtain the balance lengths L, of the meter-bridge wire and hence
calculate the resistance C1 of wire labeled C. Replace the 1.0 Ω standard resistor at M
with 0.5 Ω standard resistor and obtain a new balancing length. Again, determine the
resistance of wire C and hence find the average value of C1.
b. Without cutting any wire, replace the 0.5 Ω standard resistor at M with a length,
L=10cm of the bare wire labeled C. Measure the left-hand side balance length, z of
the meter-bridge wire PQ.
c. Repeat the procedure in (ii) above for values of L = 15 cm, 20 cm, 25 cm, 30 cm and
35 cm. Tabulate L, z and 1/z.
d. Measure accurately the diameter of wire C, then:
(i) Plot a graph of 1/z against L
(ii) Given that L and z are related by the equation:
Where A is the cross-sectional area of wire K, determine the resistivity, of

the material of wire K
8. The aim of this experiment is to determine the electrical resistivity, of the wire
labeled X.
Proceed as follows:
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a. Set up a slide-wire metre bridge as illustrated in figure above, where E is an

accumulator and G is a galvanometer. A length, L of wire x is connected across the
right-hand gap of the bridge and the jockey or slider J is placed at the 50cm mark.
b. With R= 20Ω , find the value of length, L for which the galvanometer gives zero
deflection when a slider is tapped onto the 50cm. mark as illustrated in Fig.
c. Repeat the procedure in (b) for values of R equal to 10Ω, 5Ω, 2Ω, 1Ω and 0.5Ω
(i) Calculate and tabulate the values of 1/R and 1/L for the values of R = 20Ω
10Ω, 5Ω, 2Ω, 1Ω and 0.5Ω obtained in (b) and (c) above.
(ii) By means of the micrometer screw gauge provided, measure the diameter of
wire X and hence calculate its average diameter, d.
(iii) Plot a graph of 1/R against 1/L (whose values are recorded in (i)) and
determine its gradient.
(iv) Determine the resistivity, of wire X, given that, where A is the
cross-sectional area of wireX
9. In the experiment to determine the electrical resistivity of the wire labeled X, the
following set up was done
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With a length y = 10 cm of the wire labeled Y connected to the right hand gap of the
meter bridge; the left hand gap a length x of the wire labeled X was also connected to
give a balance point at the 50cm mark of the bridge.
a. The procedure was repeated for values of y = 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60cm while
obtaining the corresponding length x of the wire X that gives the balance point at 50
cm mark.
b. The following table of results was obtained. With a length y = 10 cm of the wire
labeled Y connected to the right hand gap of the meter bridge; the left hand gap a
length x of the wire labeled X was also connected to give a balance point at the 50cm
mark of the bridge. If the diameters, dx of wire X and dy of Y are 0.45mm and
0.37mm respectively,
c. Plot a graph of y against x and determine its slope S.
d. Deduce the equation which relates y and x. Use it with the aid of the drawn graph to
determine the resistivity ρx of the wire X. The resistivity ρy of wire Y is 5.21 x 10-7
Ωm
Hint: Use metre bridge balance equation and
10. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistance of one metre resistance wire
and hence its resistivity. Proceed as follows
(a) Connect the cell, ammeter, tapping key, Rheostat and one metre resistance wire for
which the resistance and resistivity is to be determined.
(b) Switch on the current and adjust the rheostat to obtain suitable readings on the
Ammeter and voltmeter and take the readings.
(c) Apply Ohm`s law to calculate the resistance of the one metre resistance wire.
(d) Take the micrometer screw gauge provided to determine the diameter of the wire at
three different positions and find the average of the diameters
(e) Then determine the resistivity of the resistance wire.
11. You are required to determine the value of unknown resistance of a resistor labeled
Ry Proceed as follows;
(a) Connect the given dry cell, ammeter, switch and a 1 resistor in series. Close the switch
and record the reading I of the ammeter.
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(b) Repeat part (a) above for values of resistor of 3  , 5, 7  , 9  , 10  and Ry 

