AS
Biology:
Cells
 1



 Cell
Structure



Units
of
Measurement
in
Biology




Micrometre

 µm
 0.000
001
 One
millionth


Nanometre
 nm
 0.000
000
001
 One
thousand

millionth



Light
Microscope:




‐ Can
achieve
a
maximum
magnification
of
x1500

‐ Resolution
of
200nm

‐ Inexpensive

‐ Can
view
thin
specimens
of
almost
anything.
Can
still
be
alive.

‐ Cannot
give
detailed
information
about
internal
cell
structure.


‐ In
colour

‐ Staining
might
be
used
to
help
the
specimen
be
seen
clearly.






Scanning
Electron
Microscope:



‐ Can
achieve
a
maximum
magnification
of
x100
000

‐ Electrons
beamed
onto
the
sample
and
are
bounced
off.


‐ You
get
a
3D
image
of
the
surface
of
the
specimen.


‐ Resolution:
0.1
nm

‐ No
colour

‐ Samples
must
be
dead
as
sample
must
be
in
vacuum.


‐ Expensive,
need
for
skill
and
training.




Transmission
Electron
Microscope:



‐ Can
achieve
a
maximum
magnification
of
x500
000

‐ Electrons
pass
through
very
thin
sections
of
a
specimen.


‐ Electrons
pass
through
denser
areas
less
easily
giving
contrast.


‐ Final
image
is
2D
and
no
colour.


‐ Resolution:
0.1
nm

‐ Samples
must
be
dead
as
sample
must
be
in
vacuum.


‐ Expensive,
need
for
skill
and
training.






Magnification:
The
number
of
times
greater
an
image
is
than
the
object

Resolution:
The
ability
to
distinguish
two
separate
points
as
distinct
from

each
other.













Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 2


Calculating
Magnification:




Actual
Size
=
Image
Size/Magnification





Cell
Ultrastructure:





Nucleus:


The
largest
organelle.


Houses
nearly
all
genetic
material.


Chromatin
consists
of
DNA
and
proteins
and

has
instructions
for
making
protein,
some
of

which
regulate
cell
activity.


Nucleolus
makes
RNA
and
ribosomes.






Endoplasmic
Reticulum:



 
 

ER
consists
of
a
series
of
flattened
membrane
bound

sacs
called
cisternae.
Rough
ER
is
studded
with

ribsosomes.
Smooth
ER
is
not.
Rough
ER
transports

proteins
that
were
made
on
the
attached
ribsosomes.

Some
of
these
proteins
may
be
excreted
by
the
cell.

Some
will
be
placed
on
the
cell
surface
membrane.

Smooth
ER
is
involved
in
making
the
cells
lipids.




Golgi
Apparatus:




A
stack
of
membrane
bound
flattened
sacks.
GA
receives

proteins
from
the
ER
and
modifies
them.
It
may
add
sugar

molecules
to
them.
Then
packages
proteins
into
vesicles

(small
fluid
filled
sacs)
so
they
can
be
transported.























Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 3






Mitochondria:




The
inner
membrane
is
highly
folded
to
form
cristae.

ATP
(adenosine
triphosphate)
is
produced
here

during
respiration.
Almost
all
activities
that
require

energy
in
the
cell
requite
ATP.














Chloroplasts:


Outer
and
inner
membrane
separated
by
fluid

filled
space.
Filled
with
elaborate
network
of

flattened
membrane
found
sacks
called

thylakoids.
A
stack
of
thylakoids
is
called
a

granum
(plural
grana).
Chlorophyll

molecules

are
present
on
the
surface
of
granum.








Lysosomes:



Spherical
sacks
surrounded
by
a
single
membrane
and
one
of
the
smallest

organelles.
Contain
powerful
digestive
enzymes.
Then
digest
unwanted
elements

and
wastes.
Eg.
white
blood
cell
lysosomes
break
down
microorganisms.

Acrosome
in
the
head
of
a
sperm
cell
helps
break
down
the
material
surrounding

the
egg.




Ribosomes:


Some
in
cytoplasm
sounds
bound
to
ER.
They
are
the
site
of
protein
synthesis
in

the
cell.
Coded
information
(mRNA)
from
the
nucleus
is
used
to
assemble

proteins
from
amino
acids.




Centrioles:


They
are
small
tubes
of
protein
fibres
(microtubles).
There
is
a
pair
of
them
next

to
the
nucleus
in
animal
cells.
They
are
integral
to
cell
division.
They
form
fibres

known
as
the
spindle,
which
move
chromosomes
during
division.




