Aircraft Structural Materials

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL
MATERIALS c
INTRODUCTION
The techniques and materials used in the early years of aviation were quite primitive by modern standards. The
Wright brothers' "Flyer," for example, was made from steel, wire, cable, silk, and wood. However, as aircraft
development advanced, a breakthrough occurred in the aircraft aluminum industry. Metallurgists found that mix-
ing, or alloying aluminum with other metals resulted in a much stronger material. In fact, alloying increased the
tensile strength of pure aluminum from about 13,000 psi to a tensile strength of 65,000 psi or greater, which is
equivalent to structural steel. As the need for aluminum alloys grew, manufacturers continued to refine them to
produce materials with better corrosion resistance and greater strength. Today, military aircraft are constructed of
about 65 percent aluminum and 35 percent of other alloys, including titanium, inconel, silver, and nickel. Civilian
aircraft are approximately 80 percent aluminum alloy and 20 percent other alloys. In addition to aluminum alloys,
composite materials are being used for more applications in aircraft structures. For example, a typical Boeing 737-
300 aircraft utilizes graphite, Kevlar, and fiberglass composites in flight controls and fairings. The use of these
materials saves more than 600 pounds in weight over traditional sheet metal parts. However, while aircraft man-
ufacturers continue to find more uses for composite materials, aluminum and steel alloys remain the most popular
structural materials.
METALS
Today, most aircraft are constructed of various types is applied to a material, the material resists any
of metals and metal alloys. Because of this, you, as deformation until its yield point is reached.
an aviation maintenance technician, must possess a However, once the yield point is reached the metal
thorough knowledge of metals. However, before you stretches without an increase in the applied stress.
can develop a complete understanding of metals Furthermore, as the metal stretches, the molecular
used in the aviation industry, you must first become structure changes enough to increase the metal's
familiar with some of the properties metals have. strength and, therefore, resist further deformation.
This continues until the ultimate load is reached, at
which time the material breaks.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
A given metal can possess several properties. SHEAR STRENGTH
Among these are strength, hardness, malleability,
ductility, brittleness, conductivity, expansion, Shear strength describes a metal's ability to resist
elasticity, toughness, fusibility, and density. opposing forces. A rivet holding two or more sheets
of metal together resisting the force of the sheets
trying to slide apart is an example of a shear load.
When the rivets installed in a joint have more
strength than the metal in the surrounding joint, the
STRENGTH joint is said to be loaded in shear.
One way to classify metals is according to the
amount of strength they possess. A metal's strength
is determined by the percentage of parent metal and
other elements used to make an alloy. BEARING STRENGTH
Bearing strength is the ability of a joint to withstand
any form of crushing or excessive compressive dis-
TENSILE STRENGTH tortion. Material under a compression load usually
fails by buckling or bending. The force at which
When a piece of sheet metal is pulled from each something buckles while being compressed varies
end, the resultant force is called tension. The ability with an object's length, cross-sectional area, and
to withstand tension is called tensile strength, and shape.
is measured in pounds per square inch. Since the
strength values for several metals are rated to sev-
eral thousand psi, the letter "K" is often used to rep-
resent the last three zeros of the psi rating.
Therefore, a tensile strength of 70,000 psi is written HARDNESS
as 70 KSL A metal's hardness refers to its ability to resist cut-
ting, penetration, or abrasion. The tensile strength
of steel relates directly to its hardness, but for most
YIELD STRENGTH
metals this relationship is not absolute. Some met-
als are hardened through heat-treating or work-
The ability of a metal to resist deformation is called hardening, while others are softened by a process
its yield strength. For example, when a tensile load called annealing.
Aircraft Structural Materials 7-3
MALLEABILITY an aircraft frame, or an engine. If you recall from your
study of electricity, electrons flow much easier in
A material's ability to be bent, formed, or shaped some metals than they do in others. Because of their
without cracking or breaking is called malleability. molecular structures, the best electrical conductors
Hardness and malleability are generally considered are gold, silver, copper, and aluminum.
opposite characteristics. To help increase malleabil-
ity, several metals are annealed, or softened. In this
condition complex shapes can be formed. After
forming is complete, the metal is then heat treated
to increase its strength. A metal may be fully THERMAL EXPANSION
annealed when the forming is started, but hammer-
ing and shaping can harden it to such an extent that The property of a metal to expand when heated and
it must be re-annealed before forming is completed. shrink when cooled is called thermal expansion.