1
respectively, record your results in a table. Include value of
I
1
(c) (i) Plot a graph of against R
I
(ii) From the graph determine the value of Ry
(iii) Calculate the slope of the graph
(iv) Deduce the emf and internal resistance of the cell
12. The aim of this experiment is to determine the e.m.f E and internal resistance r of the
cell. Given 2 dry cells, a number of standard resistors, an ammeter, a switch and
connecting wires.
(a) Connect experimental circuit . Put R = 1.0Ω and quick read the value of the
ammeter.
(b) Repeat the procedure in (a) above for values of R = 2Ω, 3Ω, 4 Ω and 5Ω.
(c) Tabulate the results as shown below in the table below
Resistance R (Ω) Current I (A)
 
1 1
I
A
1
2
3
4
5
1
(d) Plot a graph of R against
I
E
(e) From the equation R  r
I
(i)Suggest how E and r may be evaluated from your graph
(ii) Evaluate E for one cell
(iii) Evaluate r for one cell
(f) State the sources of errors in this experiment suggest ways to reduce them.
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13. The aim of this experiment is to determine the internal resistance of r and the emf (E)
of the dry cell D.
(a) You‟re provided with an ammeter, voltmeter, key, and resistance box. Connect the
apparatus so that you can get reading of ammeter and corresponding reading of
voltmeter by changing the size of resistor from the resistance box. Repeat the
procedure for resistors of five different values.
(b) Draw a circuit diagram of arrangement used
(c) Draw a graph V on y- axis against I on x- axis.
(d) Write down the equation represented by the graph in terms of E, r, V and I
(e) From your graph find the values of E, r and the maximum current the cell can deliver
to the circuit.
14. Connect the following items in series; the accumulator (or dry cell), the plug (or
tapping key), the resistor labeled P, and another resistor R = 1.0  . Use the
voltmeter to measure the voltage V across the resistor R and hence calculate the
current I flowing through resistor R. Record the values of R, V and I. now repeat the
procedure for values of R = 1.0  , 1.5  , 2.0  , and 3.5  and tabulate all the
values of R, I and V.
(a) Plot a graph of V(vertical axis) against I (horizontal axis)
(b) Find the gradient D of the graph
(c) Determine the resistance r of the resistor P given that V = k – rI where k is constant.
15. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistance of one metre resistance wire
and hence its resistivity. Proceed as follows
(a) Connect the cell, ammeter, tapping key, Rheostat and one metre resistance wire for
which the resistance and resistivity is to be determined.
(b) Switch on the current and adjust the rheostat to obtain suitable readings on the
Ammeter and voltmeter and take the readings.
(c) Apply Ohm`s law to calculate the resistance of the one metre resistance wire.
(d) Take the micrometer screw gauge provided to determine the diameter of the wire at
three different positions and find the average of the diameters
(e) Then determine the resistivity of the resistance wire.
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16. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistance of X by metre bridge
method. Set up the experiment diagram. Connect the unknown resistance X in a gap
CD and 5  resistances in a gap FH. A cell Z is connected across AB. Connect zero
centre galvanometer G between E and jockey J. find the balance point along AB
where no current flows through G when jockey is in contact with AB at P. Record the
length L1 andL2. Interchange the position of X and R and record L1and L2
(a) Table of results
X at CD(  ) X at FH(  )
L1(cm)
L2(cm)
(b) Show expression to find X

