Abstract Algebra

Text book: Michael Artin

Contents: I. Groups 2.1-2.10, 6.1-6.5
II. Rings 10.1-10.8
III. Modules 12.1-12.2, 12.6
IV. Fields 13.1-13.3, 13.6
I. Groups
2.1. Definition of a Group
Definition. Let G be a non-empty set with a binary operation
(a law of composition) ”◦”. We say G is a group with this operation
if the following properties hold:
(i) The operation is associative, that is, for a, b, c ∈ G, then
(a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c).
(ii) There exists an element e ∈ G such that e◦a = a◦e = a, ∀a ∈
G. e is called the identity element of G.
(iii) If a ∈ G, then there exists an element b ∈ G such that
a ◦ b = b ◦ a = e. b is called the inverse of a(often denoted by a−1 ).
Example 1. R× =set of non-zero real numbers, binary operation
taken the usual multiplication of real numbers. Then
(i) (ab)c = a(bc), ∀a, b, c ∈ R× .
(ii)1 · a = a · 1 = a, ∀a ∈ R× , thus, 1 ∈ R× is the identity element.
1
(iii) If a ∈ R× , then a−1 = a
∈ R× , and a · a−1 = a−1 · a = 1, i.e.
a−1 is the inverse element of a ∈ R× .

1
 So (R× , ·) forms a group.
Example 2. Z = set of integers, binary operation taken the usual
addition of numbers. Then
(i) (m + n) + k = m + (n + k), ∀m, n, k ∈ Z.
(ii) 0 + m = m + 0 = m, ∀m ∈ Z.
(iii) m + (−m) = (−m) + m = 0 (i.e. −m is the inverse of m).
So (Z, +) forms a group.
√
Example 3. G = {1, −1, i, −i}, where i = −1, under the usual
operation of multiplication of complex numbers. It is easy to see
that G forms a group.
Example 4. G = {p, q, r}, with binary operation defined by the
. p q r
p p q r
following table
q q r p
r r p q
Then p is the identity element, p−1 = p, q −1 = r, r −1 = q, and
the associativity holds. Thus, G forms a group.
Example 5. GL(n, R) = set of n × n invertible matrices over the
real numbers, binary operation taken the usual matrix multiplica-
tion. Then
(i) (A · B) · C = A · (B · C), ∀A, B, C ∈ GL(n, R).
(ii) I · A = A · I = A, ∀A ∈ GL(n, R), where I = the identity
matrix, the identity element.
(iii) The inverse element of A is the inverse matrix A−1 of A.
Thus, GL(n, R) is a group(called the general linear group over
the field of real numbers R).

2
 Example 6. SL(n, R) = {A ∈ GL(n, R)|detA = 1}, where detA
is the determinant of matrix A. Then SL(n, R) is also a group,
called the special linear group over R.
Lemma. If G is a group, then the identity element is unique,
and for a ∈ G, the inverse element of a is also unique.
Definition. If G = (G, ·) is a group, and ∀a, b ∈ G, a · b = b · a,
then G is called an abelian group (or commutative group).
Remark. Example 1-Example 4, are abelian groups, but Exam-
ple 5 and Example 6 are not abelian.
′ ′
Notation. 1. We often use G, H, G , H , · · · for groups, use
·, ◦, ×, +, · · · for binary operations, use a, b, c, x, y, · · · for elements
in a group.
2. Special sets:
Z : integers, Q : Rational numbers, R : real numbers, C : Complex
numbers.
Proposition(Cancellation laws). Let G be a group, a, b, c ∈
G, if ba = ca, then b = c. And if ab = ac, then b = c.
Proof. We multiply both sides by a−1 to get the results. 2

Lemma. If G is a group, and for a, b ∈ G, then

(i) there exists a unique element x ∈ G such that a · x = b.
(ii) there exists a unique element y ∈ G such that y · a = b.
Proof. x = a−1 b, y = ba−1 .
Remark. group ⇔ gp, such that ⇔ s.t., that is ⇔ i.e., if and
only if ⇔ iff, associative ⇔ asso., a · b ⇔ ab, · · ·
Example. Let G = {(a, b)|a, b ∈ R, a 6= 0}, binary operation is

3
defined by
(a1 , b1 ) ◦ (a2 , b2 ) = (a1 a2 , b1 + a1 b2 ).

Is G a group?
Solution. Let Ai = (ai , bi ) ∈ G, i = 1, 2, 3. It is easy to check
that

(A1 ◦ A2 ) ◦ A3 = A1 ◦ (A2 ◦ A3 ) = (a1 a2 a3 , b1 + a1 b2 + a1 a2 b3 ),

and
(1, 0) ◦ (a, b) = (a, b) ◦ (1, 0) = (a, b), ∀(a, b) ∈ G,

and
b b
(a, b) ◦ (a−1 , − ) = (a−1 , − ) ◦ (a, b) = (1, 0).
a a
Thus, (G, ◦) is a group. 2

Example. Let Q be the set of rational numbers. define a binary

operation on Q as follows: ∀a, b ∈ Q, a◦ b = a+ b+ ab. Is G a group?
Solution. It is easy to see that

(a ◦ b) ◦ c = a ◦ (b ◦ c) = a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc,

and 0 ◦ a = a ◦ 0 = a, but −1 ∈ Q has no inverse, because (−1) ◦ a =

(−1) + a + (−1)a = −1, ∀a ∈ Q. Thus, G is not a group. 2

Lemma. Let (G, ·) be a group such that a2 = e, ∀a ∈ G, where

e is the identity element of G. Then G is an abelian group.
Proof. ∀a, b ∈ G, note that a2 = e, b2 = e, (ab)2 = e, thus we
have abab = e, so a(abab)b = aeb, that is ab = ba. 2

Method II. ∀a, b ∈ G, then ab = eabe = b2 aba2 = b(ba)2 a = ba.

2

4
 Homework one: 1. Is (Z, ◦) a group? Where the operation is
defined by, ∀a, b ∈ Z, a ◦ b = a + b + 2.
2. Let G be a non-empty set with a binary operation ” ◦ ” such
that
(i) the operation is associative;
(ii) there exists an element e ∈ G, such that a ◦ e = a, ∀a ∈ G;
(iii) for each a ∈ G, there exists x ∈ G such that a ◦ x = e. Prove
G is a group.
Let T = {1, 2, · · · , n}, a mapping σ : T → T is called a permu-
tation of T if σ is bijective(i.e. σ is one to one, and onto).
Facts. If σ, τ are permutations of T , then the composition σ ◦ τ ,
and the inverse map σ −1 are also permutations.
Let Sn = {all permutations of T }. We define the binary oper-
ation on Sn to be the composition of mappings. Then Sn forms a
group, called the symmetric group.
Notation. If S is a set, we define by |S| the number of elements
in S. It is clear that |S| = n!.
Remark. S3 is a group with |S3 | = 6 element. We will see that
S3 is the ”smallest” group which is not commutative.
2.2. Subgroups.
Definition. Let G be a group, H be subset of G. We say H is
a subgroup of G if
(1) e ∈ H, where e is the identity element of G.
(2) If a ∈ H, then a−1 ∈ H.
(3) If a, b ∈ H, then ab ∈ H.
Example 1. (Q× , ·) is a subgroup of (R× , ·).

5
 SL(n, R) is a subgroup of GL(n, R).
Example 2. If G is a group, then {e}, G are subgroups.
Example 3. Let p be a positive integer, and pZ = {pn|n ∈ Z}.
Then (pZ, +) is a subgroup of (Z, +).
Proposition. Let H be a subgroup of Z. Then there exists an
non-negative integer p such that H = pZ.
Proof. If H = {0}, then H = 0Z. If H 6= {0}, then H contains
positive integers. Let p be the smallest positive integer in H. Then
it is easy to see that pZ ⊂ H. Now we prove H ⊂ pZ. Indeed,
∀n ∈ H, by applying division with remainder, we have n = qp + r,
where 0 ≤ r < p. But r = n + (−q)p ∈ H, and p is the smallest
positive integer in H, therefore r = 0, i.e. n = qp ∈ pZ. 2

Let a, b ∈ Z be non-zero integers. Define

aZ + bZ = {ar + bs|r, s ∈ Z}.

Then aZ+bZ is a subgroup of Z. By using the previous proposition,

we know that there exists a positive integer d such that aZ + bZ =
dZ.
Proposition. (a) d = ar + bs for some integers r, s.
(b) d is the greatest common divisor of a and b.
Definition. Let G = (G,  ·) be a group. For x ∈ G, we define
 x| · x{z· · · x}, if n > 0;




 n copies


n n
H = {x |n ∈ Z}, where x = e, if n = 0;


 −1


 | ·{z
x · · x−1}, if n < 0.


|n| copies
and e is the identity element. (We often write e by 1). Then H is

6
a subgroup of G, and is called a cyclic subgroup generated by the
element x.
Example. H = {2n |n ∈ Z} is a cyclic subgroup of (R× , ·) gener-
ated by 2.
H = {3n|n ∈ Z} is a cyclic subgroup of (Z, +) generated by 3.
Definition. Let G be a group.
(1) the number of element in G is denoted by |G|, and called the
order of the group G.
(2) For a ∈ G, if there exists a positive integer n such that an = 1
(here and later on, we often denote 1 to be identity element in a
multiplicative group), and ak 6= 1 for all 1 ≤ k ≤ n. Then n is called
the order of the element a, and denoted by ◦(a). Otherwise, we say
the element a has infinite order.  
0 1
Example. H1 = {An |n ∈ Z}, where A =  . One can
−1 1
     
−1 1 −1 0 0 −1
check: A2 =  , A3 =  , A4 =  ,
−1 0 0 −1 1 −1
   
1 −1 1 0
A5 =  , A6 =  .
1 0 0 1
Thus H1 is a finite group with order 6. i.e. H1 = {A, A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 , A6 =
I} is a finite group of GL(2, R).  
1 1
Example. H2 = {B n |n ∈ Z}, where B =  , then B n =
0 1
 
1 n
  for n ∈ Z, thus H2 is infinite subgroup of GL(2, R).
0 1
Remark. H1 is a cyclic group of order 6, and H2 is a cyclic
group of infinite order.

7
 Example. Klein four group:
       
1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0
K = { , , , }.
0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1

K is the smallest group which is not cyclic.

Example. Quaternion group. Q = {±1, ±i, ±j, ±k} satisfies
i2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1, i·j = −j ·i = k, j ·k = −k ·j = i, k ·i = −i·k = j,
which is also not a cyclic group.
   
i 0 0 1
Remark. If taking ~i =   , ~j =   , ~k =
0 −i −1 0
   
0 i 1 0 √
  , ~1 =  ,i = −1, then {±~1, ±~i, ±~j, ±~k} is the
i 0 0 1
quaternion group.
Example. Let G be a group, such that |G| > 2. Prove that there
exist 1 6= a, b ∈ G, and a 6= b, so that ab = ba.
Proof. If ∀x ∈ G, we have x2 = 1, then G is an abelian group,
therefore the statement holds. If there is x ∈ G, such that ◦(x) ≥ 3,
we take a = x, b = x2 , thus a, b 6= 1 and a 6= b such that ab = ba as
required. 2

Howework two
1. If H is a non-empty subset of the group G, such that xy −1 ∈
H, ∀x, y ∈ H. Prove H is a subgroup of G.
2. If G is an abelian group. Prove that H = {x ∈ G| ◦ (x) < ∞}
is a subgroup of G.
   
a b a b
3. Let G = {  |a, b, c, d ∈ Z, det   = 1}. (a)
c d c d
Prove G is a group. (b) If n > 0 is the order of some element in G,

8
prove n ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, ∞}.
2.3. Isomorphisms.
′ ′
Definition. Let G, G be groups. A map ϕ : G → G is called
′
an isomorphism from group G to G if
(1) ϕ is a bijective map.
(2) ϕ is compatible with the laws of composition, that is, ∀a, b ∈
G, ϕ(a · b) = ϕ(a) · ϕ(b).  
a b
Example 1. Let G = {  |a, b ∈ R, a2 + b2 6= 0}.
−b a
(1) Prove G is a group with the usual multiplication of matrices.
(2) Prove that there is an isomorphism from the group G to the
group C× .     
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
a b a b aa − bb ab + ba
Proof. (1)   = ∈
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
−b a −b a −(ab + ba ) aa − bb
G, and  −1  
a b
a b a2 +b2
− a2 +b2
  =  ∈ G,
b a
−b a a2 +b2 a2 +b2
 
1 0
and   ∈ G, thus G is a group.
0 1
(2)
′
ϕ:G→G
 
a b
  7→ a + bi
−b a
′
is an isomorphism from G to G .
Example 2. Let G = {2n |n ∈ Z} be the cyclic subgroup of R× ,
then the map
ϕ:Z→G

9
 n 7→ 2n

is an isomorphism from Z to G.
′
Definition. Let G, G be two groups, if there is an isomorphism
′
from G to G , we say that the group G is isomorphic to the group
G , and denoted by G ≈ G or G ∼
′ ′ ′
=G.
′ ′
Lemma. If G, G are groups, ϕ : G → G is an isomorphism,
then
(1) ϕ maps the identity element of G to the identity element of
′
G.
(2) For any a ∈ G, then a and ϕ(a) have the same order.
Proof. Easy to prove and the argument is omitted.
Remark. 1. Let G be a group, and I(G) be the set of groups
that is isomorphic to G. Then
(a) G ∈ I(G).
(b) any two groups from I(G) are isomorphic.
′ ′
(c) I(G) ∩ I(G ) 6= ∅ ⇔ I(G) = I(G )
(d) I(G) is called the isomorphism class of the group G.
2. To classify group is to identify the isomorphism classes.
Definition. If G is a group, ϕ : G → G is an isomorphism from
G to itself, we call ϕ an automorphism of the group G.
Example. Let G be a group, a ∈ G. Then

ϕa : G → G

x 7→ axa−1

is an automorphism of G.

