Chapter-2 (Power System Security and Reactive Power Generation Control) 8 Hrs

Power System Operation and Control
Chapter- 2 (Power System Security and Reactive

Power Generation Control)~~~~~~~8 hrs
u System Security reactive power generation
u Optimal Power Flow Considering u Methods of supplying reactive
Security Contraints power
u Power Quality Constraints u Reactive power capability of
u Opeartional Constraints alternator
u Reactive Power Generation u Basic concept of reactive power
Control: Control strategy of dispatch
PSOC/ TN Tiwari 1
ü System Security
u System security involves practices designed to keep the system
operating when any components fail.
u By maintaining proper amounts of spinning reserve, the remaining
units on the system can make up the deficit without too low a
frequency drop or need to shed any load. Similarly, a transmission
line may be damaged by a storm and taken out by automatic
relaying. If, in committing and dispatching generation, proper regard
for transmission flows is maintained, the remaining transmission
lines can take the increased loading and still remain within limit.
u All equipment in a power system is designed such that it can be
disconnected from the network. such disconnection are generally
scheduled outages and forced outages.
PSOC/ TN Tiwari/ Chapter-2 “Power System Security and Reactive Power Generation Control” 2
ü System Security
u Scheduled Outages are typically done to perform maintenance or
replacement of the equipment, and, as its name implies, the time of
disconnect is scheduled by operators to minimize the impact on the
reliability of the system.
u Forced Outages are those that happen at random and may be due to
internal component failures or outside influences such as lightning,
wind stroms, ice buildup, etc.
u If a forced outage occurs on a system that leaves it operating with
limits violated on other components, the event may cause a series of
further failures, the entire system or large parts of it may
completely collapse, usually referred to as a system blackout.
ü System Security
u Example of blackout~ Start from a insulation failure somewhere…
cascading outages~
u NERC (n-1) rule:
u NERC stands form North American Electric Reliability Corporation that
sets the reliability standards for all electric system.
u (n-1) refers to a system with n components, and n − 1 is its state with
one component out. The NERC (n − 1) rule states that no single outage
will result in other components experiencing flow or voltage limit
violations.
u Most large power systems install equipment to allow operations
personnel to monitor and operate the system in a reliable manner.
ü System Security
u System security can be broken down into three major functions that
are carried out in an operations control center:
1. System monitoring
2. Contingency analysis
3. Security-constrained optimal power flow
Ø Effective operation of the system required that critical quantities be
measured & the values of the measurements be transmitted to a
central location. Such systems of measurement and data transmission,
called energy management systems (EMS), have evolved to schemes
that can monitor voltages, currents, power flows, and the status of
circuit breakers and switches in every substation in a power system
transmission network.
ü System Security
u State estimation is often used in such systems to combine telemetered
system data with system models to produce the best estimate (in a
statistical sense) of the current power system conditions or “state.”
u Such systems are usually combined with supervisory control systems that
allow operators to control circuit breakers and disconnect switches and
transformer taps remotely. Together, these systems are often referred to
as SCADA systems, standing for supervisory control and data acquisition
system. The SCADA system allows a few operators to monitor the
generation and high-voltage transmission systems and to take action to
correct overloads or out-of-limit voltages.
u Power System Operation has been characterized as one of four modes:
u Normal/ Alert/ Emergency/ Restoration
ü System Security
u Normal usually means that there are no alarms being presented and
contingency analysis is not reporting any contingencies that would
cause overloads or voltage violations.
u Alert means that either an alarm has been presented to the operator
or the contingency analysis programs have presented the possibility
of a contingency problem.
u Emergency would indicate serious alarm messages that the operators
must act on immediately and threaten to cause major shutdowns of
power system equipment or even parts of the system.
u Restoration comes if the system does in fact lose equipment or part
of the system or even most of it is shut down or blacked out.
Restoration can take many hours if large generators are involved.