The amount of expansion or contraction is pre-
dictable at specific temperatures and is called its
coefficient of expansion. All aircraft experience
thermal expansion and contraction as the ambient
DUCTILITY temperature changes.
The ability of metal to be drawn into wire stock,
extrusions, or rods is called ductility. Ductile metals
are preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of
forming and resistance to failure under shock loads. ELASTICITY
For this reason, aluminum alloys are often used for
cowlings, fuselage and wing skins, and formed or Elasticity describes a metal's tendency to return to
extruded parts such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads. its original shape after normal stretching and bend-
ing. The flexibility of spring steel used for the con-
struction of landing gear is a good example of elas-
ticity. Another form of elasticity is demonstrated
when aircraft skins expand and contract when an
BRITTLENESS aircraft is pressurized.
Brittleness describes a material's tendency to break A metal's elastic limit is the point beyond which the
or shatter when exposed to stress, and is the oppo- metal does not return to its original shape after a
site of ductility and malleability. A brittle metal is deforming force is removed. Soft materials such as
more apt to break or crack before it changes shape. lead, copper, and pure aluminum have very low
Because structural metals are often subjected to elastic limits, while the elastic limit of hard spring
shock loads, brittleness is not a desirable property. steel is very high.
Cast iron, cast aluminum, and very hard steel are
examples of brittle metals.
CONDUCTIVITY TOUGHNESS
Conductivity is the property which enables a metal Toughness is a material's ability to resist tearing or
to carry heat or electricity. If a metal is able to trans- breaking when it is bent or stretched. Hammer faces
mit heat it is said to be thermally conductive. and wrenches are examples of metal that must be
However, before a metal can carry heat away from tough as well as hard to be useful.
its source, it must first absorb it. This ability to con-
duct heat away is called heat exchange. The fins on
the cylinder heads of an air cooled piston engine
remove heat in this fashion.
FUSIBILITY
Metals that can carry heat also carry electrons, mak- The ability of metal to be joined by heating and
ing them good electrical conductors. Electrical con- melting is defined as fusibility. To fuse metal means
ductivity is the measure of a material's ability to to melt two or more compatible pieces of metal into
allow electron flow. A metal conductor can be a wire, one continuous part. The correct term is called
fusion joining or welding.
7-4 Aircraft Structural
Materials
DENSITY rolling and forging. As the name implies, rolling
consists of forming hot metal ingots with rollers
Density is a material's mass per unit volume, and to form sheets, bars, and beams. Forging, on the
throughout this section the term is used to compare other hand, is a process wherein a piece of metal
the weights of various metals. The standard from is worked at temperatures above its critical
which a metal's density is determined is water. For range. Forging is typically used to form intricate
example, one cubic centimeter of pure water weighs shapes and is accomplished through either
one gram and, therefore, has a density of one. pressing or hammering.
Aluminum has a density of 2.7; therefore, a cubic
centimeter weighs 2.7 grams. In the English system,
a cubic inch of pure water weighs 0.03611 pound,
and aluminum with its density of 2.7 weighs 2.7 Pressing is used to form large and heavy parts. Since
times this amount, or 0.0975 pound. [Figure 7-1] a press is slow acting, its force is uniformly trans-
mitted to the center of the material being pressed.
This affects the interior grain structure resulting in
the best possible structure throughout.
METALWORKING PROCESSES
After metal alloys are produced, they must be Drop forging is a hammering process whereby a hot
formed into useful shapes. Wrought objects are ingot is placed between a pair of formed dies in a
those formed by physically working the metal into machine called a drop hammer and a weight of sev-
shape, whereas cast items are formed by pouring eral tons is dropped on the upper die. This results
molten metal into molds. When it comes to in the hot metal being forced to take the form of the
mechanically working metal into a desired shape, dies. Because the process is very rapid, the grain
there are three methods commonly used. They are structure of the metal is altered, resulting in signifi-
hot-working, cold-working, and extruding. cant increases in the strength of the finished part.