10
 Example. Let
ϕ:G→G

x 7→ x

is an automorphism.
Definition. Let G be a group, a, b ∈ G is called conjugate if
there exists an element x ∈ G such that b = xax−1 .
Lemma. If a, b are conjugate elements in a group G, then a, b
have the same order.
Example. Prove that the group (R, +) and (R× , ·) are not iso-
morphic.
Proof. Suppose ϕ : (R, +) → (R× , ·) is an isomorphism. Then
∀x, y ∈ R, ϕ(x + y) = ϕ(x)ϕ(y), thus we have
x x x
ϕ(x) = ϕ( + ) = (ϕ( ))2 > 0, ∀x ∈ R.
2 2 2
This implies that ϕ is not surjective, therefore ϕ is not an isomor-
phism. 2

Example. Let G be a group,

′
ϕ:G→G

x 7→ x−1 .

Prove that ϕ is an automorphism if and only if G is abelian.

Proof. Omitted.
Definition. Let G be a group. Set

Aut(G) = {All automorphisms of G},

11
under the law of composition of maps. Aut(G) forms a group, called
the automorphism group of G.
Example. Determine the automorphism group of the group (Z, +).
Proof. Let f ∈Aut(Z, +). Then

f (0) = 0, f (1 + (−1)) = f (1) + f (−1),

thus
f (−1) = −f (1) and f (2) = f (1) + f (1) = 2f (1),

f (n) = nf (1),

f (−2) = f ((−1) + (−1)) = 2f (−1) = −2f (1),

f (−n) = −nf (1).

So ∀n ∈ Z, f (n) = nf (1). This implies the automorphism is com-

pletely determined by the value f (1). Moreover, if f is bijective,
then f (1) = 1 or −1. Thus Aut(Z, +) only contains two automor-
phisms: f1 and f−1 , where f1 : n 7→ n, ∀n ∈ Z, f−1 : n 7→ −n.
2

Example. Prove that (R>0 , ·) and (R, +) are isomorphic groups.

Proof.
ϕ : (R>0 , ·) → (R, +)

x 7→ Inx.

Homework three.
1. If G is a group, and a, b ∈ G such that aba−1 = b2 . Prove that
a3 ba−3 = b8 .

12
    
1 0 1 3
2. Prove that the matrices   and   are conju-
0 2 0 2
gate in the group GL(2, R).
3. Determine the automorphism of the group G, where G is a
cyclic group of order 10.
2.4. Homomorphisms.
′ ′
Definition. Let G, G be groups, a map ϕ : G → G is called a
homomorphism if

ϕ(a · b) = ϕ(a) · ϕ(b), ∀a, b ∈ G.

Example. 1.
ϕ : GL(n, R) → R×

A 7→ detA

is a homomorphism.
2. Let G be a group, a ∈ G,

ϕ : (Z, +) → G

n 7→ an

is a homomorphism.
3. If H is a subgroup of G, then

ϕ:H→G

x 7→ x

is a homormorphism. (In this case, ϕ is called an inclusion map.)

′ ′
Proposition. If G, G are groups, ϕ : G → G is a group homo-
morphism, then

13
 (1) ϕ maps identity element to identity element.
(2) ϕ maps inverse element to inverse element.
′ ′
Proof. Let 1, 1 be the identity elemrnts of G and G respectively.
Since 1 = 1·1, we have ϕ(1) = ϕ(1·1) = ϕ(1)ϕ(1). Using cancellation
′
law, we have ϕ(1) = 1 . Next, for x ∈ G, since x · x−1 = 1, we have
′
1 = ϕ(1) = ϕ(x · x−1 ) = ϕ(x)ϕ(x−1 ). Thus ϕ(x−1 ) = ϕ(x)−1 . 2

′
Definition. Let ϕ : G → G be group homomorphism. Set

Imϕ = {ϕ(a)|a ∈ G}
′
kerϕ = {a ∈ G|ϕ(a) = 1 },
′ ′
where 1 is the identity element of G . Imϕ, kerϕ are called the
image and kernel of the homomorphism ϕ respectively.
′
Lemma. kerϕ is a subgroup of G, Imϕ is a subgroup of G .
Proof. Omitted.
Example.
ϕ : GL(n, R) → R×

A 7→ detA

thus Kerϕ = SL(n, R), Imϕ = R× .

Let Sn be the symmetric group over the set T = {1, 2, · · · , n}.
For σ ∈ Sn , we set σ(i) = σi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then {σ1 , σ2 , · · · , σn } =
{1, 2, · · · , n}. We say an n
×n matrix
  Pσ isa permutation matrix
 1   σ1 
   
 2   σ2 
of the permutation σ if Pσ   ..   .. .
= 
 .   . 
   
n σn

14
 Lemma. If Pσ is a permutation matrix corresponding to a per-
mutation σ ∈ Sn , then the determinant of Pσ is equal to 1 or −1.
i.e. detPσ = ±1.
Remark. A permutation matrix Pσ always has a single 1 in each
row and in each column, the rest of its entries being 0.
Definition. 1. The determinant of a permutation matrix Pσ is
called the sign of the permutation σ.
2. A permutation σ is called even if |Pσ | = 1, and is called odd
if |Pσ | = −1.
3. Let An = {σ ∈ Sn |σ is an even permutation}, then An is a
subgroup of Sn , and is called the alternating group of n elements.
′
Proposition. Let ϕ : G → G be a group homomorphism. If
a ∈ kerϕ, then bab−1 ∈ kerϕ, ∀b ∈ G.
Proof. ϕ(bab−1 ) = ϕ(b)ϕ(a)ϕ(b)−1 = 1. 2

Definition. A subgroup N of G is called a normal subgroup of

G if it satisfies the following condition: bab−1 ∈ N, ∀a ∈ N, b ∈ G.
′
Proposition. If ϕ : G → G is a group homomorphism, then
kerϕ is a normal subgroup of G.
Example 1. SL(n, R) is a normal subgroup of GL(n, R).
Example 2. The alternating group An is a normal subgroup of
the symmetric group Sn .
Proof.
ϕ : Sn → {±1}

σ 7→ detPσ ,

where Pσ is the permutation matrix, then kerϕ = An .

15
 Notation. If N is a normal subgroup of G, we write N
G.
Remark. 1. If G is an abelian group, then all subgroups of G
are normal subgroups.
2. If G is non-abelian, then subgroups need not be normal. For
example, T = {all invertible upper triangle matrices in GL(2, R)},
then T is a subgroup of GL(2, R), but not normal, since
   −1  
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
    = ∈ / T.
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

Definition. If G is a group, set

Z(G) = {a ∈ G|ax = xa, ∀x ∈ G},

Z(G) is called the center of the group G.

Lemma. The center Z(G) is anormal subgroup  of G.
λ 0
 
 . . 
Example. Z(GL(n, R)) = { .  |λ ∈ R× }, where
 
0 λ
R× = the set of non-zero real numbers.
2.5. Equivalence relations and partitions.
Definition. 1. Let S be a set. A relation on S is a rule to
determine whether an element a ∈ S is related to b ∈ S. In other
words, a relation on S is a set R of ordered pairs (a, b) ∈ R if a is
related to b with a given rule.
2. If a is related to b, we write aRb.
Example. Let S = {All integers}.
1. We define a relation R on S : aRb if a − b is even. Then
3R5, 17R3, · · · .

16
 2. We may define a relation R on S : aRb if a + b is a multiple of
5. Then 3R12, 17R23, · · · .
Example. Let S be the set of subsets of R, we define the relation
on S by: for A, B ∈ S, ARB if A ∩ B 6= ∅.
Definition. A relation R on a set S is called an equivalence
relation if it satisfies the following conditions
1. xRx, ∀x ∈ S (reflexivity).
2. If xRy, then yRx (symmetry).
3. If xRy, yRz, then xRz (transitivity).
Notation. If a relation R on a set S is an equivalence relation,
we often write a ∼ b instead of aRb.
Definition. If ” ∼ ” is an equivalence relation on S, for a ∈ S,
we set
Ca = {x ∈ S|x ∼ a},

and Ca is called the equivalence class of a, and a is called a repre-

sentative element of the equivalence class Ca .
Lemma. If Ca ∩ Cb 6= ∅, then Ca = Cb .
Proof. Let d ∈ Ca ∩ Cb , then a ∼ d, d ∼ b, thus a ∼ b. ∀x ∈ Ca ,
then x ∼ a, but a ∼ b, so x ∼ b, that is, x ∈ Cb , this shows Ca ⊂ Cb .
Similarly, we have Cb ⊂ Ca . Thus Ca = Cb . 2

Notation. The equivalence class Ca is also denoted by ā.

Proposition. If ” ∼ ” is an equivalence relation on a set S,
then S can be written as a disjoint union of equivalence classes:
S
S = a∈I ā, where I is a subsets of S, and ā ∩ b̄ = ∅ if a, b ∈ I and
a 6= b.

17
 Definition. If S is a non-empty set, and S is equal to a union
of disjoint non-empty subsets, then we call these subsets a partition
of S.
Example. 1. If S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, then {1, 4, 5}, {2, 3}, {6}
form a partition of S.
2. If S = Z, then {all even integers}, {all odd integers} form a
partition of Z.
Proposition. Let S be a non-empty set, then there is a one-to-
one correspondence between the partition of S and the equivalence
relations on S.
S
Proof. If S = i∈I Si is a partition of S.(i.e. Si ∩Sj = ∅ for i 6= j
and Si 6= ∅), we define a relation on S as follows: a ∼ b iff a, b ∈ Si
for some i. One can check ” ∼ ” is an equivalence relation on S. On
the other hand, if ” ∼ ” is an equivalence relation, then S can be
S
written as a disjoint union of equivalence classes. i.e. S = a∈I ā,
where I is a subset of S and ā ∩ b̄ = ∅ for a 6= b, a, b ∈ I. Which is
a partition of S. 2

Homework four. Page 72. 13. Page 73. 19, 23, 5.

Lemma. If ϕ : S → T is a map. For a, b ∈ S, we define a ∼ b if
ϕ(a) = ϕ(b). Then ∼ is an equivalence relation.
Notation. 1. For t ∈ T , we set

ϕ−1 (t) = {s ∈ S|ϕ(s) = t},

and ϕ−1 (t) is called the fibres of ϕ.