(c) Calculate the resistance of X at CD
(d) Calculate the resistance of X at FH
(e) What is the importance of interchanging positions of X and R?
(f) Find the resistance X
17. You are required to determine the unknown resistance labeled X using a metre bridge
circuit. Connect your circuit, where R is a resistance box is a galvanometer, J is a
jockey and other are common circuit components.
Procedure;
With R = 1  , obtain a balance point on the metre bridge wire AB using a jockey J.
note the length L in centimeters. Repeat the experiment with R equal to 2  , 4  , 7
1
 , and 10  . Tabulate your results for R, L and
L
1
(a) (i)Plot a graph of R (vertical axis) against ( horizontal axis)
L
(ii) Determine the slope S of your graph
1
(iii) Using your graph, find the value of R for which = 0.02
L
(b) Read and record the intercept Ro on the vertical axis.
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100 X
(c) Given that R X use the equation and your graph to determine
L
the value of X
(d) Comment on your results in (a)(iii), (b) and (c) above
18. Determine the resistivity of the material of wire W by using Metre Bridge. Procedure
Connect the given apparatus. The ends of the wire W should be connected at the right
hand gap of your metre bridge.
(a) Find the balance point (the point where there is no deflection in the Galvanometer G)
of the metre bridge circuit with the jockey J when the value of the known resistance P
is 1.0ohm. Read and record the lengths L1 and L2 as indicated in the diagram.
(b) Repeat the process in (a) above by replacing the known resistance P with values
indicated in the table below and always reading and recording their corresponding
values of L1 and L2
P(  ) L1(cm) L2(cm) L1
L2
1
2
3
5
8
10
15
(c) Complete the table of values.

(d) Measure the length L of the wire W given and the diameter D of that wire by using
the micrometer screw gauge.
L1
(e) Plot a graph of P (vertical axis) against (horizontal axis)
L2
(f) Determine the slope S of your graph.
19. You‟re provided with the apparatus.

Proceed as follows;
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(a) Set up the experimental circuit. Connect a resistor of 2 ohm‟s on right gap and wire
(W) on the left gap
(b) Obtain a balance point when the length of the wire W, L= 15cm record the distance X
between A and P.
(c) Repeat the procedure for L= 20cm, 25cm, 30cm, 40cm and 50cm respectively.
1 1
(d) Tabulate the values of L, X, and
L X
1 1
(e) (i) plot a graph of against
L X
(ii)Determine the slope S of your graph
(iii) From the graph obtain the values of X for L = 80cm
(f) Find the slope S of the graph
(g) Determine the intercept Ro on the R- axis
(h) Deduce the value of X
(i) Suggest the suitable title for this experiment.
20. Connect up the circuit as shown below
Close key K and make contact with J so that AJ = 10cm. Record the current between
A and J as registered on the ammeter
Repeat this procedure for AJ = 20cm, 30cm, 50cm and 70cm.
(a) Tabulate your results for values of AJ and I

1
(b) Plot a graph of I (vertical axis) against AJ (horizontal axis)
(c) Calculate the slope of the graph
(d) What is your comment on the slope?
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(e) State any precautions on the experiment
21. The aim of experiment is to determine the resistance per meter of the wire M
provided.
(a) Connect the circuit as shown below;

(b) Starting with a length L = 0.10m, record the reading L of the meter.
(c) Repeat procedures (b) and (c) for L = 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.80, and
0.90m.
(d) Tabulate your results including values of .1/L
(e) Plot a graph of L against 1/L and find the slope M of the graph.
(f) Calculate the resistance per meter ,R from the equation
22. The aim of this experiment is to determine the resistivity, of the material of the wire
labeled W1.
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Set up the circuit as shown in figure above. E is an accumulator connected across the
potentiometer wire BD. Eo is a Daniel cell and G and C are the galvanometer and
contact maker respectively.
Across the Daniel Cell Eo is connected the key K1, wire W1 and the ammeter A in
series with one another.
a. With K1 open determine the balance length Yo corresponding to the emf of
the Daniel cell, Eo.
b. With K1 closed and about 50 cm of the wire W1 in the circuit as shown in
Fig. record the ammeter reading, I corresponding to the new balance length,
Y. Putting shorter lengths of W1 in the circuit, repeat this procedure for at
least 6 values of the length x of the wire W1 and record the corresponding
values of I and Y. Plot a graph of Y against Ix and determine its slope S
c. Measure the diameter, d of the wire W1 and determine its area, A of cross-
section.
d. Given that:
Where K is the resistance per unity length of the wire W1, determine the
value of K, and hence calculate the resistivity, of the material of the wire
labeled W1. Assume, Eo = 1.5 V
Table of results
X( cm) 50 40 30 20 15 10
Y cm
I( A)
IX(Acm)
0768738249/0620241910 Page 201