ü System Security
u The second major security function is contingency analysis. The
results of this type of analysis allow systems to be operated
defensively. Many of the problems that occur on a power system can
cause serious trouble within such a quick time period that the
operator cannot take action fast enough once the process is started.
u The third major security function is security-constrained optimal

power flow. In this function, a contingency analysis is combined with
an optimal power flow that seeks to make changes to the optimal
dispatch of generation, as well as other adjustments, so that when a
security analysis is run, no contingencies result in violations.
ü Optimal Power Flow Considering Security Contraints
Operating objectives Power System:
u Normal state dispatch: This is the state that the power system is in
prior to any contingency. It is optimal with respect to economic
operation, but it may not be secure.
u Post-contingency: This is the state after a contingency has occurred.
We shall assume here that this condition has a security violation.
u Secure dispatch: This is the objective with no contingency outages is
to correct the operating parameters for security violations.
u Secure post-contingency: The objective is to re-mediate the
contingency as applied to the base-operating condition with
corrections.
ü Optimal Power Flow Considering Security Contraints
ü Factors Affecting Power System Security:
u As a consequence of many widespread blackouts in interconnected
power systems, the priorities for operation have evolved to the
following:
v Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably.
v Within the constraints placed on the system operation by reliability
considerations, the system will be operated most economically.
u Reliability Issue: This means that adequate generation has been
installed to meet the load and adequate transmission has been
installed to deliver the generated power to the load.
// If the operation of the system went on without sudden failures or
without experiencing unanticipated operating states, we would
probably have no reliability problems.
ü Factors Affecting Power System Security:
u Most power systems are designed to have sufficient redundancy (i.e.,
extra transmission lines, reserve generation, etc.) to withstand all
major failure events, but this does not guarantee that the system
will be 100% reliable.
u Within the design and economic limitations, it is the job of the
operators to try to maximize the reliability of the system.
u Transmission-line failures cause changes in the flows and voltages on
the transmission equipment remaining connected to the system.
u Generation failures can also cause flows and voltages to change in
the transmission system, with the addition of dynamic problems
involving system frequency and generator output.
ü Contingenecy Analysis: Detection of Netwrok Problems:
u Generation Outages:
When a generator suffers a forced outage, it causes changes in other
generators as well as changes in the transmission system.
u Effect on Other Generations. When a generator fails, its power output is lost,
and the result is an imbalance between total load plus losses and total
generation. This imbalance results in a drop in frequency, which must be
restored. To restore frequency back to its nominal value (50Hz or 60Hz),
other generators must make up the loss of power from the outaged
generator. The proportion of the lost power made up by each generator is
strictly determined by its governor droop characteristic.
u Effects on Transmission: When generation is lost, much of the made up power
will come from tie lines, and this can mean line flow limit or bus voltage
limit violations. (Remember: Spinning reserve / Transmission Flow & Voltage)
u Transmission Outages:
When a transmission line or transformer fails and is disconnected, the
flow on that line goes to zero and all flows nearby will be affected. The
result can be a line flow limit or bus voltage limit violation. The
operators may seek to model and calculate the outage effects from an
outage of every line and transformer in the system.
u Double Outages: An even more difficult analysis is to check all pairs of possible
simultaneous outages, which is denoted (n − 2). Thus, all pairs of generators, and all
pairs of transmission lines as well as pairs of single generator outages plus a possible
single transmission-line outage at the same time would have to be analyzed. This (n
− 2) analysis is much more difficult because of the extremely large number of cases
to model. The usual practice is to only study a few of the (n − 2) cases that are
known by experience to be the most serious cases.
u Reactive Losses:
u The reactive losses in the transmission system have a big effect on the
voltages at the buses. There are two components to the reactive losses: the
MVAR consumed by the line and transformer inductive reactance calculated
as : ∑!"" "#$%& " 𝐼"' 𝑥"
u Note that the reactive power consumed by the transmission lines is proportional to
the square of the line current. As lines become heavily loaded, this term goes up and
more reactive power must be supplied from some other resource.
u The next term is the reactive power injected back into the power system by the
capacitive charging of the transmission line, which we model as a capacitance
at each end of the line. This term, because it is feeding reactive power into the
network, is a negative loss. Its calculation is:
Operations Needs to Know What Outages
Will Cause Problems. Operations personnel
must know which line or generation outages
will cause flows or voltages to fall outside
limits. To predict the effects of outages,
contingency analysis techniques are used.