2. Write S̄ = {ϕ−1 (t)|t ∈ T, ϕ−1 (t) 6= ∅}.

18
 Facts. The fibres S̄ form a partition of the set S: Define

ϕ̄ : S̄ → Imϕ

s̄ 7→ ϕ(s)

(s ∈ ϕ−1 (t) some fibre) is a bijective map.

′
Proposition. Let ϕ : G → G be a group homomorphism with
kernel kerϕ = N. If a, b ∈ G, then ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) iff b = an for some
n ∈ N, or equivalently iff a−1 b ∈ N.
Proof. ” ⇒ ” : since ϕ is a group homomorphism, then ϕ(a−1 b) =
ϕ(a)−1 ϕ(b) = 1, i.e. a−1 b =: n ∈ N, thus b = an as required.
” ⇐ ” : if b = an for some n ∈ N, then ϕ(b) = ϕ(an) =
ϕ(a)ϕ(n) = ϕ(a). 2

′
Corollary. A group homomorphism ϕ : G → G is injective iff
kerϕ = {1}.
′ ′
Proof. ” ⇒ ” : ∀n ∈ kerϕ, then ϕ(n) = 1 , ϕ(1) = 1 . This
implies n = 1 as ϕ is injective.
” ⇐ ” : suppose ϕ(a) = ϕ(b), then ϕ(a−1 b) = 1, thus a−1 b = 1.
i.e. a = b. Thus ϕ is injective. 2

Example. If G is a group, |G| = n, and a1 , a2 , · · · , an are elements

from G(not necessarily distinct). Prove that there exists integers
1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ n such that ai ai+1 · · · aj = 1, where 1 is the identity
element of G.
Proof. Consider the elements in G:

A = {a1 , a1 a2 , a1 a2 a3 , · · · , a1 a2 · · · an } ⊂ G.

19
If 1 ∈ A, then we are done. Otherwise, |A| < n, thus, at least, two
elements from A are equal, thus there exist 1 ≤ i ≤ j ≤ n such that
a1 a2 · · · ai−1 = a1 a2 · · · aj or ai ai+1 · · · aj = 1. 2

Notation. Let G be a group. H, K be non-empty subsets of G.

We set

HK = {h · k|h ∈ H, k ∈ K},

H −1 = {h−1 |h ∈ H}.

Example. If A, B are subsets of a group G such that |A| + |B| >

|G|. Prove that G = AB.
Proof. AB ⊂ G is clear. We only need to show that G ⊂ AB.
∀g ∈ G, since |gB −1| = |B|, thus |A| + |gB −1 | > G. This implies
that A ∩ gB −1 6= ∅. Let a ∈ A ∩ gB −1, thus we have a = gb−1 for
some b ∈ B, i.e. g = ab ∈ AB. 2

2.6. Cosets.
Definition. If H is a subgroup of G for a ∈ G. Let aH =
{ah|h ∈ H}. The subset aH is called a left coset.
Remark. Since eH = H (where e is the identity element of G),
thus H itself is also a coset.
We define a relation ∼ on G: a ∼ b iff b = ah for some h ∈ H (iff
aH = bH).
Lemma. ∼ is an equivalence relation on the group G.
Proof. 1. transitive: if a ∼ b and b ∼ c, then there exist
h1 , h2 ∈ H such that b = ah1 , c = bh2 , thus we have c = ah1 h2 , i.e.,
a ∼ c.

20
 2. symmetric: if a ∼ b, then there exists h ∈ H, such that b = ah,
that is, a = bh−1 , so b ∼ a.
3. reflexive: since a = a · e, we have a ∼ a. 2

Corollary. 1. aH ∩ bH 6= ∅ iff aH = bH.

2. The left cosets of a subgroup partition the group G, i.e. G =
S
i∈I ai Hi for some index set I, and ai ∈ G, ai H ∩ aj H = ∅, ∀i 6= j.
Definition. The number of left cosets of a subgroup is called
the index of H in G, and is denoted by [G : H].
Counting formula: If H is a subgroup of G, then |G| = |H|·[G :
H].
Proof. Since
ϕ : H → aH

h 7→ ah

is a bijective map. Thus |H| = |aH|, ∀a ∈ G. Moreover, G =

S P
i∈I ai H, where |I| = [G : H], thus |G| = i∈I |ai H| = |H| · |I| =

|H| · [G : H]. 2

Corollary (Lagrange’s Theorem). If H is a subgroup of finite

group G, then the order of H divides the order of G.
Corollary. If G is a finite group, a ∈ G, then the order of a
divides the order of G.
Proof. If n is the order of the element a, then {1, a, · · · , an−1 }
is a cyclic subgroup of G with order n. Thus n||G|. 2

Corollary. If G is a group. and |G| = p is a prime number, then

G has no non-trivial subgroup. Moreover, if a ∈ G is not the identity
element, then G = {1, a, · · · , ap−1 } is a cyclic group generated by a.

21
 Homework five. Page 74, 8.
2. Let H, K be subgroups of G, whether or not HK is a subgroup
of G, why?
3. Let H, K are subgroups of G, then HK is a subgroup of G iff
HK = KH.
′
Lemma. If ϕ : G → G be a group homomorphism. Set Ḡ to be
the set of cosets of N =kerϕ. Then the map

ϕ̄ : Ḡ → Imϕ

aN 7→ ϕ(a)

is a bijective map.
Proof. We first prove ϕ̄ is well-defined. Indeed, if aN = bN,
′
then a−1 b ∈ N, that is, ϕ(a−1 b) = 1 , so ϕ(a) = ϕ(b). i.e., ϕ̄ is
well-defined. It is clear that ϕ̄ is surjective. To see ϕ̄ is injective, we
′
suppose ϕ̄(aN) = ϕ̄(bN), then ϕ(a) = ϕ(b), thus ϕ(a−1 b) = 1 , that
is, a−1 b ∈ N. i.e., aN = bN. So ϕ̄ is injective. 2

′
Corollary. If ϕ : G → G is a group homomorphism, then the
number of cosets of kerϕ is equal to the order of the subgroup Imϕ.
That is, [G : kerϕ] = |Imϕ|.
Corollary. |G| = |kerϕ| · |Imϕ|.
Corollary. Since |G| = |kerϕ| · [G : kerϕ](Counting formula).
Thus the Corollary holds.
′
Remark. 1. If ϕ : G → G is a group homomorphism, then the
order of the image |Imϕ| divides the order of G.
2. If H < G, then we can also define the notion of the right
cosets: Ha = {ha|h ∈ H} for a ∈ G, and all results for the left

22
cosets also hold for the right cosets.
Lemma. If H
G, then ∀a ∈ G, aHa−1 = H or aH = Ha.
Proposition. Let H be a subgroup of G, then the following are
equivalent:
1. H
G.
2. aH = Ha, ∀a ∈ G.
3. Every left coset is also a right coset.
Proof. 1 ⇒ 2 ⇒ 3 are clear. To prove 3 ⇒ 1, ∀a ∈ G, b ∈ H,
note that there exists c ∈ G such that aH = Hc, thus a = zc for
′
some z ∈ H, so Ha = Hc, thus aH = Ha. i.e. ab = h a for some
′
h ∈ H, that is aba−1 ∈ H, so H
G. 2

Recall. If N1 , N2 are two non-empty subsets of a group G, then

N1 N2 = {ab|a ∈ N1 , b ∈ N2 }.
Example. If H < G, N
G, then HN = {h · n|h ∈ H, n ∈ N} is
a subgroup of G.
Proof. Since 1. (h1 · n1 )(h2 · n2 ) = h1 · h2 · (h−1
2 n1 h2 ) · n2 ∈ HN,

2. (hn)−1 = n−1 h−1 = h−1 (hn−1 h−1 ) ∈ HN, thus HN is a group.

2

Example. Let G be a finite group, H, K be subgroups of G. Then

|HK| = |H| · |K|/|H ∩ K|.
S
Proof. Since HK = {hk|h ∈ H, k ∈ K} = h∈H hK =
S
1≤i≤m hi K, where hi K ∩ hj K = ∅, ∀i 6= j, and for a, b ∈ H, aK =
bK ⇔ a−1 bK = K ⇔ a−1 b ∈ K ⇔ a−1 b ∈ K ∩ H ⇔ a(K ∩ H) =
b(K ∩ H). This implies the number of cosets of K in HK is equal
to the number of cosets of K ∩ H in H, i.e. m = [H : K ∩ H], thus

23
 Pm
|HK| = i=1 |K| = |K| · [H : K ∩ H]. But |H| = |K ∩ H| · [H :
K ∩ H], so |HK| = |H| · |K|/|H ∩ K|.
2.7. Restriction of a homomorphism to a subgroup.
Proposition. Let K, H be subgroups of G. Then K ∩ H is a
subgroup of H. Moreover, if K is a normal subgroup of G, then
K ∩ H is a normal subgroup of H.
Proof. It is straightforward to prove that K ∩ H is a subgroup
of H. If, in addition, K is normal in G. We prove K ∩ H is also
normal in H. Indeed, ∀x ∈ K ∩ H, and y ∈ H, yxy −1 ∈ K and
yxy −1 ∈ H, so yxy −1 ∈ H ∩ K, i.e. K ∩ H
H. 2

′
Definition. If ϕ : G → G is a group homomorphism. H is a
subgroup of G, then the restricted map to H:
′
ϕ|H : H → G

ϕ|H (h) = ϕ(h), ∀h ∈ H

′
is a group homomorphism from H to G , and called the restriction
of the homomorphism ϕ to the subgroup H.
Lemma. ker(ϕ|H ) = (kerϕ) ∩ H.
′ ′
Proposition. Let ϕ : G → G be a group homomorphism, H
′ ′
be a subgroup of G . Denote the inverse image of H :
′ ′
ϕ−1 (H ) = {x ∈ G|ϕ(x) ∈ H }

by H̃, then
1. H̃ < G;
′ ′
2. If H
G , then H̃
G;
3. kerϕ ⊂ H̃;

24
 ′
4. ϕ|H̃ is a group homomorphism from H̃ to H and ker(ϕ|H̃ ) =
kerϕ.
′
Proof. 1. ∀x, y ∈ H̃, then ϕ(x), ϕ(y) ∈ H , thus ϕ(xy) =
′ ′
ϕ(x)ϕ(y) ∈ H , that is, xy ∈ H̃, and ϕ(x−1 ) = ϕ(x)−1 ∈ H , thus
x−1 ∈ H̃, so H̃ < G.
′ ′
2. ∀y ∈ G, x ∈ H̃, then ϕ(y) ∈ G , ϕ(x) ∈ H , thus ϕ(y)ϕ(x)ϕ(y)−1 ∈
′ ′ ′ ′
H (since H
G ), that is, ϕ(yxy −1) ∈ H , so yxy −1 ∈ H̃, i.e. H̃
G.
3. Clear.
′
4. The first part is clear. Next, ∀x ∈ ker(ϕ|H̃ ), we have ϕ(x) = 1 ,
′ ′
so x ∈kerϕ. On the other hand, if x ∈ kerϕ, we have ϕ(x) = 1 ∈ H ,
thus x ∈ H̃, so x ∈ ker(ϕ|H̃ ). 2

2.8. Products of group.

′
Definition. Let G, G be two groups. Define a multiplication on
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
the product set G × G = {(a, a )|a ∈ G, a ∈ G } by (a, a ) · (b, b ) =
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
(ab, a b ) for (a, a ), (b, b ) ∈ G × G . Then G × G forms a group,
′ ′ ′ ′
and (a, a )−1 = (a−1 , (a )−1 ), the identity element of G×G is (1, 1 ).
′
This group is called the product of group G and G .
Define maps:
′
P :G×G →G
′
(a, a ) 7→ a,

′ ′ ′
P :G×G →G
′ ′
(a, a ) 7→ a .
′
Lemma. P, P are surjective group homomorphism, and kerP =
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
1 × G , kerP = G × 1 , 1 × G
G × G , G × 1
G × G .