SOURCES OF ERRORS AND PRECAUTIONS

1. ZERO ERRORS.
The Zero error of galvanometer (or Ammeter and voltmeter when used)
Precaution
To check the position of a pointer and adjust (to set ) to the zero mark.
2. PARALLAX ERROR.
Parallax error in reading the galvanometer (or ammeter and Voltmeter when used),
meter bridge, Potential meter.
Precautions
Take a careful observation.
To use Galvanometer (or Ammeter and Voltmeter) which has mirrors in a scale?
3. ERROR DUE TO IMPROPER CALLIBRATION OF ASCALE.
The error due to improper calibration of a scale in Galvanometer (or Ammeter and
voltmeter)
Precautions
To use correct calibrated Galvanometer (Ammeter and Voltmeter when used), meter
bridge and potential meter.
4. Error due to thickness of the pointer in relation to the division of the scale
0768738249/0620241910 Page 202

0768738249/0620241910 Page 203

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PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL

Physics practical manual for secondary schools

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES

CALCULATED VALUE RESULTS

General equation of a curve;

1.3. HINTS OF GRAPH

A graph with positive slope and positive y-intercept- y = mx + c

 A graph with positive slope and zero intercept. y = mx

A graph with positive slope and negative y – intercept .y =mx-c

A graph with negative slope and positive intercept . y = -mx + c

1.4. USES OF GRAPH

2.1. SIMPLE PENDULUM

Period is a time taken for oscillating body to complete one oscillation

Length L (m) Time t for 50 osc(s) Period T(s) T2(s2)

v. Plot a graph of T2 against lengths of the thread L(m)

vi. Find the slope of the graph

Length L (m) Time t for 50osc (s) Period T(s) T2(s2)

(a) Plot the graph of lengths L(m) of the thread against T2

(a) Record the time t for 30 oscillations of the pendulum bob

(c) (i) Plot a graph ofT2 against X

(iv). Determine height H of the bench and give physical meaning of H

a) suspend a simple pendulum of length L = 150cm. displace the pendulum through a

Length (l) cm Log l Time (t) s Period (T) s Log T

d(cm) t(s) T(s) T2(S2)

a) Plot a graph of T2 against d

b) Determine gradient from the graph

c) Find the value of g from the relation below

d) Find the value of H and its physical meaning

e) State any source of errors and its precautions

iv. if T2 = -39.438[ Is the equation for the motion of the pendulum,

calculate the acceleration due to gravity of the pendulum.

5. Aim: To determine the value of acceleration due to gravity

(c) If the periodic time is related to by √

I. Calculate the value of g. (acceleration due to brevity)

i. Plot a graph of against b

(a) Record the time t for 30 oscillations of the pendulum bob

i. Plot a graph ofT2 against L

SOURCES OF ERRORS AND THEIR PRECAUTIONS IN SIMPLE

5. MECHANICAL VIBRATION (SETTING ERROR)

2.2. MOMENT OF FORCE

Clockwise moment =Anticlockwise moment

DETERMINE WEIGHT OF THE METER RULE

Nature of graph is a straight line passing through the origin

DETERMINE MASS OF METER RULE

From the diagram above

(c) Adjust a mass of 100g such

(d) Repeat the procedure above

(b) Arrange the apparatus as shown below

If w1 – is the weight of the rule find it

i) State any two source of error

g) What is the physical meaning of the constant k?

(c) By fixing a = 5cm from Find its corresponding length, b from C

(d) (i) complete the table above

g) What is the physical meaning of the constant k?

(c) Plot a graph of “b” against “a”

(f) a) (i). Read the b intercept given that ( )