Contingency analysis procedures model single
failure events (i.e., one-line outage or one-
generator outage) or multiple equipment
failure events (i.e., two transmission lines, one
transmission line plus one generator, etc.), one
after another in sequence until “all credible
outages” have been studied. For each outage
tested, the contingency analysis procedure
checks all lines and voltages in the network
against their respective limits. The simplest
form of such a contingency analysis technique
is shown in Figure 7.2.
ü Voltage Collapse:
u When the reactive power required by (
u I𝑃 𝑉, 𝜃 = −𝑉. sin(𝜃)
)
the transmission system becomes
(+ ,-. / .(12)
inadequate, we say that the power And, 𝑄 𝑉, 𝜃 = −𝑉. )
system goes through a “voltage
collapse.” Voltage collapse can be u If we use relationship between Q and
best explained by the trivial example P as Q = tan(∅).P, then we get the
shown in Figure 7.7. plot for various values of tan(∅) as
shown in figure 7.8.è called as the
“nose curve”, because of its shape.
u When the load draws reactive power
tan 𝜃 ≥ 0 , the voltage drops off as
P increases. Similarly, if load
produces reactive power (tan(𝜃) ≤
u IF we solve the power flow equations
for the load bus, we get: 0), the Voltages rises abovr 1.0 pu.
u This shows reactive compensation.
Let us assume that the system was
supplying about 330 MW and gave
adequate reactive support to result in a
pre-disturbance voltage within limits.
The disturbance results in loss of
transmission, and resulting new voltage
characteristic no longer even intersects
the vertical line at 330 MW and we then
have a situation where the power flow
cannot be solved. Under such
conditions, the voltage will collapse and
the whole power system will go down.
Thus, AC power flow methods is used to
be sure this kind of condition.
u The simplest AC security analysis procedure consists of
running an AC power flow analysis for each possible
generator, transmission line, and transformer outage as
shown in Figure 7.10.
u This procedure will determine the overloads and voltage
limit violations accurately .
u It does suffer a major drawback, that concerns the time
such a program takes to execute. If the list of outages
has several thousand entries, then the total time to test
for all of the outages can be too long (Figure 7.10).
u AC power flow methods give full accuracy about MVAR
flows and voltages but take too long.
u Because of the way the power system is designed and
operated, very few of the outages will actually cause
trouble.
u Only a few of the power flow solutions will, in fact,
conclude that an overload or voltage violation exists.
ü Power Quality Constraints
u The precision, quality, features, and performance of electrical
devices depend on the quality of the current that powers them.
u The factors that basically characterize quality of electricity service
are set out briefly below:
u Supply outages: Supply interruptions may have serious consequences
for consumers. Interruptions~ the harm caused increases nonlinearly
with the duration of the outage.
u Voltage drops: Momentary dip in supply voltage caused by system short
circuits or failures, or due to the start-up of nearby motors with high
input demand while switching on. Some devices are sensitive to these
drops, particularly motors whose electromagnetic torque varies with
the square of the supply voltage.
ü Power Quality Constraints
u Voltage wave harmonics: Deviations from the fundamental frequency of
the voltage sine wave due to the saturation of ferromagnetic materials, in
system transformers or generators, for instance, or to the loads
themselves; these deviations may also have adverse effects on consumer
appliances.
u Flicker: Low-frequency fluctuations in voltage amplitude normally due to
certain types of loads. Arc furnaces and electronic devices with thyristors
usually cause flicker.
u Overvoltage: Voltage increases caused by short circuits, faults, lightning,
or any other event, potentially causing severe damage to consumer
appliances.
u Electric power consumption may vary with temperature or contingencies.