25
 ′
Remark. P, P are called projections.
Proposition. Let H be a group, then there exist a one-to-one
′
correspondence between the group homomorphism φ : H → G × G
′
and pairs of the homomorphism (ϕ, ϕ ) :
′ ′
ϕ : H → G, ϕ : H → G ,
′
and the kernel of φ is equal to kerϕ∩kerϕ .
′
Proof.” ⇒ ”: if φ : H → G × G is a group homomorphism,
′ ′
then ϕ = P ◦ φ, ϕ = P ◦ φ are homomorphism from H → G and
′
H → G respectively.
′ ′
” ⇐ ”: if ϕ : H → G, ϕ : H → G are group homomorphism.
We define
′ ′
φ = (ϕ, ϕ ) : H → G × G
′
h 7→ (ϕ(h), ϕ (h),

then φ is a group homomorphism. Therefore, ”the one-to-one corre-

′ ′
spondence” is proved. Moreover, φ(h) = (ϕ, ϕ )(h) = (ϕ(h), ϕ (h)) =
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
(1, 1 ) iff ϕ(h) = 1, ϕ (h) = 1 iff h ∈kerϕ, h ∈kerϕ iff h ∈kerϕ∩kerϕ .
2

′
Remark. If H, G, G are groups, suppose there is a bijective
′
homomorphism ϕ : H → G × G , then we identify the group H with
′
the product of groups G and G .
Example. Let C6 , C2 , C3 be cyclic groups of order 6, 2 and 3
respectively, then C6 ∼
= C2 × C3 .
Proof. Let C6 = {1, x, x2 , · · · , x5 }, C2 = {1, y}, C3 = {1, z, z 2 }.
We define
ϕ : C6 → C2 × C3

26
 xi 7→ (y i, z i ), i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

It is easy to check that ϕ is a group homomorphism. Moreover,

ϕ(xi ) = (y i , z i ) = (1, 1) iff 2|i, 3|i ⇒ i = 0, i.e., kerϕ = 1, thus ϕ is
injective, but |C6 | = 6 = |C2 × C3 |, thus ϕ is a bijective homomor-
phism. 2

Example. C4 is not isomorphic to C2 × C2 .

Proof. Since there is an element in C4 of order 4, while C2 × C2
has no element of order other than 1 or 2. 2

Homework six.
1. Let G be a group and |G| = mpk , where p is a prime and
(p,m)=1. If H is a subgroup of G with order pk , and K is a subgroup
of order pd such that 0 < d ≤ k and K is not contained in H. Prove
that HK is not a subgroup of G.
Page 74, 3. Page 75, 3.
Proposition. Let H, K be subgroups of a group G.
(a) If H ∩ K = {1}, then the product map

P :H ×K → G

(h, k) 7→ hk

is injective, and ImP = HK.

(b) If either H or K is a normal group of G, then HK = KH,
and is a subgroup of G.
(c) If H and K are normal, H ∩ K = {1}, and G = HK, then G
is isomorphic to the product group H × K.

27
 Proof. (a) Suppose (h1 , k1 ), (h2 , k2 ) ∈ H × K, and h1 k1 = h2 k2 .
We need to prove (h1 , k1 ) = (h2 , k2 ). Indeed, since h1 k1 = h2 k2 , we
have h−1 −1
1 h2 = k1 k2 ∈ H ∩ K = {1}, that is, h1 = h2 , k1 = k2 . This

proves (a).
(b) It is known.
(c) Let
ϕ:H ×K →G

(h, k) 7→ hk,

from (a), we know that ϕ is injective, while it is clear that ϕ is also

surjective as G = HK. To finish the proof, we only need to show
that ϕ is a group homomorphism. Indeed, ∀(hi , ki) ∈ H × K, i =
1, 2, we need to prove ϕ((h1 , k1 )·(h2 , k2 )) = ϕ(h1 , k1 )·ϕ(h2 , k2 ), that
is (h1 h2 )(k1 k2 ) = (h1 k1 )(h2 k2 ), i.e. h2 k1 = k1 h2 . But k1−1 h−1
2 k1 h2 ∈

H ∩ K = {1}, that is, h2 k1 = k1 h2 , so ϕ is an homomorphism. 2

Example. Let G be a finite group, A
G, B
G such that

|G| = |A| · |B| and (|A|, |B|) = 1, prove G ∼
= A × B.
Proof. From (|A|, |B|) = 1, we have A ∩ B = {1}, and from
|G| = |A| · |B|, we have |AB| = |A| · |B|/|A ∩ B| = |A| · |B| = |G|,
thus, G = AB, then from previous proposition, we have G ∼ = A × B.
2

2.9. Modular Arithmetic.

Let n be a fixed positive integer.
Definition. Two integers a and b are said to be congruent mod-
ulo n, written a ≡ b(modn) if a − b is a multiple of n.

28
 Remark. 1. Let ā be the set of all integers which are congruent
with a modulo n, that is, ā = {b ∈ Z|b ≡ a(modn)}, i.e., ā =
{a + kn|k ∈ Z}, then ā is called a congruence class modulo n or
residue class module n.
2. Let H = nZ be the subgroup of Z. Then ā = a + H is
a coset of H in the group Z, and there are all together n cosets:
U
0̄, 1̄, 2̄, · · · n − 1, and Z = 0≤i≤n−1 ī. i.e., the index [Z : nZ] = n.
Lemma. If a, b ∈ Z, then a + b = ā + b̄, ab = ā · b̄.
′ ′ ′ ′
Corollary. If a ≡ a(mod n), b ≡ b(mod n), then a + b ≡
′ ′
a + b(mod n), a b ≡ ab(mod n).
Set Z/nZ = {0̄, 1̄, · · · , n − 1}, then

ā(b̄ + c̄) = ā · (b + c) = a(b + c) = ab + ac

= ab + ac = āb̄ + āc̄.

Therefore, the map

ϕ : Z → Z/nZ

a 7→ ā

keeps the of addition and multiplcation, that is,

ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b),

ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b).

2.10. Quotient Groups.

Lemma. Let N
G, then the product of the cosets aN, bN for
a, b ∈ G is again a cosets. In fact, aN · bN = (ab)N.
Proof. Since N
G, then bN = Nb for b ∈ G, thus (aN)·(bN) =
a(Nb)N = a(bN)N = (ab)N. 2

29
 Notation. We set G/N = {aN|a ∈ G}.
Theorem. Let N
G, then with the multiplication defined as
above, the set G/N forms a group, and the map

π : G → G/N

a 7→ aN

is surjective group homomorphism with kernel kerπ = N, and the

order of the group G/N is equal to the index [G : N].
Proof. G/N = {aN|a ∈ G}, and |G/N| = [G : N] the number
of left cosets. It is clear that (aN) · (bN) = (ab)N, (aN)−1 = a−1 N,
and the identity element in G/N is N. 2

Corollary. Every normal subgroup N of a group G is the kernel

of some group homomorphism.
Proof. Since N
G, we have

π : G → G/N

a 7→ aN

is a group homomorphism, and kerπ = N. 2

Homework seven
1. Page 76, 8.
2. Let G be a finite abelian group, and the order of G is an odd
number. ϕ is an automorphism of G such that ϕ2 =identity map.
Set G1 = {g ∈ G|ϕ(g) = g}, G2 = {g ∈ G|ϕ(g) = g −1 }. Prove that
G1 , G2 < G, and G ∼
= G1 × G2 .

30
 Lemma. Let G be a group. S be a set with a law of com-
position. Let ϕ : G → S be a surjective map such that ϕ(ab) =
ϕ(a)ϕ(b), ∀a, b ∈ G. Then S is a group.
Proof. First, we show that the law of composition satisfies the
associative law. ∀x, y, z ∈ S, there are a, b, c ∈ G such that x =
ϕ(a), y = ϕ(b), z = ϕ(c). Then

x(yz) = ϕ(a)(ϕ(b)ϕ(c)) = ϕ(a(bc)) = ϕ((ab)c)

= (ϕ(a)ϕ(b))ϕ(c) = (xy)z.

Moreover, ϕ(1) ∈ S is the identity element inS, and if x = ϕ(a),

then ϕ(a−1 ) ∈ S is the inverse of x. 2
′
Theorem (First Isomorphism Theorem). Let ϕ : G → G be a
surjective group homomorphism, and N =kerϕ. Then G/N ∼
′
= G,
and the group isomorphism is given by
′
ϕ̄ : G/N → G

aN 7→ ϕ(a).

Proof. First, we prove ϕ̄ is well-defined, that is, we need to show

if aN = bN, then ϕ(a) = ϕ(b). Indeed, if aN = bN, then a = bx for
some x ∈ N =kerϕ, thus, ϕ(a) = ϕ(bx) = ϕ(b)ϕ(x) = ϕ(b). i.e., ϕ̄
is well-defined. Second, it is clear that ϕ̄ is surjective, thus we need
to show ϕ̄ is injective. Indeed, if ϕ̄(aN) = ϕ̄(bN), then ϕ(a) = ϕ(b),
thus ϕ(a−1 b) = 1, that is, a−1 b ∈ N, then a−1 b = x for some x ∈ N,
thus b = ax, and bN = (ax)N = aN, i.e. ϕ̄ is injective. Finally, we
prove ϕ̄ is a group homomorphism. Indeed,

ϕ̄(aN · bN) = ϕ̄(abN) = ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b) = ϕ̄(aN)ϕ̄(bN).

31
 2
′
Corollary. (1) If ϕ : G → G is a group homomorphism, then
G/kerϕ ∼
= Imϕ.
(2) If ϕ : G → G is an injective homomorphism, then G ∼
′
= Imϕ.
Example. If N
G and [G : N] = m, then ∀a ∈ G, am ∈ N.
Proof. Since |G/N| = [G : N] = m, ∀aN ∈ G/N, (aN)m = N,
i.e., am ∈ N. 2

Example. If H, K are distinct proper subgroups of G, then G 6=

H ∪ K.
Proof. We divide the proof into two cases.
Case 1: One of the subgroups is contained in the other one, i.e.
H ⊂ K or K ⊂ H. Then it is clear that H ∪ K 6= G. (Since H, K
are proper subgroups.)
Case 2: If H is not contained in K and K is not contained in
H. We take a ∈ H\K, b ∈ K\H, then ab ∈
/ H ∪ K. (Since if
ab ∈ H, then ab = h for some h ∈ H, and therefore b = a−1 h ∈ H,
a contradiction. 2

Example. If H is a subgroup of G, and [G : H] = 2, prove H
G.

Proof. ∀g ∈ G, if g ∈ H, then gH = Hg, if g ∈
/ H, then
U U
G = H gH and G = H Hg, thus gH = Hg, so H
G. 2

Definition. Let G be a group. Set Z(G) = {x ∈ G|xy =

yx, ∀y ∈ G}. Z(G) is called the center of the group G.
Example. If N
G and |N| = 2. Prove N ⊂ Z(G).
Proof. Let N = {1, a}. Since N
G, then ∀b ∈ G, we have
bN = Nb, i.e., {b, ba} = {b, ab}, so ba = ab, i.e., a ∈ Z(G). 2

32
 Example. If Z is the center of the group G, and suppose that
G/Z is a cyclic group. Then G is an abelian group.
Proof. Since G/Z is a cyclic group, G/Z is generated by one
S
element aZ, thus G = i∈Z ai Z, so ∀x, y ∈ G, then x = ai z1 , y =
aj z2 for some z1 , z2 ∈ Z, thus we have

xy = (ai z1 )(aj z2 ) = (aj z2 )(ai z1 ) = yx.