Hot-working is the process of forming metal at an Hammering is a type of forging that is usually used
elevated temperature when it is in its annealed, or on small parts because it requires a metalworker to
soft condition. Almost all steel is hot-worked from physically hammer a piece of metal into its finished
the ingot into a form which is either hot- or cold- shape. The advantage of hammering is that the oper-
worked to a finished shape. When an ingot is ator has control over both the amount of pressure
stripped from its mold, its surface is solid, but its applied and the finishing temperature. This type of
interior is still molten. The ingot is then placed in a forging is usually referred to as smith forging and is
soaking pit to slow the cooling process until the used extensively where only a small number of
molten interior gradually solidifies. After soaking, parts are needed. In addition to the forming opera-
the temperature is equalized throughout the ingot, tion, hammering hardens the metal.
then it is worked into its desired shape through
Cold-working is performed well below a metal's
critical temperature and ranges from the manual
bending of sheet metal for skin repairs to drawing
seamless tubing and wire. Cold-working strain
hardens the worked metal, increasing its strength
and hardness but decreasing ductility. For this
reason, cold worked material usually must be heat
treated before use. While there are several cold-
working processes, the two that are most common
are cold-rolling and cold-drawing. Cold-rolling
usually refers to the rolling of metal at room tem-
perature to its approximate size. Once this is
Figure 7-1. A material's mass per unit volume is called its done, the metal is pickled to remove any scale,
density. Water, which is used as a standard, weighs one and then passed through chilled finishing rolls.
gram per cubic centimeter and has a density of 1. This results in a smooth surface and extremely
accurate dimensions.
Cold-drawing is used in making seamless tubing, increases considerably when it is alloyed, or mixed,
wire, streamlined tie rods, and other forms of with other compatible metals. For example, when
stock. Wire is made from hot-rolled rods of vari- aluminum is mixed with copper or zinc, the resul-
ous diameters. The size of rod used for drawing tant alloy is as strong as steel with only one third
depends on the diameter wanted in the finished the weight. Furthermore, the corrosion resistance
wire. To reduce a rod to a specific size, it is possessed by the aluminum carries over to the
drawn cold through a die. To do this, one end of newly formed alloy.
the rod is filed or hammered to a point and
slipped through the die opening. Here it is
gripped by a set of jaws and pulled through the
die. In order to reduce the rod gradually to the ALLOYING AGENTS
desired size, it is necessary to draw the wire
through successively smaller dies. Because each Aluminum alloys are classified by their major
draw reduces the wire's ductility, it must be alloying ingredient. The elements most com-
annealed occasionally. monly used for aluminum alloying are copper,
magnesium, manganese, and zinc. Wrought alu-
minum and wrought aluminum alloys are iden-
tified by a four-digit index system. The first
In making seamless aircraft tubing, the tubing is
digit of a designation identifies the major alloy-
cold-drawn through a ring-shaped die with a
ing element used in the formation of the alloy.
mandrel or metal bar inside the tubing to support
The most common alloying elements used are as
it while it is drawn. This forces the metal to flow
follows:
between the die and the mandrel and affords a
means of controlling the wall thickness as well as
the inside and outside diameters.
Ixxx 15 aluminum
2xxx 15 copper
Extrusion is the process of forcing metal through
a die which imparts a required cross-section to 3xxx 15 manganese
the metal. Some metals such as lead, tin, and alu-
minum may be extruded cold, however, most 4xxx 15 silicon
metals are heated. The principal advantage of the
extrusion process is its flexibility. For example, 5 xxx 15 magnesium
because of its workability, aluminum can be eco-
nomically extruded to more intricate shapes and 6xxx 15 magnesium and silicon
larger sizes than is practicable with other metals.
Many structural parts, such as channels, angles, 7xxx 15 zinc
T-sections, and Z-sections are formed by the
extrusion process. 8xxx 15 other elements
NONFERROUS METALS The second number represents a specific alloy
modification. For example, if this digit is zero, it
Much of the metal used on today's aircraft contains indicates there were no special controls over
no iron. The term that describes metals which have individual impurities. However, a digit of 1
elements other than iron as their base is nonferrous. through 9 indicates the number of controls over
Aluminum, copper, titanium, and magnesium are impurities in the metal.
some of the more common nonferrous metals used
in aircraft construction and repair.
ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS The last two numbers of the Ixxx group of alloys
are used to indicate the hundredths of 1 percent
Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used
above the original 99 percent pure aluminum. For
for aircraft construction. However, its strength
example, if the last two digits are 75, the alloy
contains 99.75 percent pure aluminum. However,
in the 2xxx through 8xxx groups the last two dig-
7-6 Aircraft Structural Materials
its identify the different alloys in the group. Magnesium is used to produce the 5xxx series
[Figure 7-2] alloys. These alloys possess good welding and
corrosion-resistance characteristics. However, if
The lxxx series of aluminum alloys represents the metal is exposed to high temperatures or
commercially pure aluminum, of 99 percent or excessive cold working, its susceptibility to cor-
higher purity. Pure aluminum offers high corrosion rosion increases.
resistance, excellent thermal and electrical proper-
ties, and is easily worked. However, pure aluminum If silicon and magnesium are added to alu-
is very low in strength. minum, the resultant alloy carries a 6xxx series
designation. In these alloys, the silicon and mag-
Alloys within the 2xxx series utilize copper as the nesium form magnesium silicide which makes
principle alloying agent. When aluminum is mixed the alloy heat-treatable. Furthermore, the 6xxx
with copper, certain metallic changes take place in series has medium strength with good forming
the resultant alloy's grain structure. For the most and corrosion-resistance properties.
part, these changes are beneficial and produce
greater strength. However, a major drawback to alu- When parts require more strength and little form-
minum-copper alloys is their susceptibility to inter- ing, harder aluminum alloys are employed. The
granular corrosion when improperly heat-treated. 7xxx series aluminum alloys are made harder and
Most aluminum alloy used in aircraft structures is stronger by the addition of zinc. Some widely
an aluminum-copper alloy. Two of the most com- used forms of zinc-aluminum alloys are 7075 and
monly used in the construction of skins and rivets 7178. The aluminum-zinc alloy 7075 has a tensile
are 2017 and 2024. strength of 77 KSI and a bearing strength of 139
KSI. However, the alloy is very hard and is diffi-
The 3xxx series alloys have manganese as the prin- cult to bend. An even stronger zinc alloy is 7178
ciple alloying element, and are generally considered which has a tensile strength of 84 KSI and a bear-
nonheat treatable. The most common variation is ing strength of 151 KSI.
3003, which offers moderate strength and has good
working characteristics.
CLAD ALUMINUM ALLOY
The 4xxx series aluminum is alloyed with sili- Most external aircraft surfaces are made of Alclad
con, which lowers a metal's melting tempera- aluminum. Alclad is a pure aluminum coating that
ture. This results in an alloy that works well for is rolled on to the surface of heat-treated aluminum
welding and brazing. alloy. The thickness of this coating is approximately
Figure 7-2. A variety of elements are used to produce aluminum alloys.
5 percent of the alloy's thickness on each side. For structure. In this configuration, when the aluminum
example, if an alclad sheet of aluminum is .040 alloy is subjected to stress, these alloying particles
inches thick, 5 percent, or .002 inches of pure alu- adhere to the aluminum molecules and resist defor-
minum is applied to each side. This results in an mation. However, special processes must be used to
alloy thickness of .036 inches. allow the base metal and alloy to mix properly. For
example, when aluminum is alloyed with copper
This clad surface greatly increases the corrosion through conventional processes, approximately .5
resistance of an aluminum alloy. However, if it is percent of the copper dissolves, or mixes with the
penetrated, corrosive agents can attack the alloy aluminum. The remaining copper takes the form of
within. For this reason, sheet metal should be pro- the compound CuAl2. However, when the alu-
tected from scratches and abrasions. In addition to minum alloy is heated sufficiently, the remaining
providing a starting point for corrosion, abrasions copper enters the base metal and hardens the alloy.
create potential stress points.
The process of heating certain aluminum alloys to
allow the alloying element to mix with the base
HEAT TREATMENT metal is called solution heat treating. In this proce-
dure, metal is heated in either a molten sodium or
Heat treatment is a series of operations involving
potassium nitrate bath or in a hot-air furnace to a
the heating and cooling of metals in their solid state.
temperature just below its melting point. The tem-
Its purpose is to make the metal more useful, ser-
perature is then held to within about plus or minus
viceable, and safe for a definite purpose. By heat
10 degrees Fahrenheit of this temperature and the
treating, a metal can be made harder, stronger, and
base metal is soaked until the alloying element is
more resistant to impact. Heat treating can also
uniform throughout. Once the metal has sufficiently
make a metal softer and more ductile. However, one
soaked, it is removed from the furnace and cooled or
heat-treating operation cannot produce all these
quenched. It is extremely important that no more
characteristics. In fact, some properties are often
than about ten seconds elapse between removal of
improved at the expense of others. In being hard-
an alloy from the furnace and the quench. The rea-
ened, for example, a metal may become brittle.