ü Opeartional Constraints
u For a responsible system operator, the “security” of the system can
be quantified in terms of its capability of remaining in a feasible
state, without violating any of the imposed operational limits. In
other words, the ability to maintain the desired state against
predictable changes (demand and generation evolution) and
unpredictable events called contingencies.
u The correct comprehension of the role played by the different
activities involved in the system operation implies classifying of the
possible system states as a function of the security degree. This
classification is based on the one proposed by DyLiacco in Ref. 1.
Using it as a starting point, we define the system states presented in
Figure 6.1.
ü Opeartional Constraints
u The power system is in a normal
state when demand and all the
operational constraints are
satisfied, i.e. all generators ae
rest of the equipment work
within design limits.
u If there is no limit violation but u The role played by the different
the safety criteria are not activities involved in the system
accomplished, then the operation implies classifying of
network is said to be in an alert the possible system states as a
state. function of the security degree.
ü Reactive Power IEEE Definition
u The reactive power is well-defined in the IEEE Standard Dictionary
100-1996 under the energy “magner” as:
𝑅𝑃 = ∑$
!"# 𝑉! 𝐼! sin(𝜑! ),
Where, Vn and In are rms values of Voltage & Current of nth harmonics.
𝜑! is the phase difference between the V & I of nth harmonics
u An agreement is also adopted stating that the reactive energy should
be positive for inductive load.
u Reactive Power Calculation (P-172):
u Power Triangle
u Time Delay
u Low Pass Filter
ü Reactive Power Generation Control: Control strategy of
reactive power generation
u The active power is the real power consumed by the load. Whereas,
the reactive power is the useless power.
u True power = voltage x current in phase with the voltage
u Reactive power = voltage x current out of phase with the voltage
u The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both
the directions in the circuit or reacts upon itself, is called Reactive
Power. The reactive power is measured in kilo volt-ampere reactive
(kVAR) or MVAR.
u The reactive power do not produce directly the useful effects (light,
heat, mechanical work etc.), so the reactive power is the
useless power.
ü Reactive Power Generation Control:
Ø The reactive power is the
product of voltage and current
and the sine of the angle
between them.
Ø The main reactive power
consumers are the asynchronous
motors and the electrical
transformers which consume
60% & 25% respectively due to
producing alternating magnetic
fields.
u Reactive power is generated when the current waveform is not in

phase with the voltage waveform because of inductive or capacitive
components.
u Only the component of current in phase with voltage generates
active power that does the real work.
u Reactive power is required for producing the magnetic and electric
fields in capacitors and inductors.
u Power transmission lines have both capacitive and inductive
properties.
u A typical transmission line can be presented by a PI equivalent
model as shown in Fig. 3.1.
ü The above expression shows that an ideal line (with zero resistance) loaded at
its surge impedance loading does not produce or consume reactive power, so it
will have the same voltage at both ends.
ü When a line is loaded above its SIL, it acts like a shunt reactor which are
absorbing the reactive power from the system, and when a line is loaded below
its SIL, it acts like a shunt capacitor which are supplying the reactive power to
the system [1].
ü Balance of both consumption & production of reactive power at a particular
loading results into a flat voltage profile along the line.
ü Basic Principles of Power Transmission Operation:
Ø A transmission system is a complicated network of the transmission lines which
connect all power substations to the loads.
Ø The AC systems can be connected together by the transmission lines to create a
large power system for exchanging electrical energy.
Ø In a power system, the goal is to use the transmission lines with the least
possible power losses and to maximize its loading capability by considering
emergency conditions all the time.
Ø But some factors limit the loading capability of transmission systems, which
are as follows:
v Thermal Limit/ Voltage Limit/ Stability Limit
Thermal Limit:
u The thermal limit of an overhead transmission line is reached when the current
flow heats the conductor material up to a temperature above which the
conductor material gradually looses mechanical strength.
u The thermal capability is a function of environment temperature, wind
conditions, conductor conditions and its distance from the ground.
u Excessive heat causes that the transmission lines loose its mechanical resistance
and reduce its expected useful life time.
u Current flow over the heat capability is allowed only for a short & limited time.
u The normal and nominal current capacity of a transmission line is a current that
can be flown over the line for an unlimited time.
u The line current I can be divided into two components: 𝐼 = 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where, 𝜃 is the phase difference between the line voltage and current.