Flagella
and
cilia:


Hair‐like
extensions
on
the
surface
of
cells.
They
use
ATP
energy
and
can
help

move
the
cell
and
in
the
throat
waft
mucus
to
the
mouth.



Plasma
Membrane:


Made
of
protein
and
lipids.
Regulated
the
movement
of
substances
in
and
out
of

the
cell.
Receptor
molecules
allow
it
to
response
to
chemicals
like
hormones.



Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 4


Cell
Wall:

Made
of
cellulose.
Supports
the
plant
cells.




Eukaryotes
or
Prokaryotes?




Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Extremely
small
(less
than
two
 Larger
cells
(2‐200
micrometres)

micrometres)


DNA
is
circular
 DNA
in
linear

No
nucleus
–
DNA
free
in
cytoplasm.

 DNA
inside
nucleus.


Cell
wall
made
of
polysaccharide
but
 No
cell
wall
in
animals.
Cellulose
cell

not
cellulose
or
chitin.

 wall
in
plants
or
chitin
cell
wall
in

fungi.


Few
organelles,
no
mitochondria.

 Many
organelles.


Small
ribosomes
 Large
ribosomes.


Eg.
E.Coli
Bacterium

 Human
liver
cell





How
organelles
are
involved
in
protein
production.



1) Proteins
made
at
the
ribosomes.


2) Ribosomes
that
are
attached
to
the
rough
ER
make
proteins
that
are

excreted
or
attached
to
the
cell
membrane.

3) The
free
ribosomes
in
the
cytoplasm
make
proteins
that
stay
in
the

cytoplasm.


4) New
proteins
produced
at
the
rough
ER
are
folded
and
processed
eg.

Adding
sugar
chains.


5) They
are
transported
in
vesicles
from
the
rough
ER
to
the
Golgi

apparatus.


6) Golgi
apparatus
further
processes
them,
possibly
adding
or
trimming

sugars.


7) The
Golgi
apparatus
packs
them
into
new
vesicles
to
be
transported

around
the
cell.
Eg.
Glycoprotein
found
in
mucus
are
excreted.



Cytoskeleton:




The
cytoplasm
has
a
network
of
protein
threads
running
through
it.
This
is
called

the
cytoskeleton.
The
eukaryotes
the
cytoskeleton
is
made
up
from

microfilaments
(small
solid
strands)
and
microtubules
(tiny
protein
cylinders)

‐ They
keep
the
organelles
in
place.

‐ Strengthen
cell
and
help
maintain
its
shape.

‐ Transport
material
in
the
cell
and
are
key
in
cell
division
as
they
move
the

chromosomes
with
the
help
of
microtubles.

‐ By
controlling
the
cilia
and
flagella
they
can
move
the
cell.




Animal
Cell
vs.
Plant
Cell:



Plant
cells
have
all
the
same
organelles
with
a
few
extras.
Chloroplasts,
cell
wall

and
vacuole.



Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 5


Cell
Membranes



Rolls
of
Plasma
(cell
surface)
Membranes:



‐ Separating
cell
content
from
out
side
environment.


‐ Cell
recognition
and
signaling.

‐ Regulating
transport
in
and
out
of
cell.




Plasma
(cell
surface)
membranes
are
partially
permeable
barriers.

Substances
can
move
my
diffusion,
osmosis
or
active
transport.




Rolls
of
cell
membranes
within
the
cell:



‐ Separating
cell
components
from
cytoplasm.


‐ Membranes
of
some
organelles
are
folded
increasing
the
surface
area
eg.

mitochondria.


‐ They
can
form
vesicles
to
transport
substances
between
different
areas
of

cell.


‐ They
control
which
substances
enter
and
leave
the
organelle
as
they
are

also
partially
permeable.


‐ 

Fluid
Mosaic
Structure:




Diagram
from
CGP
p.12

First
suggested
in
1972
the
FMS
was
used

to
describe
the
arrangements
of
molecules

in
the
membrane.


In
this
model,
phospholipid
molecules

form
a
continuous
bi‐layer.

The
bi‐layer
is
describes
as
fluid
as
the

phospholipids
are
constantly
moving.




Phospholipid
Bi­layer:
Phospholipid
molecules
have
a
hydrophilic
head
and
a

hydrophobic
tail.
The
molecules
automatically
arrange
themselves
into
a
bi‐layer

with
the
heads
facing
outwards.
This
means
the
centre
of
the
bi‐layer
is
repels

water
and
stops
water‐soluble
substances
passing
through.