Example. If ϕ : G → H is a surjective homomorphism of groups,

and N
H, prove
(1) ϕ−1 (N)
G.
(2) G/ϕ−1 (N) ∼
= H/N.
Proof. Let
ψ : H → H/N

h 7→ hN

be the canonical homomorphism. Then ψ ◦ ϕ : G → H → H/N

is also a group homomorphism: a 7→ ϕ(a)N, which is clearly a
surjective homomorphism. The kernel is given by

ker(ψ ◦ ϕ) = {a ∈ G|ψ(ϕ(a)) = N}

= {a ∈ G|ϕ(a)N = N} = {a ∈ G|ϕ(a) ∈ N} = ϕ−1 (N),

thus ϕ−1 (N)
G and G/ϕ−1 (N) ∼

= H/N. 2

Second and Third Isomorphism Theorems:

I. Let H, K be subgroups of G, and K
G. Then HK/K ∼
=
H/H ∩ K.

33
 II. Let N, M be normal subgroups of G, and N ⊂ M. Then
(G/N)/(M/N) ∼ = G/M.
Proof. (I) Since K
G, we have HK < G, and K
HK, we
define
ϕ : H → HK/K

h 7→ hk

which is a surjective group homomorphism, (because ∀(hk)K ∈

HK/K, we have hK = (hk)K, thus ϕ is a surjective, also ϕ(h1 h2 ) =
(h1 h2 )K = (h1 K)(h2 K) = ϕ(h1 )ϕ(h2 )). The kernel of ϕ is kerϕ =
{a ∈ H|ϕ(a) = K} = {a ∈ H|aK = K} = {a ∈ H|a ∈ K} =
H ∩ K, so H/H ∩ K ∼
= HK/K.
(II) homework. 2

6.1. Operations of a Group on a set.

Definition. Let G be a group, S be a set. If there is a map:

G×S →S

(a, s) 7→ a.s

such that 1. (a1 a2 ).S = a1 .(a2 .S), ∀a1 , a2 ∈ G, s ∈ S.

2. e.s = s, ∀s ∈ S, where e is the identity element of G.
Then we say that G operates on set S, and S is called a G-set.
Remark. 1. If S is a G-set. ∀g ∈ G, g defines a map which
maps S to S:
S→S

s 7→ g.s.

If we denote this map by Tg , then Tg (s) = g.s, ∀s ∈ S.

34
 2. Te is an identity map on S.
3. ∀a, b ∈ G, Tab = Ta Tb .
4. Ta is invertible, and the inverse map is Ta−1 , ∀a ∈ G. Thus Ta
is a bijective map on S(i.e. Ta is a permutation of S.)
Example. Let G be a group, ∀x ∈ G, we define

σx : G → G

y 7→ xyx−1 , ∀y ∈ G

i.e. σx (y) = xyx−1 . Then G can be regarded a G-set under the

conjugation. Moreover, σx is also an automorphism of the group G.
Proposition. Let In(G) = {σx |x ∈ G}, σx defined above.
Then In(G) is a subgroup of the automorphism group Aut(G), and
In(G)
Aut(G).
Proof. σe ∈In(G) is the identity element in Aut(G), and

(σx · σy )(a) = x(yay −1)x−1 = (xy)a(xy)−1 = σxy (a), ∀a ∈ G,

i.e. σx σy ∈In(G), and σx · σx−1 = σe , thus the inverse of σx is σx−1

which is also in In(G). So In(G) <Aut(G). Next, ∀τ ∈Aut(G), and
σx ∈In(G), we have ∀y ∈ G,

(τ σx τ −1 )(y) = τ σx (τ −1 (y)) = τ (x · τ −1 (y) · x−1 )

= τ (x)τ (τ −1 (y))τ (x−1 ) = τ (x)y(τ (x))−1 = στ (x) (y).

Thus τ σx τ −1 = στ (x) ∈In(G), so In(G)
Aut(G). 2

Example. Let G be a group, ∀x ∈ G, we define

Tx : G → G

35
 y 7→ xy

i.e. Tx (y) = x · y, we have G is a G-set under the left multiplication.

Remark. Tx is a bijective map from G to G, but in general, Tx
is not a group homomorphism. (Since Tx (ab) = x(ab) 6= (xa)(xb) =
Tx (a)Tx (b).)
Theorem. (Cayley’s Theorem) Every finite group G is isomor-
phic to a subgroup of a permutation group. If |G| = n, then G is
isomorphic to a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn .
Proof. ∀x ∈ G, then the map

Tx : G → G

y 7→ xy

is a bijective map. i.e. Tx is a permutation on the set G (|G| = n),

thus Tx ∈ Sn , ∀x ∈ G. We define a map

T : G → Sn

x 7→ Tx ,

T is a group homomorphism, (Since T (xy) = Txy = Tx Ty = T (x)T (y)).

Moreover, if T (x) = id, we have Tx = id, i.e. Tx (y) = y, ∀y ∈ G,
thus xy = y, so x = e, thus T is injective. So G ∼
=ImT , which is a
subgroup of Sn . 2

Definition. Let A, B be two subsets of a group G. We say A

and B are conjugate if B = xAx−1 for some x ∈ G.
Example. Let S be the set of all subsets of a group G. Define an
operation of G on S: ∀x ∈ G,

σx : S → S

36
 A 7→ xAx−1 ,

then S is a G-set.
Homework eight.
1. Prove the Third Isomorphism Theorem.
2. Page 76, 6, 8.
3.Let G be a finite group, p be the samllest prime number which
divides |G|. If H < G and [G : H] = p. Prove that H
G.
Example. Let H be a subgroup of G, and set G/H = {aH|a ∈
G}. ∀x ∈ G, we define

Tx : G/H → G/H
aH 7→ xaH

⇒ G/H is a G−set.

Definition. Let S, S ′ be two G−sets. f : S → S ′ be a map. We

say f a homomorphism of G−sets, if

f (x.s) = x.f (s), ∀x ∈ G, s ∈ S.

Definition. Let S be a G−set. For s ∈ S, we define

G(s) = {x ∈ G|x.s = s}.

Lemma. G(s) is a subgroup of G.

Proof. The identity element e is clearly in G(s) . ∀x, y ∈ G(s) ,

i.e. x.s = s, y.s = s ⇒ (xy).s = x.(y.s) = x.s = s ⇒ xy ∈ G(s) .
And x−1 .s = x−1 .(x.s) = (x−1 x).s = e.s = s ⇒ x−1 ∈ G(s) . 2

Definition. G(s) is called the isotropy group of s in G.

37
 Example. Under the conjugation, a group G itself is a G−set.
∀x ∈ G, the isotropy group of s is

G(s) = {x ∈ G|x.s = s} = {x ∈ G|xsx−1 = s} = {x ∈ G|xs = sx}

called the centralizer of s in G.

Lemma. Let S be a G−set, s, s′ ∈ S, y ∈ G satisfying s′ = y.s.

Then
G(s′ ) = yG(s) y −1.

Proof. G(s′ ) = {x ∈ G|x.s′ = s′ }, G(s) = {x ∈ G|x.s = s}.

∀x ∈ G(s′ ) ⇒ x.s′ = s′ ⇒ x.y.s = y.s ⇒ (y −1xy).s = s i.e.
y −1xy ∈ G(s) i.e. x ∈ yG(s) y −1 ⇒ G(s′ ) ⊂ yG(s) y −1.
On the other hand, if x ∈ yG(s) y −1 ⇒ y −1xy ∈ G(s) ⇒ y −1 xy.s =
s ⇒ x.y.s = y.s i.e. x.s′ = s′ ⇒ x ∈ G(s′ ) ⇒ yG(s) y −1 ⊂ G(s′ ) .
2

Remark. From the lemma, we see that the isotropy groups

G(s) , G(s′ ) are conjugate if s′ = y.s for some y ∈ G.

Proposition. Let S be a G−set, s ∈ S, H = G(s) . If x, y ∈ G,

then x, y are in the same coset of the subgroup H if and only if
x.s = y.s.

Proof. Since xH = yH ⇔ x−1 y ∈ H ⇔ (x− 1y)s = s ⇔ y.s =

x.s. 2

Definition. Let S be a G−set, s ∈ S. We set

G.s = {x.s|x ∈ G}

38
and G.s is called the orbit of s under G.

Let G, H and S be the same sa in the previous proposition. Let

G/H = {aH|a ∈ G}. We define a map, for a fixed element s ∈ S ′ ,

f : G/H → S
.
aH 7→ a.s

(f is well-defined: since xH = yH ⇒ x−1 y ∈ H = G(s) ⇒ x−1 y.x =

s ⇒ y.s = x.s.)

Lemma. f is a homomorphism of G−sets.

Proof. Note that both G/H and S are G−sets. For a ∈ G, we

have

f (a.(xH)) = f ((ax).H) = (ax).s = a.(x.s) = af (xH).

2
Remark. It is clear that Imf = G.s (the orbit of s under G).

Corollary. f is a bijective map from G/H to G.s.

Proof. It is clear that f is surjective. To show f is injective, we

note that, from the above proposition x.s = y.s ⇔ x, y are in the
same coset of H = G(s) ⇔ xH = yH. 2

Corollary. Let S be a G−set, s ∈ S. Then the number of

elements in the orbit G.s is equal to [G : G(s) ].

Lemma. Let S be a G−set. ∀s1 , s2 ∈ S, then G.s1 ∩ G.s2 6= ∅ ∼

=
G.s1 = G.s2 .

39
 Proof. s ∈ G.s1 ∩ G.s2 ⇔ s = x.s1 = y.s2 for some x, y ∈
G ⇔ G.s = G.(x.s1 ) = G.s1 = G.(y.s2) = G.s2 . 2

Corollary. Let S be a G−set. Then

1◦ S = union of disjoint orbits, i.e.
]
S= G.si .
i∈I

where I is an index set, si ∈ S and G.si ∩ G.sj = ∅ if i 6= j.

2◦ If S is a finite set, then
X X
|S| = |G.si| = [G : G(si ) ]. (∗)
i∈I i∈I

Definition. The identity (∗) is called orbit decomposition for-

mula.

Homework.
1. Let G be a finite group, N
G, and |N| and |G/N| be coprime.
If a ∈ G and the order of a divides |N|, then a ∈ N.
2. Let G be a group, c ∈ G, and the order of c is rs, where
(r, s) = 1. Prove that there are elements a and b of G such that
c = ab and the order of a and b are r and s respectively, and ab = ba.
3. Let G be a group of order n, and let F be any field. Prove
that G is isomorphic to a subgroup of GLn (F).

Proposition. Let G be a group. Under the conjugation opera-

tion, G is a G−set. Then
X
|G| = [G : G(x) ]
x∈C

40
where

G(x) = {y ∈ G|y.x = x} = {y ∈ G|yx = xy} = Zx

the centralizer of x in G, C is the set of representatives for the

distinct conjugate classes.

Proof. By using the orbit decomposition formula, we have

X
|G| = [G : G(si ) ]
i∈I

where I is an index set of distinct orbits. Note that G.x = G.y ⇔ G.x∩
G.y 6= ∅ ⇔ ∃ z ∈ G.x ∩ G.y ⇔ z = a.x = b.y for some a, b ∈
G ⇔ axa−1 = byb−1 ⇔ y = (b−1 a)x(b−1 a)−1 ⇔ y =
(b−1 a).x ⇔ G(y) = (b−1 a)G(x) (b−1 a)−1 i.e. G(x) , G(y) are conju-
gate. 2

Definition. Let S be a subset of a group G, and

N(S) = {a ∈ G|aSa−1 = S},

Z(S) = {a ∈ G|ay = ya, ∀ y ∈ S.}.

Then N(S) is called the normalizer of S in G, and Z(S) is called

the centralizer of S in G.

Proposition. Let N(S), Z(S) be defined as above. Then

1◦ N(S), Z(S) are subgroups of G.
2◦ If S is a subgroup of G, then S
N(S).
3◦ The centralizer of G in G is the center of G.

Proof. 1◦ and 3◦ are clear. For 2◦ , ∀ a ∈ N(S) and b ∈ S, then

aba−1 ∈ aS a −1 = S,

41
i.e. S is a normal subgroup of N(S). 2

6.2 Sylow Subgroups

Definition. 1◦ Let G be a group, p a prime number. If |G| = pn

for some integer n ≥ 1, then G is called a p−group.
2◦ If G is a finite group, and H a subgroup of G. We call H a
p =subgroup of G if |H| = pn for some integer n.
3◦ A subgroup H of G is called a Sylow p−subgroup of G if
|H| = pn and pn+1 6 ||G|.

Lemma. If G is a finite abelian group, p is a prime number and

p||G|, then G has a subgroup of order p.

Proof. We prove the lemma by induction on the order of the

groups.
Take b ∈ G, and b 6= e(the identity element). Let H =< b > be
the cyclic subgroup generated by the element b. Then

|G| = |H|.[G : H].

Note that p||g|, then p||H| or p|[G : H].