son for this is that when metal leaves the furnace
All heat-treating processes are similar in that they and starts to cool, its alloying metals begin to pre-
cipitate out of the base metal. If this process is not
involve the heating and cooling of metals. They dif-
stopped, large grains of alloy become suspended in
fer, however, in the temperatures to which the metal
the aluminum and weaken the alloy. Excessive pre-
is heated and the rate at which it is cooled.
cipitation also increases the likelihood of intergran-
ular corrosion.
There are two types of heat treatments used on alu-
minum alloys. One is called solution heat treat-
To help minimize the amount of alloying element
ment, and the other is known as precipitation heat
that precipitates out of a base metal, a quenching
treatment. Some alloys, such as 2017 and 2024,
medium is selected to ensure the proper cooling
develop their full properties as a result of solution
rate. For example, a water spray or bath provides the
heat treatment followed by about 4 days of cooling,
appropriate cooling rate for aluminum alloys.
or aging, at room temperature. However, other
However, large forgings are typically quenched in
alloys, such as 2014 and 7075, require both heat
hot water to minimize thermal shock that could
treatments.
cause cracking. Thin sheet metal normally warps
and distorts when it is quenched, so it must be
SOLUTION HEAT-TREATMENT
straightened immediately after it is removed from
the quench. After the quench, all metals must be
When aluminum is alloyed with materials such as rinsed thoroughly since the salt residue from the
copper, magnesium, or zinc, the resultant alloys are sodium or potassium nitrate bath can lead to corro-
much stronger than aluminum. To understand why sion if left on the alloy.
this happens, it is necessary to examine the micro-
scopic structure of aluminum. Pure aluminum has a
molecular structure that is composed of weakly PRECIPITATION HEAT-TREATMENT
bonded aluminum atoms and, therefore, is
extremely soft. Aluminum alloys, on the other Heat-treatable aluminum alloys are comparatively
hand, consist of a base metal of aluminum and an soft when first removed from a quench. With time,
alloying element that is dispersed throughout the however,the metal becomes hard and gains
Materials
strength. When an alloy is allowed to cool at room and somewhat corrosion resistant. However, neither
temperature, it is referred to as natural aging and has a great deal of strength and, therefore, their use
can take several hours or several weeks. For exam- in aircraft is limited to nonstructural components
ple, aluminum alloyed with copper gains about 90 such as fairings and streamlined enclosures that
percent of its strength in the first half-hour after it is carry little or no load.
removed from the quench, and becomes fully hard
in about four or five days. Alloy 5052 is perhaps the most important of the
nonheat-treatable aluminum alloys. It contains
An alloy's aging process time can be lengthened or about 2.5 percent magnesium and a small amount of
shortened. For example, the aging process can be chromium. It is used for welded parts such as gaso-
slowed by storing a metal at a sub-freezing temper- line or oil tanks, and for rigid fluid lines. Its strength
ature immediately after it is removed from the is increased by cold working.
quench. On the other hand, the aging process can be
accelerated by reheating a metal and allowing it to
soak for a specified period of time. This type of
aging is identified by several terms such as artificial HEAT-TREATMENT IDENTIFICATION
age-hardening, percipitation-hardening or precipi-
Heat-treatable alloys have their hardness condition
tation heat treatment. This process develops hard-
ness, strength, and corrosion resistance by locking a designated by the letter -T followed by one or more
metal's grain structure together. numbers. A list of these designations includes:
Naturally aged alloys, such as the copper-zinc- -T Solution heat treated

magnesium alloys, derive their full strength at
room temperature in a relatively short period and -T2 Annealed (cast products only)
require no further heat treatment. However, other
alloys, particularly those with a high zinc content, -T3 Solution heat-treated, followed by strain hard-
need thermal treatment to develop full strength. ening. Different amounts of strain hardening
These alloys are called artificially aged alloys. of the heat-treated alloy are indicated by a sec-
ond digit. For example, -T36 indicates that the
material has been solution heat-treated and
ANNEALING has had its thickness reduced 6 percent by
cold rolling.