Thermal Limit:
u So, the line losses can be obtained as follow:
𝑃 = 𝑅 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 ≅ 𝑅 (I cos𝜃)2 + 𝑅 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 = P + P’
u Where, P’ = R(I sin⍬)2 is the reactive power losses. By reducing reactive power,
the line losses are decreased & consequently loading capacity is increased.
u Methods that help to increase the loading capacity of a transmission line:
u Phase shifting of transformers
u Series capacitors or series reactors to adjust the impedances of the lines
u FACTS elements to control the reactive power flows using power electronics.
// The phase shifting transformers and series capacitors or series reactors are
usually the less expensive options while FACTS are very flexible and also more
costly.
Voltage Limit:
u Voltage limits require to be maintained within ±5% of the nominal voltage.
u The voltage in the transmission line can be changed by the change of the
load or occurrence of the fault in transmission and distribution lines. In
these cases, it should be noted that the dynamic and transient voltages
should be remained within a given range.
u If the line voltage exceeds more than the maximum rated value, it can
result in a short circuit and may cause damage to equipment in the s/s.
u The voltage in AC transmission line is almost related to the level of
reactive current of the line as well as line’s reactance.
u Capacitors and reactors can be installed on the lines to control the voltage
changes along the line.
Stability Limit:
u Power system stability is the ability of the power system to remain in a
balanced condition during normal operation of the system and to bring
back balanced conditions within minimum possible time after the
occurrence of disturbance.
v Steady state stability refers to system power stability in response to small
disturbances and continuous changes in the load. Steady state stability can be
improved by
q Increasing the voltage level of the network
q Adding new lines to the transmission system
q Reducing the series reactance of the line with bundling the lines,
with installation of series capacitors along the line.
Stability Limit:
v Transient stability
qtransient stability is the ability of the system in damping the
oscillations due to severe disturbances [6], for instance, the reaction
of the voltage to faults in the transmission system caused by events
such as lightning.
qTransient stability of the system can be improved by increasing the
system voltage and increasing the X/R ratio of the power system. An
increase in the system voltage profile and X/R ratio implies an
increase in the power transfer ability. Thus it helps to improve the
stability.
Stability Limit:
v Dynamic stability
u The ability of a power system to maintain stability under sudden small
disturbances is investigated under the name of dynamic stability (also known
as small-signal stability). For instance, power oscillations occurring from
disconnection of large amounts of generation or load, or switching of some of
the lines.
v Voltage stability
Ø Voltage Stability is the ability of the system to maintain steady state
voltages at all the system buses when subjected to a disturbance.
Ø Voltage instability causes voltage collapse in which the buses’ voltage
begins to drop progressively and uncontrollably.
ü Methods of supplying reactive power
u Reactive Power can be generated by power plants, capacitors, static
compensators and synchronous condensers.
u Reactive power generation by power plant has two problems:
u The reactive power generation capacity of a power plant is
limited, &
u This huge power occupies the capacity of transmission line,
transformers, and imposes some losses in the system.
u Presence of reactive power sources near to the load not only reduce
the costs, but also increase the capacity of the transmission line.
u Parallel Capacitors: Based on the amount of voltage drop, parallel capacitor
banks are connected to the network & provide the required reactive power. It
increases the load power factor and the active power capacity of transformers.
u Series Capacitors:
u Used to reduce the impedance of the transmission lines which increases the
power transmission capacity and reduces the voltage drop.
u Used for dynamic stability and prevention of Sub-Synchronous Resonance
(SSR). & also used to compensate the series inductive effect of lines by
creating a negative reactance.
u Capacitive reactance should always be less than inductive reactance, and
this condition is considered to determine the capacity of the series capacitor.