If p||H|, then H has a subgroup of order p, which is also a sub-
group of G.
If p 6 ||H|, then p|[G : H], i.e., P ||G/H|. Then by induction, we
know that the quotient group G/H has a subgroup of order p, i.e.,
there is an element x ∈ G (x 6∈ H) such that (xH)p = H or xp ∈ H.

42
 Let xp =: y ∈ H and o(y) = q. Then (p, q) = 1. (Since p is prime
and p 6 ||H|.)
We claim that xq 6= e and (xq )p = e i.e. xq is an element of order
p, which generates subgroup of order p.
Indeed, if xq = e, then there exist a, b ∈ Z such that ap + bq = 1
and
x = xap+bq = y a ∈ H,

a contradiction. 2

Theorem. (First Sylow Theorem.) Let G be a finite group,

p a prime number and p||G|. Then G has a Sylow p−subgroup.

Proof. We prove the theorem by induction on the order of the

groups.
If |G| = p, then G itself is the Sylow p−subgroup of G.
Now we suppose that the statement of the theorem holds for all
finite groups of order less than |G|.
If there is a proper subgroup H of G such that [G : H] is prime
to p, then by the fact that |G| = |H|.[G : H], we know that H has
Sylow p−subgroup and which is also the Sylow p−subgroup of G.
In this case, we are done.
Next if each proper subgroup of G has index divisible by p. We
consider G as a G−set under the coonjugate operation. We use the
orbit decomposition formula:
X X
|G| = |G.xi | = [G : G(xi ) ],
i∈I i∈I

where G.xi ∩ G.xj = ∅ if i 6= j and G(xi ) is the isotropy subgroup of

xi in G.

43
 Let Z = Z(G) be the center of G. It is clear that, for a ∈ Z, the
orbit G.a = {a} (i.e. the orbit of the element in the center contains
only one elemnt.), which implies that G.a for a ∈ Z, are distinct
orbits. And each such an orbit contains only one element.
It is clear that if |G.a| > 1, then a 6∈ Z. Thus
X X X X
|G| = |G.a| = |G.xi | + |G.xi | = |Z| + |G.xi |,
i∈I xi ∈Z xi 6∈Z xi 6∈Z

where |G.xi | = [G : G(xi ) ] > 1 for xi ∈ Z, i.e., G(xi ) is a proper

subgroup of G, by assumption p|[G : G(xi ) ] for xi 6∈ Z.
Therefore p||Z|, which means that the center Z of G is nontriv-
ial. By applying the previous lemma, we know that Z contains a
subgroup H of order p. Then H ⊳ G. Let

f : G → G/H
a 7→ aH

be the canonical hommorphism. If pn ||G| and pn+1 6 ||G|, then

pn−1 ||G/H|, pn 6 ||G/H|. By induction, G/H has a Sylow p−subgroup
K ′ . Set K = f −1 (K ′ ), then K is a subgroup of G, which contains
H and
f |K : K → K ′

ia a surjective homomorphism. This means

K/H ∼
= K ′.

Thus |K| = |H| · [K : H] = p · |K ′ | = p · pn−1 = pn . 2

Homework.
Let H be a subgroup of G. Then
(a). The number of subgroups of which are conjugate to H is equal

44
to [G : N(H)].
(b). Z(H)
N(H).
(c). N(H)Z(H) is isomorphic to a subgroup of Aut(H).
(d). If G is a finite group and H is an proper subgroup of G then the
union of the subgroup which are conjugate to H is a proper subset
of G.

Corollary. If p is a prime number and |G| = pl (l ≥ 1), then the

center Z(G) of G is non-trivial.

Definition. Let S be a G−set. We call s0 ∈ S a fixed point

under G if G.s0 = {s0 }, i.e., a.s0 = s0 , ∀a ∈ G.

Remark. If S = G and the operation is definite by conjugation,

then s0 is a fixed point iff s0 ∈ Z(G).

Lemma. Let G be a p−group, and S be a G−set. If |S| = n

and (n, p) = 1, then S contains fixed point under G.

Proof. Applying the orbit decomposition formula, we have

X
|S| = |G.si |,
i∈I

where G.s1 , · · · , G.sk are distinct orbits. Note that |G.si | = [G :

G(si )] and G is a p−group, we know that |G.si | = pli for some
li ≥ 0. If S contains no fixed point, then we have li ≥ 1, for all i.
This implies that p||G.si|, ∀i. and therefore p||S|, which contradicts
to the condition (p, n) = 1. 2

Definition. Let G be a finite group, we call G a simple group

45
if G 6= {1} and G contains no normal subgroup other than {1} and
G.

Example. (1) If p is a prime number and |G| = p, then the

group G is a simple group.

(2) The symmetric group Sn (n ≥ 3) is not simple as the alter-

nating group An is a normal subgroup of Sn .

Example. Let H be a normal subgroup of a group G. Suppose

that |H| = 5 and that |G| is an odd number. Prove that H is
contained in the center of G.

Proof. Since H ⊳ G, then N(H) = G. We apply the result from

homework 5.1: G/Z(H) = N(H)/Z(H) is isomorphic to a subgroup
of Aut(H). But |H| = 5 implies H is a cyclic group of order 5 and
Aut(H) = 4, while Aut(H) has only 3 subgroups with order 1,2 and
4. Note that

|G| = |Z(H)| · [G : Z(H)] = |Z(H)| · |G/Z(H)|,

and |G| is an odd number, we have |G/Z(H)| = 1, i.e., Z(H) = G,

and therefore H is in the center of G. 2

Homework.
1. Let H
G, | H |= p, where p is the smallest prime that divides
| G |. Prove H ⊂ Z(G).
2. Let G be a group. a, b ∈ G are distinct elements of order 2. If
the order of ab is odd. Prove a and b are conjugate in G.

Remark. The classification of non-abelian groups was completed

in 1980’s:

46
 1. The alternative groups An (n ≥ 5);
2. The simple groups of Lie type (Matrix groups);
3. 26 sporadic groups.
The monster group M with order 246 · 320 · 59 · 76 · 112 · 133 · 17 ·
19 · 23 · 29 · 31 · 41 · 59 · 71 ≈ 1054 was found by Fischer-Griess (called
Friendly Giant).
Mathieu groups (1860-1873): M11 , M12 , M22 , M23 , M24 ;
Janko groups (1965- ): J1 , J2 , J3 , J4 ;
Thompson groups: T h;
Fischer groups: F i22 , F i23 , F i24 ;
The monster group: M.

Recall. 1◦ Isomorphism Theorem for groups: If H, K are sub-

groups of G, and K
G, then

HK/K ∼
= H/H ∩ G.

2◦ If H, P are subgroups of G and H ⊂ N(P ), then HP is a subgroup

of G and P
HP .

Theorem.(2rd Sylow Theorem.) Let G be a finite group.

(i.) If H is a p−subgroup of G, then H is contained in a Sylow
p−subgroup of G.
(ii.) All Sylow p−subgroups are conjugate.
(iii.) The number of Sylow p−subgroups of G is equal to 1 (mod
p).

Proof. Let S = {All Sylow p − subgroups of G}, then S is a

G−set under the conjugation operation.

47
 Fix P ∈ S, then P ⊂ G(P ) = {x ∈ G|x.P = P }. Note that

|G| = |G(P )| · [G : G(P )]

where [G : G(P )] = |G.P |. This implies that the order of the orbit
G.P = {x.P |x ∈ G} = {xP x−1 |x ∈ G} is prime to p.
Let H be a p−subgroup of G and |H| > 1. Set S0 = G.P , then
S0 is an H−set under the conjugation operation and (p, |S|) = 1.
The previous lemma implies that S0 contains a fixed point under
the group H, i.e.
h.(g.P ) = g.P

for some g ∈ G and all h ∈ H, i.e.

h(gP g −1)h−1 = gP g −1, ∀h ∈ H (∗)

where P ′ = gP g −1 is a Sylow p−subgroup which conjugate to P .

(∗) implies that H ⊂ N(P ′ ). Then HP ′ is a subgroup of G and
P ′
HP ′, by the Isomorphism Theorem for groups,

HP ′/P ′ ∼
= H/H ∩ P ′ .

Note that H is a p−subgroup, then |H/H ∩ P ′ | = pr for some r ≥ 0,

and

|HP ′| = |P ′ | · [HP ′ : P ′ ] = |P ′ | · |H/H ∩ P ′ | = pl+r ,

(where we assume that |G| = pl · m and (p, m) = 1).

This gives that r = 0, because that |P ′| = pl and P ′ is the Sylow
p−subgroup of G. And thus HP ′ = P ′ or H ⊂ P ′ . This proves (i).
For (ii), if we take H to be a Sylow p−subgroup and repeat the
argument of (i), we also have H ⊂ P ′ ⇒ H = P ′ = gP g −1 (since
H and P ′ have the same order). Therefore H and P are conjugate.

48
 Finally, to prove (iii), we first prove a Lemma.
Lemma. Let P be a Sylow p−subgroup of G. Then G has only
one Sylow p−subgroup iff p
G.
Proof of the lemma. ” ⇒ ” ∀x ∈ G. Since xP x1 is also a Sylow
p−subgroup, P = xP x−1 , i.e. P
G.
” ⇐ ” From (ii), we know all Sylow p−subgroups are conjugate,
thus for any Sylow p−subgroup P ′ , we have P ′ = xP x−1 for some
x ∈ G. From P
G, we have P ′ = P.
Now we prove (iii). We take H = P in the argument of (i),
then S = {All Sylow p − subgroups of G} is a H−set under the
conjugation operation.
For each element in S ′ , there is a orbit under H. For the element
P ∈ S, the orbit H.P = {P } while for P ′ ∈ S and P ′ 6= P , then
the orbit H.P ′ has more than one element (because, if H.P ′ = {P ′},
then for any x ∈ H = P , xP ′ x−1 = P ′ implies that P ⊂ N(P ′ ),
where P, P ′ are all Sylow p−subgroups of N(P ′ ), and P ′
N(P ′ )
⇒ P = P ′). Thus |H.P ′ | = [H : H(P ′)] implies that |H.P ′ | is
divisible by p. Therefore
X X
|S| = |HP ′| = |H.P | + |HP ′| ≡ 1 (mod p).
P ′ ∈I P ′ 6=P

Theorem. Let G be a finite group and p be a prime number and

p||G|. Then the number of Sylow p−subgroups of G is a divisor of
|G|.

Proof. Let S = {All Sylow p − subgroups of G}, and S is a

G−set under the conjugation operation. From the 2nd Sylow The-

49
orem, we know that all Sylow p−subgroups are conjugate, i.e.

S = G.P,

for P ∈ S. Thus |S| = |G.P | = [G : G(P )] which is a divisor of G.

2

Corollary. If |G| = pl · m and (p, m) = 1, then the number of

Sylow p−subgroups is a factor of m.

Proof. Since

pl · m = |G| = |G(P )| · [G : G(P )],

where G(P ) < G and P < G(P ), pl ||G(P )|, thus [G : G(P )]|m. 2

Example. If |G| = 15, prove that G is a cyclic group.

Proof. Since |G| = 15 = 3 · 5, G has Sylow 3-subgroup and

Sylow 5-groups.
By Sylow Theorem, we know that there are 3t + 1 Sylow 3-
subgroups and (3t + 1)|5, which implies t = 0 and G has only one
Sylow 3-subgroups K. Thus K
G.
Similarly, there are (5t + 1) Sylow 5-subgroups and (5t + 1)|3 .
This deduces that t = 0 and G has only one Sylow 5−subgroups H.
And moreover H
G.
Set K =< a > and H =< b >. Then o(a) = 3, o(b) = 5
and K ∩ H = {1}. Note that aba−1 b−1 ∈ H ∩ K, ab = ba. Thus
o(ab) = 15. So G = HK =< ab > . 2

Example. If |G| = 72, prove that G is not simple.

50
 Proof. |G| = 72 = 23 ·32 . Then |G| has (3t+1) Sylow 3-subgroups
and (3t + 1)|23 ⇒ t = 0 or t = 1.
Case 1. If t = 0, i.e. G has only one Sylow 3-subgroups, which is
normal.
Case 2. If t = 1, i.e. G has 4 Sylow 3-subgroups, say P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 .
Set S = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 }, then S is a G−set under the conjugation
operation. The Sylow’s Theorem says that all Sylow 3-subgroups
are conjugate. Thus ∀g ∈ G defines a permutation on S

fg : g.{P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } = {gP1g −1 , gP2g−1 , gP3 g −1, gP4 g −1}.