Annealing is a process that softens a metal and
decreases internal stress. In general, annealing is the -T4 Solution heat-treated, followed by natural aging
opposite of hardening. To anneal an aluminum at room temperature to a stable condition.
alloy, the metal's temperature is raised to an anneal-
ing temperature and held there until the metal -T5 Artificially aged after being rapidly cooled
becomes thoroughly heat soaked. It is then cooled to during a fabrication process such as extrusion
500蚌 at a rate of about 5024 per hour. Below 500蚌, or casting.
the rate of cooling is not important.
When annealing clad aluminum metals, they

should be heated as quickly and as carefully as pos-
sible. The reason for this is that if clad aluminum is
exposed to excessive heat, some of the core material
tends to mix with the cladding. This reduces the
metal's corrosion resistance. [Figure 7-3]
NON-HEAT-TREATABLE ALLOYS
Commercially pure aluminum does not benefit from
heat treatment since there are no alloying materials
in its structure. By the same token, 3003 is an
Figure 7-3. Aluminum alloys are heat treated to increase
almost identical metal and, except for a small
their strength and improve their working characteristics.
amount of manganese, does not benefit from being Heat treatment temperatures and soak times are critical to
heat treated. Both of these metals are lightweight disperse the alloying elements.
-T6 Solution heat-treated, followed by artificial basic temper designation must be more specifically
aging (precipitation heat-treated). defined, one or more numbers follow the letter des-
ignation. These designations are as follows:
-T7 Solution heat-treated and then stabilized to
control its growth and distortion. -F As fabricated.
-T8 Solution heat-treated, strain hardened, and -O Annealed, recrystallized (wrought materials
then artificially aged. only).
-T9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, and -H Strain hardened.

then strain-hardened.
-Hi Strain hardened only.
-T10 Artificially aged and then cold worked.
-H2 Strain hardened and partially annealed.
-H3 Strain hardened and stabilized.

REHEAT TREATMENT
Material which has been previously heat-treated The digit following the designations Hi, H2, and H3
can generally be reheat treated any number of times. indicate the degree of strain hardening. For exam-
As an example, rivets made of 2017 or 2024 are ple, the number 8 represents the maximum tensile
extremely hard and typically receive several reheat strength while O indicates an annealed state. The
treatments to make them soft enough to drive. most common designations include:
As discussed earlier, the number of solution heat- -Hx2 Quarter-hard

treatments allowed for clad materials is limited due
to the increased diffusion of core material into the -Hx4 Half-hard
cladding. This diffusion results in decreased corro-
sion resistance. As a result, clad material is gener- -Hx6 Three-quarter hard
ally limited to no more than three reheat treatments.
-Hx8 Full-hard
STRAIN HARDENING -Hx9 Extra-hard

Both heat-treatable and nonheat-treatable alu-
minum alloys can be strengthened and hardened
MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS
through strain hardening, also referred to as cold
working or work hardening. This process Magnesium alloys are used for castings and in its
requires mechanically working a metal at a tem- wrought form is available in sheets, bars, tubing,
perature below its critical range. Strain hardening and extrusions. Magnesium is one of the lightest
alters the grain structure and hardens the metal. metals having sufficient strength and suitable work-
The mechanical working can consist of rolling, ing characteristics for use in aircraft structures. It
drawing, or pressing. has a density of 1.74, compared with 2.69 for alu-
minum. In other words, it weighs only about 2/3 as
Heat-treatable alloys have their strength increased much as aluminum.
by rolling after they have been solution heat-treated.
On the other hand, nonheat-treatable alloys are Magnesium is obtained primarily from electrolysis
hardened in the manufacturing process when they of sea water or brine from deep wells, and lacks
are rolled to their desired dimensions. However, at sufficient strength in its pure state for use as a
times these alloys are hardened too much and must structural metal. However, when it is alloyed with
be partially annealed. zinc, aluminum, thorium, zirconium, or man-
ganese, it develops strength characteristics that
make it quite useful.