Cholesterol:
Present
in
all
cell
membranes
and
they
fit
between
the

phospholipids.
They
bind
to
the
hydrophobic
tails
causing
them
to
be
packed

more
closely
together
and
become
more
rigid
–
giving
the
membrane
structure.




Protein:
Some
proteins
form
channels
in
the
membrane.
These
allow
small
or

charged
particles
through.
Carrier
proteins
transport
molecules
and
ions
across

the
membrane
by
active
transport
and
facilitated
diffusion.
Proteins
also
act
as

receptors
for
molecules
in
cell
signaling.
When
a
molecule
binds
to
the
protein
a

chemical
reaction
is
triggered
inside
the
cell.



Glycolipids
and
Glycoproteins:
Stabilise
the
membrane
by
forming
hydrogen

bonds
with
surrounding
water
molecules.
They’re
also
the
sites
where
drugs,


Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 6


hormones
and
antibodies
bind.
They
act
as
receptors
in
cell
signaling.
They
can

also
at
as
antigens.




Temperature:




1. Temperatures
below
O
degrees
Celsius.
Phospholipids
don’t
have
much

energy
so
can’t
move
much.
They’re
densely
packed
and
membrane
is

rigid.
The
membrane
becomes
more
permeable
as
channel
and
carrier

proteins
de‐nature.

2. Temperatures
between
0
and
45
degrees
Celsius.
Movement
freer.

Membrane
is
partially
permeable.
As
the
temperature
increases
the

phospholipids
move
more
increasing
the
permeability
of
the
membrne.


3. Temperatures
above
45
degrees
Celsius.
Bi‐layer
begins
to
melt
and
break

down.
Water
inside
cell
expands
putting
more
pressure
on
the
membrane.

Chanel
proteins
and
carrier
proteins
in
the
membrane
de‐nature
so
they

can’t
control
what
comes
in
and
out
of
the
cell.




Cell
Signaling:




Cells
need
to
communicate
with
each
other
to
control
processes
inside
the
body

and
to
respond
to
changes
in
the
environment.




Cells
communicate
with
messenger
molecules.
One
cell
releases
a
messenger

molecule
(eg.
hormone).
This
molecule
travels
to
another
cell
(eg.
via
the
blood).

The
cell
detects
the
messenger
molecule
because
it
binds
to
a
receptor
on
its
cell

membrane.




Receptor
proteins
have
specific
shapes.
Only
messenger
molecules
with

complimentary
shapes
can
bind
to
them
and
different
cells
have
different
types

of
receptors
so
they
respond
to
different
messenger
molecules.




A
cell
that
responds
to
a
particular
messenger
molecule
is
called
a
target
cell.




Example:
Glucagon
is
a
hormone
that
is
released
when
there
isn’t
enough
glucose

in
the
blood.
It
binds
to
receptors
on
liver
cells
causing
the
liver
cells
to
break
down

stores
of
glycogen
to
glucose.




Drugs
work
by
binding
to
receptors
in
cell
membranes.




Example:
Histamine
binds
to
receptors
on
the
surface
of
other
cells
and
cause

inflammation.
Antihistamines
work
by
blocking
histamine
receptors
on
the
cell

surface.

















Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 7


Transport
Across
Cell
Membranes:




Passive
Processes:


Diffusion
is
the
net
movement
of
particles
from
an
area
of
high
concentration
to

an
area
of
low
concentration
until
there
is
an
even
distribution.
The

concentration
gradient
is
the
path
from
an
area
of
high
concentration
to
low

concentration.
Particles
diffuse
down
a
concentration
gradient.


Particles
can
diffuse
across
a
plasma
membrane
as
long
as
they
can
move
freely

through
the
membrane
eg.
oxygen
and
carbon
dioxide
are
small
enough
to
pass

easily
through
the
bi­layer.




Facilitated
Diffusion
occurs
when
some
larger
molecules,
such
as
amino
acids

and
glucose,
can’t
diffuse
directly
through
the
phospholipid
bi‐layer.
Instead
they

diffuse
through
carrier
proteins
or
channel
proteins.


Facilitated
diffusion
is
also
particles
moving
down
a
concentration
gradient.




The
rate
of
diffusion
depends
on:

‐The
concentration
gradient.
The
higher
it
is
the
faster
diffusion
will
occur.


‐The
distance
that
must
be
travelled
–
the
shorter
the
distance
the
faster
the

process.


‐The
surface
area
–
the
larger
the
surface
are
the
faster
diffusion.




Active
Transport:


Active
transport
uses
energy
to
move
molecules
and
ions
across
plasma

membranes,
against
a
concentration
gradient.
This
process
involves
carrier

proteins.