Thus there is a group homomorphism:

f : G → S4
g 7→ fg

where fg is not identity map in general. Moreover, |G| = 72 and

|S4 | = 24, which implies that ker f is a non-trivial normal subgroup
of G, thus G is not simple. 2

Homework.
1. Let H be a Sylow p-subgroup of G and K = N(H), prove
N(K) = K.
2. If |G| = 224, prove that G is not simple.

Theorem. Suppose |G| = pr m, where r ≥ 1, m > 1 and p 6

|m. If G is simple, then the number n of Sylow p−subgroups of G
satisfying:
|G| divides n!.

51
 Proof. Let P be a Sylow p−subgroup of G, Ω = {All Sylow p-
subgroups of G}. Then Ω is a G−set under the conjugate operation.
From Sylow Theorem, we know that all Sylow p−subgroups are
conjugate. Thus

n = |Ω| = |G.P | = [G : G(P )],

where the isotropy group

G(P ) = {a ∈ G|a.P = P } = {a ∈ G|aP a−1 = P } = N(P ).

Since G is simple and 1 < P < G, thus P is not normal, and so

n > 1.
Set H = N(P ), then [G : H] = n, set T = {a1 H, · · · , an H} be
the set of distinct left cosets of H in G. ∀x ∈ G :

ϕx : T → T
aH 7→ xaH.

Then ϕx defines a permutation of T , i.e. ϕx ∈ Sn . Therefore

ϕ : G → Sn
x 7→ ϕx

is a group homomorphism, and the fact that G is simple implies

ker ϕ = {1} (Since not all ϕx are identity map). ⇒ ϕ is injective ⇒
G∼= Imϕ < Sn ⇒ |G||n!. 2

Example. If |G| = 224, then G is not simple.

Proof. Suppose G is simple. Note that 224 = 25 · 7, we know

that G has 2t+1 Sylow 2-subgroups and (2t+1)|7 ⇒ t = 0 or t = 3.
That G is simple implies that t = 3, i.e. G has 7 Sylow 2-subgroups.

52
Then |G||7!, i.e. 25 |6!. But this is not impossible, a contradiction.
2

Second proof of the 1st Sylow Theorem.

n


Lemma. If n = pr m, where p is prime, then pr
≡ m (mod p).

Proof. If f (x), g(x) are polynomials with integer coefficients, we

say f (x) ≡ g(x) (mod p), if for every j ≥ 0, the coefficient of xj in
f (x) and g(x) are congruent modulo p. For instance, we have

(x + 1)p ≡ xp + 1 (mod p),

2 2
(x + 1)p ≡ xp + 1 (mod p),
···
pr r
(x + 1) ≡ xp + 1 (mod p).
Thus
r r
(x + 1)n = ((x + 1)p )m ≡ (xp + 1)m (mod p).
r
We compare the coefficient of xp on both sides to get
 
n
≡ m (mod p).
pr
2

1st Sylow Theorem. If |G| = pr m, where p is a prime and

p 6 |m, then G has a subgroup of order pr .

Proof. Let Ω = {all subsets of G of order pr }, i.e. Ω = {A ⊂

r

G||A| = pr }. Then |Ω| = pprm ≡ m (mod p) 6≡ 0.
The set Ω is a G−set with the following operation, ∀g ∈ G

g: Ω → Ω
X 7→ gX.

53
By applying the orbit decomposition formula
X
|Ω| = |G.X|,
x∈I

where G.X, X ∈ I are distinct orbits. Since p 6 ||ω|, there exists

X0 ∈ I, such that p ∤ |G.X0 |. Let G(X0 ) be the isotropy subgroup
of G under X0 ∈ Ω, then

|G.X0 | = [G : G(X0 )].

Thus pr ||G(X0)|. Moreover, |G(X0 )| ≥ pr .

On the other hand, for a ∈ X0 , and h ∈ G(X0 ). We have
h.a ∈ h.X0 = X0 . This deduces that G(X0 ).a ⊂ X0 , ⇒ |G(X0 )| =
|G(X0 ).a| ≤ |X0 | = pr , ⇒ |G(X0 )| = pr . 2

Homework.
1. If G is a group, and |G| = 1000000, prove G is not simple.
2. Let G be a finite group. H
G, and P a Sylow p−subgroup
of H. Prove that G = H · N(P ).
Definition. 1◦ Let G be a group. S = {x1 , · · · , xn } is a subset
of G. The subgroup of G generated by the elements x1 , · · · , xn is
defined by

{e, y1 · · · , yk |where k ≥ 1, yi ∈ S ∪ S −1 , for all i},

where e is the identity element of G and S −1 = {x−1 −1

1 , · · · , xn }.

2◦ Let G be a group. The subgroup of G generated by all elements

of the form aba−1 b−1 , a, b ∈ G is called the commutator subgroup
(or derived subgroup) of G, and is denoted by G′ .

Lemma. G′
G and G/G′ is an abelian group.

54
 Proof. If ϕ : G → G is a group homomorphism, then ∀a, b ∈
G, f (aba−1 b−1 ) = f (a)f (b)f (a)−1 f (b)−1 ∈ G′ ⇒ f (G′) is a subgroup
of G′ .
Now, ∀a ∈ G, we define

fa : G → G
x 7→ axa−1 .

Then fa is a group automorphism and fa (G′ ) ⊂ G′ , i.e. aG′ a−1 ⊂ G′ .

This implies that G′
G.
Moreover, a−1 b−1 ab ∈ G′ ⇒ abG′ = baG′ ⇒ (aG′ )(bG′ ) =
(bG′ )(aG′ ), ∀a, b ∈ G, i.e. G/G′ is abelian. 2

Definition. Let G be a group.

(1) Set G(1) = G′ , G(i+1) = (G(i) )′ for i ≥ 1, we call G(i) the i−th
derived subgroup of G, then

G
G(1)
G(2)
G(3)
· · · .

(2) If there exists n ≥ 1 such that G(n) = {e}, then G is called

solvable.

Theorem. If G is a p−group, p is a prime, then G is solvable.

Proof. We assume |G| > 1.

If |G| = p, then G is abelian ⇒ G′ = {e}, i.e. G is solvable.
Suppose the result holds for all p−groups with order less than
|G|. We know that the p−group G has a nontrivial center Z ⇒
G/Z is a p−group with order less than |G|. Thus there is n ≥ 1,
such that (G/Z)(n) = {Z} and (G/Z)(n−1) 6= {Z}. So Gn = Z and
Gn+1 = {e}. 2

55
 Recall. If H, K < G, then
|H| · |K|
|HK| = .
|H ∩ K|
Example. If |G| = mpk , (m, p) = 1, p a prime, and if H is a
Sylow p−subgroup of G and K is a p− subgroup of G such that
K * H. Prove that HK is not a subgroup.

Proof. Since K * H, then K ∩ H is a proper subgroup of K ⇒

|K ∩H| < |K|, i.e. p|[K : K ∩H] (since |K| = |K ∩H|·[K : K ∩H]).
Therefore
|H| · |K|
|HK| = = pk · [k : H ∩ K]
|H ∩ K|
⇒ pk+1 ||HK| ⇒ HK is not a subgroup of G. 2

Chapter II. Rings

1.Definition.
Definition. A ring R is a set with two laws of compositions:
” + ” and ” · ”, called addition and multiplication, which satisfy the
conditions:
(1) Set R with the addition forms an abelian group, i.e. (R, +)
is an aleblian group. The identity is denoted by 0, and often called
the zero element.
(2) Multiplication in R is associative, and R has an identity,
denoted by 1, i.e. 1 ∈ R and 1 · a = a · 1 = a, ∀a ∈ R. The element
1 is often called the identity element of the ring R.

56
 (3) Distribution laws hold: ∀a, b, c ∈ R,

a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c, (a + b) · c = a · b + b · c.

Example. 1◦ (Z, +, ·) is a ring.

2◦ (Z/nZ, +, ·) is a ring, where

R := Z/nZ = {0, 1, · · · , n − 1}

and i = {i + kn|k ∈ Z} = i + nZ, with

a + b = a + b, a + b = ab.

The zero element in the ring is 0, and the identity element is 1.

3◦ R = Mn×n (R) is a ring, with the usual matrix addition and
multiplication, the zero element is
 
0 ··· 0
 
 
0= ··· 
 
0 ··· 0

and the identity element is

 
1 ··· 0
 
 
I = ··· .
 
0 ··· 1

Remark. If (R, +, ·) is a ring, for a ∈ R, −a is the inverse

element in the group (R, +). For a, b ∈ R, we denote a−b = a+(−b).

57
 Lemma. If (R, +, ·) is a ring with zero element and identity
element 1, then
0 · a = a · 0 = 0, ∀ a ∈ R.

Proof. 0 · a = (0 + 0) · a = 0 · a + 0 · a ⇒ 0 · a = 0. 2

Definition. Let R = (R, +, ·) be a ring and S be a subset of

R. We call S a subring of R if S is closed under the operations of
addition, subtraction and multiplication.

Example. (Z, +, ·) is a subring of (R, +, ·).

Remark. 1◦ Sometimes, in the definition of a ring, the existence

of the identity element is not required.
2◦ If (R, +, ·) is a ring and moreover if a · b = ·a, ∀ a, b ∈ R, then
R is called a commutative ring.
3◦ From now on, the word ring, unless we explicitly mention non-
commutative, will mean a ring which is commutative and contains
an identity element 1.

Example. (Z, +, ·) is a commutative ring, while Mn×n is not

commutative.

Example. C[x] = {all polynomials over the complex field C}

C[a, b] = {all real continuous functions over the inteval [a, b]}.
R = {0} is a ring, called zero ring.

Proposition. If (R, +, ·) is a ring and 1 = 0, then R is zero ring.

58
 Proof. ∀a ∈ R, since 1 = 0, then a = 1 · a = 0 · a = 0. 2

Homework.
1. Describe explicitly the smallest subring of complex numbers
which contains the real cube root of 2.
2. In each case, decide whether the given structure forms a ring.
If it is not a ring, determine which of the ring axioms hold and which
fail:
(a) U is an arbitrary set, and R is the set of subsets of U. Ad-
dition and multiplication of elements of R are defined by the rules
A + B = A ∪ B and A · B = A ∩ B.
(b) U is an arbitrary set, and R is the set of subsets of U. Ad-
dition and multiplication of elements of R are defined by the rules
A + B = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B) and A · B = A ∩ B.
(c) R is the set of continuous functions R −→ R. Addition and
multiplication are defined by the rules [f + g](x) = f (x) + g(x) and
[f ◦ g](x) = f (g(x)).
Definition. Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with zero element 0 and
identity element 1. For a ∈ R, if there exists b ∈ R such that
ab = ba = 1, i.e. a has an inverse element with the multiplication,
then we say that a is a unit in R.

Example. 1◦ (Z, +, ·) has two units: ±1.

2◦ (R[x], +, ·) is the ring of polynomials. For f (x) ∈ R[x], f (x)
is a unit iff f (x) is a non-zero constant.

2. Polynomials in formal variables.

59
 Let x be a formal variable (i.e. a symbol) and R be a ring. A
formal polynomial with coefficient in R is:

f (x) = an xn + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,

where a0 , · · · , an are coefficients of the polynomial f (x), an 6= 0

is called the leading coefficient and n is called the degree of the
polynomial.
A polynomial of the form: f (x) = an xn is called a monomial
polynomial.
We define

R[x] = {all polynomials with variable x and coefficients in R},

then R[x] is a ring with the usual addition and multiplication, called
polynomial ring in one variable.
Similarly, we can define polynomial ring in multi-variables: R[x1 , · · · , xn ].

Example. Z[x] = {all polynomials with integer coefficients} is

a ring.

Definition. A complex number α is called an algebraic number

if α is a root of a non-zero polynomial in Z[x], otherwise α is called
a transcendental number.
√
Example. 1◦ 2, i are algebraic.
2◦ π, e are transcendental numbers.