Lack of attention to this condition may result in over-compensation at the
end of the line, which is not desired.
u Reactors: Reactors are reactive power consumers which are mostly installed in
substations and at the end of long transmission lines in parallel.
u A circuit breaker is installed with reactors to connect them to the network, when it
is needed.
u The reactor is switched on when the network load is minimum, and it is switched off
when the network load is high.
u Synchronous Condenser: A synchronous condenser is a synchronous motor, which
is running at no load and can be operated as an inductor or a capacitor by
controlling its excitation current.
u The machine has three operating states, based on the power factor:
under-excited state, normal-excited state, and over-excited state.
u Under-excited synchronous motor draws both active and reactive power from the
network. Over-excited draws active power, while delivers reactive power to the
network. A normal-excited motor draws only active power.
u Reactive Power Control Transformer: Reactive power control transformers
adjust secondary voltage by tap changer and as a result, keep the reactive
power within a specified range.
u Static Reactive Power Generators with Variable Impedance: Static reactive
power generators with variable impedance change the reactive power amount
by switching the capacitor banks and reactors. The aim of the approach is to
provide variable impedance for compensation of the transmission system.
u Thyristor Controlled Reactor, TCR
u Thyristor Switched Reactor, TSR
u Thyristor Switched Capacitor, TSC
u Fixed Capacitor TCR
u TSC- TCR
u TS Series Capacitor, TSSC
u Thyristor- Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
u Thyristor- Controlled Series Reactor
u Static Reactive Power Generators Based on the Power Electronic Converters:
More recently, interruptible (self-commutated) thyristors and other power semi-
conductors are used to generate and to absorb reactive power, without the use
of ac capacitors or reactors, in which the output voltage is controlled for
generating the required reactive power. So, a static reactive power
compensator with a power electronic convertor is a system, which can provide
controlled reactive current from an AC power source.
u STATic Synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM)
u Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)
u Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
STATic synchronous COMpensator
ü Reactive power capability of alternator
u The Capability Curve of a
Synchronous Generator defines a
boundary within which the machine
can operate safely.
u It is also known as Operating
Charts or Capability Charts.
u The capability curve is based upon
the phasor diagram of the
synchronous machine.
u The phasor diagram of a cylindrical
rotor alternator at lagging p.f. is
shown in figure:
u The permissible region of operation is restricted to the following
points given below:
u The MVA loading should not exceed the generator rating. This limit is
determined by the stator heating due to the armature current.
u The MW loading should not exceed the rating of the prime mover.
u The field current should not be allowed to exceed a specified
value determined by the heating of the field.
u For steady-state or stable operation, the load angle δ must be less
than 90 degrees. The theoretical stability limit of the stable
condition occurs when δ = 90⁰.
ü Basic concept of reactive power dispatch
u The reactive power dispatch problem has a significant influence on secure and
economic operation of power systems.
u The reactive power generation, although itself having no production cost, does
however affect the overall generation cost by the way of the transmission loss.
u A procedure which allocates the reactive power generation so as to minimize
the transmission loss will consequently result in the lowest production cost for
which the operation constraints are satisfied.
u The operation constraints may include reactive power source capabilities, nodal
voltages, phase angles and transformer tap position.
u The conventional gradient-based optimization algorithms have been widely used
to solve this problem for decades.
ü Basic concept of reactive power dispatch
u An adaptive genetic algorithm has been developed for determination of the
global optimum solution for optimal reactive power dispatch and voltage
control of power systems.
u In the adaptive genetic algorithm, the probabilities of crossover and mutation,
p c and p m, are varied depending on the fitness values of the solutions and the
normalized fitness distances between the solutions. By this approach, the
simulated-annealling-like strategy has been replaced, which is relative to the
reproduction numbers in the evolutionary process.
u The performance of the proposed algorithm demonstrated through its
evaluation on the IEEE 30-bus power system shows that the AGA is able to
undertake global search with a fast convergence rate and a feature of robust
computation.
u From the simulation study, it has been found that the AGA converges to the
global optimum.
Flowchart of Adaptive Genetic Algorithm & IEEE 30-bus PS:
CHAPTER-2
PSOC/ TN Tiwari 49

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Power System Operation and Control

Chapter- 2 (Power System Security and Reactive

u The third major security function is security-constrained optimal

u Reactive power is generated when the current waveform is not in

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