1) A
molecule
attaches
to
a
carrier
protein,
the
protein
changes
shape
and

the
moves
the
molecule
across
the
membrane
releasing
it
on
the
other

side.


2) ATP
energy
is
used
to
move
the
solute
against
the
concentration
gradient.




Endocytosis:


Some
molecules
are
too
big
to
be
taken
in
by
carrier
proteins
–
eg.
lipids,

proteins
and
some
carbohydrates.
Instead
a
cell
can
surround
a
substance
with
a

section
of
its
plasma
membrane.
This
forms
a
vesicle
inside
the
cell
containing

the
ingested
substance.
White
blood
cells
take
in
microorganisms
and
dead
cells

in
this
way.




Exocytosis:


A
vesicle
containing
unwanted
substances
fuses
with
the
plasma
membrane,

which
allows
the
substances
to
be
released
outside
the
cell.
This
can
also
be
used

to
insert
substances
onto
the
plasma
membrane
eg.
membrane
proteins.




Osmosis:


Osmosis
is
the
diffusion
of
water
molecules
across
a
partially
permeable

membrane
down
a
concentration
gradient.
From
an
area
with
high
water

potential
to
an
area
with
low
water
potential.





Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 8


The
affect
of
water
potential
on
cells:




1.
Solution
with
a
high
water
potential
than
the
cell
=
Hypotonic.


2.
Solution
with
the
same
water
potential
as
the
cell
=
Isotonic.

3.
Solution
with
lower
water
potential
than
the
cell
=
Hypertonic.



In
case
1
=
Net
movement
of
water
molecules
into
the
cell
causes
it
to
burst.
In
a

plant
cell
the
cell
becomes
turgid.


In
case
2
=
Water
passes
in
and
out
in
equal
amount
and
cell
remains
the
same.


In
case
3=
Net
movement
of
water
molecules
out
of
the
cell.
The
cell
shrinks.
In
a

plant
cell
the
cells
becomes
flaccid
and
undergoes
plasmolysis.





Cell
Division:




Cell
Cycle:


The
cycle
consists
of
a
long
period
of
cell
growth
called
interphase
during
which

time
the
genetic
material
is
copied
and
checked
for
any
mistakes
that
could
have

been
made
during
copying
and
a
short
period
of
division
called
mitosis
which
is

vital
to
repair,
growth
and
asexual
reproduction.



Mitosis:




0. Interphase:
The
cell
carries
out
normal
functions
but
also
the
cell’s
DNA
is

unraveled
and
replicated.
Organelles
also
replicated
and
ATP
production

is
increased.


1. Prophase:
The
chromosomes
condense
getting
shorter
and
thicker.

Centrioles
move
to
opposite
ends
of
the
cell
forming
spindles.
The
nuclear

envelope
breaks
down.

2. Metaphase:
The
chromosomes
line
up
along
the
middle
of
the
cell
and

become
attached
to
a
spindle
by
their
centromere.


3. Anaphase:
the
centromere
divides,
separating
each
pair
of
sister

chromatids.
The
spindles
pull
chromatids
to
opposite
ends
of
the
cell.


4. Telophase:
The
chromatids
reach
the
opposite
poles
on
the
spindle.
They

uncoil
and
become
long
and
thin
again
and
are
called
chromosomes
again.

Nuclear
envelope
forms
again.
Cytoplasm
divides
and
we
are
left
with
two

genetically
identical
cells.



























Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 9




Yeast
Reproduction
by
Budding:




Yeast
cells
are
eukaryotic.
Division
involves

mitosis.
They
reproduce
asexually
by
budding.

Offspring
are
genetically
identical.




‐ A
bud
forms
on
the
surface
of
the
cell.

‐ The
cell
goes
through
interphase
and

mitosis.


‐ The
budding
cell
contains
a
nucleus

with
an
identical
copy
of
parent
DNA.


‐ The
bud
separates.




























Meiosis:




Meiosis
is
a
type
of
cell
division
that
produces
gametes.
Parent
cells
are
haploid.

Daughter
cells
are
diploid.




They
divide
twice.
But
before
they
divide
the
first
time
the
homologous
pairs

swap
parts
so
when
4
gametes
are
made
they
are
all
genetically
different.




Stem
Cells:




Stem
cells
are
unspecialised
cells.
They
can
develop
into
any
type
of
cell.



Stem
cells
differentiate:
This
happens
when
the
divide
and
become
specialised.