3. Homomorphism and ideals.

60
 Definition. 1◦ A homomorphism ϕ : R → R′ from a ring R to
another ring R′ is a map satisfying:
ϕ(1) = 1
ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b)
ϕ(ab) = ϕ(a)ϕ(b)
for all a, b ∈ R.
2◦ An isomorphism of rings is a homomorphism and also a bijec-
tive map.
3◦ If there is a ring isomorphism from ring R to R′ , we say the
two rings are isomorphic, and denoted by R ∼= R′ .

Example. Let R[x] be the polynomial ring in variable x over

the ring R. Fix an element a ∈ R and define

ϕ : R[x] → R
,
f (x) 7→ f (a)

then ϕ is a ring homomorphism from the polynomial ring to the ring

R, which is indeed a surjective homomorphism.

Proposition. Let ϕ : R → R′ be a ring homomorphism. For a

given element α ∈ R′ , there exists a unique homomorphism:

Φ : R[x] → R′

such that Φ|R = ϕ and Φ(x) = α.

Proof. We define Φ : R[x] → R′ by Φ(an xn + · · · + a0 ) =

ϕ(an )αn + · · · + ϕ(a0 ). It is easy to check that Φ is a ring ho-
momorphism and satisfies the conditions of the proposition. The
uniqueness is clear. 2

61
 Example. Let p be a positive integer. Z/pZ = {0, 1, · · · , p − 1}
is a finite ring. Define

ϕ : Z → Z/pZ
,
n 7→ n

then ϕ is a ring homomorphism, and

Φ : Z[x] → Z/pZ[x]
,
an xn + · · · + a0 7→ f (x) = an xn + · · · + a0 = f (x)

is also a ring homomorphism. f (x) is called the residue of f (x)

modulo p.

Proposition. Let x1 , · · · , xn , y1 , · · · , yn be variables. Then there

is a unique isomorphism from the ring R[x1 , · · · , xn , y1 · · · , yn ] to
(R[x1 , · · · , xn ])[y1 , · · · , yn ], which is identity when restricted on R
and set each variable to itself.

Proposition. Let R be a ring with identity element 1R . Then

there is a ring homomorphism

ϕ:Z→R

defined by



 1R + · · · + 1R if n ≥ 1
 | {z }

 n copies

ϕ(n) = 0 if n = 0 .





 (−1R ) + · · · + (−1R ) if n ≤ −1
 | {z }
n copies

62
 Definition. Let R, R′ be rings, ϕ : R → R′ be ring homomor-
phism, we define

ker ϕ = {a ∈ R|ϕ(a) = 0}

and called the kernel of the homomorphism ϕ.

Lemma. For a, b ∈ ker ϕ, c ∈ R, we have

a + b ∈ ker ϕ, ac ∈ ker ϕ.

Proof.

ϕ(a + b) = ϕ(a) + ϕ(b) = 0, ⇒ a + b ∈ ker ϕ.

ϕ(a · c) = ϕ(a) · ϕ(c) = 0, ⇒ ac ∈ ker ϕ.

Remark. If ϕ : R → R′ is a ring homomorphism. ker ϕ in

general is not a subring of R. (Since the identity element 1 6∈ ker ϕ.)

Example. For a ∈ R,

ϕ : R[x] → R
f (x) 7→ f (a)

is a ring homomorphism and ker ϕ = {f (x) ∈ R[x]|f (a) = 0} =

{(x − a)g(x)|g(x) ∈ R[x]}, where R is the real number field.

Definition. Let I be a non-empty subset of a ring R. If I

satisfies the following conditions, then I is called an ideal of the
ring R:

63
 (1) With the condition of R, I is a subgroup of (R, +).
(2) If a ∈ I, b ∈ R, then ab ∈ R.

Corollary. If ϕ : R → R′ is a ring homomorphism, then ker ϕ is

an ideal of R.

Homework.
√
3
√ √
1. Prove that 7 + 2 and 3+ −5 are algebraic numbers.
2. Prove that for all integers n, cos 2π
n
is an algebraic number.
3. In each case, decide whether or not S is a subring of R.
(a) S is the set of all rational numbers of the form a/b, where b
is not divisible by 3, and R = Q.
(b) S is the set of functions which are linear combinations of the
functions {1, cos nt, sin nt | n ∈ Z}, and R is the set of all functions
R −→ R.

 (c) (not
 commutative) S is the set of real matrices of the form
a b
 , and R is the set of all real 2 × 2 matrices.
−b a
4. An element of a ring R is called nilpotent if some power of x
is zero. Prove that if x is nilpotent, then 1 + x is a unit in R.
5. Let R be a ring. The set of all formal power series p(t) =
a0 + a1 t + a2 t2 + · · · , with ai ∈ R, forms a ring which is usually
denoted by R[[t]].
(a) Prove that the formal power series form a ring.
(b) Prove that a power series p(t) is invertible if and only if a0 is
a unit of R.

64
 Lemma. Let R be a ring, a ∈ R. Let

aR{ar|r ∈ R}.

Then aR is an ideal of R.

Proof. It is clear that aR is a subgroup with the operation of

addition. Moreover, ∀b = ar1 ∈ aR, and r2 ∈ R, we have br2 =
a(e1 r2 ) ∈ aR, i.e. aR is an ideal of R. 2

Note. 1. Since R is commutative, for a ∈ R, aR = Ra.

2. If R is a non-commutative ring and I is a non-empty subset
of R, such that (I, +) is a subgroup of (R, +) and (i) ab ∈ I, ∀a ∈
R, b ∈ I, then I is called a left ideal of R.
(ii.) ab ∈ I, ∀a ∈ I, b ∈ R, then I is called a right ideal of R.
(iii.) ab, ba ∈ I, ∀a ∈ I, b ∈ R, then I is called a (two-sided) ideal
of R.
3. For a ∈ R, aR is a right ideal of R, Ra is a left ideal, and
P
RaR = { ri asi |ri , si ∈ R} is a two-sided ideal of R.

Definition. If R is a ring, the ideal aR is denoted by (a), and

called a principal ideal generated by a.

Example. R[x] = polynomial ring, then

(x − 1)R[x] = {(x − 1)f (x)|f (x) ∈ R[x]}

is a principal ideal generated by x − 1 ∈ R[x].

Define:
ϕ : R[x] → R
f (x) 7→ f (a),

65
where a is a fixed real number, then ϕ is a ring homomorphism from
R[x] to R, and ker ϕ = (x − a)R[x], the ideal generated by x − a.

Definition. Let R be a ring, a1 , · · · , an ∈ R, Let

n
X
(a1 , · · · , an ) = { ai ri |ri ∈ R}.
i=1

Then (a1 , · · · , an ) is an ideal of R, which is called the ideal of R

generated by the elements a1 , · · · , an .

Example. Let R = Z[x], 2, x ∈ Z[x]. Let I = (2, x) be the ideal

of Z[x] generated by the elements 2 and x. Then it is clear that

I = {all polynomials in Z[x] such that the constant term is a multiple of 2}.

Indeed,
ϕ : Z[x] → Z/2Z
f (x) 7→ f (0) (mod 2),
then ϕ is a ring homomorphism, and

ker ϕ = {f (x) ∈ Z[x]|f (0) ≡ 0 (mod 2)}

= {f (x) ∈ Z[x]|f (0) and the constant term of f (x) is a multiple of 2}
= I = (2, x).

Remark. If R is a ring ,then R is commutative and contains

1. It is clear that (0), (1) are principal ideals of R, and (0) is the
smallest ideal, and (1) = R is the largest ideal. We shall often call
(0) the zero ideal and (1) = R the unit ideal of R. (the trivial ideals)

Definition. An ideal I of a ring R is called proper if I 6= (0), R.

66
 Definition. Let R be a ring, and if for each non-zero element
a ∈ R, there exists b ∈ R, such that a · b = 1, then R is called a
field.

Fact. The set of units of a field R is {x ∈ R|x 6= 0}.

√
Example. R, Q, C are fields, Z is a ring (not a field). Q 2 =
√ √
{p + q 2|p, q ∈ Q} is also a field. Since if p + q 2 6= 0, then
√ √ √
p − q 2 6= 0 ⇒ (p + q 2)(p − q 2) = p2 − 2q 2 6= 0, and
√
√ p q 2
(p + q 2)( 2 − ) = 1.
p − 2q 2 p2 − 2q 2

Proposition. (a) F is a field, then the only ideals of F are zero

ideal and unit ideal.
(b) Conversely, if a ring R has exactly two ideals, then R is a
field.

Proof. (a) is clear. We prove (b).

Assume R has only two distinct ideals, (0) and R, then 0 6= 1
and ∀0 6= a ∈ R, then (a) is an ideal of R and a ∈ (a) ⇒ (a) =
R ⇒ (a) = R ⇒ 1 ∈ (a) ⇒ ∃ b ∈ R, such that 1 = ab, ⇒ R
is a field. 2

Corollary. Let F be a field, R′ be a non-zero ring, then each

ring homomorphism ϕ : F → R′ is injective.

Proof. We need to show that ker ϕ = (0).

Suppose that ker ϕ 6= (0), then ker ϕ is a non-zero ideal of the
field F , ⇒ ker ϕ = F ⇒ ϕ(1) = 0. But 0 is not the identity element
of the ring R′ . Contradiction. Thus ker ϕ = (0) or ϕ is injective. 2

67
 Proposition. Every ideal in the ring Z of integers is a principal
ideal.

Proof. If 0 6= I is an ideal of Z, then (I, +) is a subgroup of

(Z, +), then there exists p ∈ Z, such that I = pZ = (p) is a principal
ideal of Z generated by p. 2

Proposition. Let R be a ring, f, g ∈ R[x]. Assume that the

leading coefficient of f (x) is a unit in R. Then there exist polyno-
mials q, r ∈ R[x], such that

g(x) = f (x)q(x) + r(x),

where r(x = 0) or the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of f (x).

Proof. Omitted. 2

Corollary. Let g(x) be a monic polynomial in R[x], and α ∈ R

such that g(α) = 0. Then x − α divides g(x) in R[x].

Proposition. Let F be a field. Then every ideal in the polyno-

mial ring F [x] is a principal ideal.

Proof. Let (0) 6= I be an ideal of F [x]. Choose a non-zero

polynomial in I which has the minimal degree in I, say f (x). We
claim that I = (f (x)) is an ideal generated by f (x).
First, since I is an ideal and f (x) ∈ I, (f (x)) ∈ I.
On the other hand, ∀g(x) ∈ I, we divide g(x) by f (x) to get:
g(x) = q(x)f (x) + r(x), where r(x) = 0 or degree of r(x) is less
than the degree of f (x). Note that r(x) = g(x) − q(x)f (x) ∈ I, but

68
f (x) is a non-zero polynomial that has the minimal degree, thus
r(x) = 0 ⇒ g(x) = q(x)f (x) ∈ (f (x)) ⇒ i ⊂ (f (x)). Thus,
I = (f (x)). 2

Corollary. Let F be a field, f (x), g(x) are polynomials in F [x]

which are not both zero, then there exists a unique monic polynomial
d(x), called the greatest common divisor of f (x) and g(x) with the
following properties:
(a) d(x) generates the ideals (f (x), g(x)), i.e. (d(x)) = (f (x), g(x)).
(b) d(x)|f (x), d(x)|g(x).
(c) If h(x)|f (x), h(x)|g(x), then h(x)|d(x).
(d) There is polynomials p(x), q(x), such that d(x) = p(x)f (x) +
q(x)g(x).

Homework.
1. Let I, J be ideals of a ring R. Show by example that I ∪ J
need not be an ideal, but show that I + J = {r ∈ R | r = x + y, x ∈
I, y ∈ J} is an ideal. This ideal is called the sum of the ideals I, J.
2. (a) Let I, J be ideals of a ring R. Prove that I ∩ J is an ideal.
(b) Show by example that the set of products {xy | x ∈ I, y ∈
J} need not be an ideal, but that the set of finite sums Σxν yν of
products of elements of I and J is an ideal. This ideal is called the
product ideal.
(c) Prove that IJ ⊂ I ∩ J.
(d) Show by example that IJ and I ∩ J need not be equal.

69