In
humans
stem
cells
can
be
make
new
skin
or
blood
cells
among
others.
Cells
in

the
bone
marrow
of
humans
differentiate
into
blood
cells,
which
need
to
be

constantly
replaced.
Stem
cells
an
differentiate
into
neutrophils
and

erythrocytes.
Plants
are
always
growing
so
stem
cells
are
needed
to
grow.
Stem

cells
are
housed
in
the
cambium
which
is
a
ring
in
the
roots
and
shoots
of
a
plant.

New
cells
can
grow
out
of
this
ring
–
eg.
xylem
or
phloem
cells.











Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 10


Cells
are
specialised
for
particular
functions:




Animal
Cells:




1) Neutrophils
defend
the
body
against
disease.
Their
flexible
shape
allows

them
to
engulf
foreign
particles.
Large
number
of
lysosomes
to
break

down
engulfed
particles.


2) Erythrocytes
carry
oxygen
around
the
body.
They
re
biconcave
to

increase
surface
area
to
volume
ratio.
There
is
no
nucleus
to
allow
for

more
hemoglobin
to
be
carried.


3) Epithelial
cells
cover
surfaces
of
organs.
They
are
joined
by
interlinking

cell
membranes
and
a
membrane
as
the
base.
Some
have
microvillus
to

increase
surface
area,
some
have
cilia
or
other
adaptations
for
their

purpose.


4) Sperm
cells
have
a
flagellum
(tail)
so
they
can
propel
themselves
towards

the
egg.
They
have
many
mitochondria
to
produce
the
ATP
needed
to

swim.
The
digestive
acrosome
allows
them
to
penetrate
the
eggs
surface.




Plant
Cells:




1) Palisade
mesophyll
cells
do
most
photosynthesis.
They
have
thin
walls
to

allow
carbon
dioxide
to
diffuse
in
easily
and
lots
of
chloroplasts
to
absorb

sunlight.


2) Root
hair
cells
have
a
large
surface
area
and
extra
mitochondria
to
create

more
ATP
which
helps
with
active
transport
of
ions.


3) Guard
cells
have
thin
outer
walls
and
thick
inner
walls
to
allow
them
to

bend
outwards
opening
the
stomata
when
they
are
turgid.
This
allows
the

leaf
to
exchange
gases
for
photosynthesis.




Tissue,
Organs
and
Organ
Systems:




A
tissue
is
a
group
of
cells
that
are
specialised
to
work
together
to
carry
out
a

particular
function.
For
example:




1) Squamous
epithelium
tissue:
single
layer
of
very
flat
cells
that
line
a

surface
such
as
the
alveoli
in
the
lungs.


2) Xylem
tissue:
Transports
water
around
the
plant.
It
contains
xylem
vessel

cells
and
parenchyma
cells.


3) Ciliated
Epithelium:
Epithelium
cells
covered
in
cilia
–
on
surfaces
where

things
need
to
be
moved
for
example
the
trachea.


4) Phloem
tissue:
transports
sugar.
Made
up
of
sieve
cells
and
companion

cells.
Each
sieve
cell
has
holes
in
them
so
that
sap
can
easily
move.




An
organ
is
a
group
of
tissues
that
work
together
to
perform
a
function.


Eg.
The
lungs
contain
squamous
epithelium
and
ciliated
epithelium.
Leaves

contain
palisade
tissue,
epidermal
tissue,
xylem
and
phloem.









Rebecca
Maynard


AS
Biology:
Cells
 11


An
organ
system
is
where
many
organs
work
together
for
a
particular
function.

For
example
the
respiratory
system
with
the
lungs,
larynx,
nose,
mouth
etc.

The
circulatory
system
is
made
up
of
the
heart,
arteries,
veins
and
capillaries.




Tissue,
Organs
and
Organ
Systems
must
co­operate:




‐ Specialised
cells
can
carry
out
functions
more
efficiently
that

unspecialised
cells
could.

‐ One
cell
cannot
do
everything
–
it
depends
on
other
cells
to
provide
it

with
what
it
cannot
get
for
example
a
liver
cell
need
oxygen
from
a

squamous
epithelium
cell
to
grow
and
repair.




Thus,
multicultural
organisms
have
had
to
develop
systems
of
co‐operation.




1) Transport
System:
They
are
used
to
carry
substances
from
one
cell
to

another
eg.
Oxygen
in
the
blood.


2) Communication
System:
Chemical
communication
systems
show
different

parts
of
the
body
what
the
body
needs
and
use
messenger
molecules
like

hormones.
Animals
also
have
a
nerve
system
that
sends
electrical
signals.



Rebecca
Maynard