HARDNESS DESIGNATIONS
Where appropriate, a metal's hardness, or temper, is The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
indicated by a letter designation that is separated has developed a classification system for magne-
from the alloy designation by a dash. When the sium alloys that consists of a series of letters and
Materials
numbers to indicate alloying agents and temper TITANIUM AMD |TS
condition. [Figure 7-4]
Titanium and its alloys are light weight metals with
very high strength. Pure titanium weighs .163
Magnesium has some rather serious drawbacks that pounds per cubic inch, which is about 50 percent
had to be overcome before it could be used success- lighter than stainless steel, yet it is approximately
fully. For example, magnesium is highly susceptible equal in strength to iron. Furthermore, pure tita-
to corrosion, and tends to crack. The cracking con- nium is soft and ductile with a density between that
tributes to its difficulty in forming and limits its use of aluminum and iron.
for thin sheet metal parts. However, this tendency is
overcome to a great extent by forming parts while
the metal is hot. The corrosion problem is mini- Titanium is a metallic element which, when first
mized by treating the surface with chemicals that discovered, was classified as a rare metal. However,
form an oxide film to prevent oxygen from reaching in 1947 its status was changed due to its importance
the metal. When oxygen is excluded from the sur- as a structural metal. In the area of structural metal-
face, no corrosion can form. Another important step lurgy, it is said that no other structural metal has
in minimizing corrosion is to always use hardware been studied so extensively or has advanced aircraft
such as rivets, nuts, bolts, and screws that are made structures so rapidly.
of a compatible material.
In addition to its light weight and high strength, tita-
In addition to cracking and corroding easily, magne- nium and its alloys have excellent corrosion resis-
sium burns readily in a dust or small particle form. tance characteristics, particularly to the corrosive
For this reason, caution must be exercised when effects of salt water. However, since the metal is sen-
grinding and machining magnesium. If a fire should sitive to both nitrogen and oxygen, it must be con-
occur, extinguish it by smothering it with dry sand verted to titanium dioxide with chlorine gas and a
or some other dry material that excludes air from reducing agent before it can be used.
the metal and cools its surface. If water is used, it
will only intensify the fire. Titanium is classified as alpha, alpha beta, and beta
alloys. These classifications are based on specific
Solution heat-treatment of magnesium alloys chemical bonding within the alloy itself. The
increases tensile strength, ductility, and resis- specifics of the chemical composition are not criti-
tance to shock. After a piece of magnesium alloy cal to working with the alloy, but certain details
has been solution heat-treated, it can be precipi- should be known about each classification.
tation heat treated by heating it to a temperature
lower than that used for solution heat treatment, Alpha alloys have medium strengths of 120 KSI to
and holding it at this temperature for a period of 150 KSI and good elevated-temperature strength.
several hours. This increases the metal's hardness Because of this, alpha alloys can be welded and
and yield strength. used in forgings. The standard identification num-
ber for alpha titanium is 8Al-lMo-lV-Ti, which is
also referred to as Ti-8-1-1. This series of numbers
indicates that the alloying elements and their per-
centages are 8 percent aluminum, 1 percent molyb-
denum, and 1 percent vanadium.
Alpha-beta alloys are the most versatile of the tita-

nium alloys. They have medium strength in the
annealed condition and much higher strength when
heat treated. While this form of titanium is generally
not weldable, it has good forming characteristics.
Beta alloys have medium strength, excellent

Figure 7-4. Magnesium alloys use a different designation forming characteristics, and contain large quanti-
system than aluminum. For example, the designation ties of high-density alloying elements. Because of
AZ31A-T4 identifies an alloy containing 3 percent aluminum this, beta titanium can be heat-treated to a very
and 1 percent zinc that has been solution heat-treated. high strength.
The grain size of titanium is refined when alu- bine engines because of their ability to maintain
minum is added to the alloy mixture. However, their strength and corrosion resistance under
when copper is added to titanium, a precipita- extremely high temperature conditions.
tion-hardening alloy is produced. Titanium added
to high temperature nickel-cobalt-chromium alloy Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance
produces a precipitation-hardening reaction and are frequently used in the same areas.
which provides strength at temperatures up to Therefore, it is often necessary to use a test to dif-
l,500蚌. [Figure 7-5] ferentiate between unknown metal samples. A com-
mon test involves applying one drop of cupric chlo-
Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, tita- ride and hydrochloric acid solution to the unknown
nium is now used extensively in the civilian metal and allowing it to remain for two minutes. At
aerospace industry. Although once rare on com- the end of the dwell period, a shiny spot indicates
mercial aircraft, modern jet transports now uti- that the material is inconel, whereas a copper-col-
lize alloys containing 10 to 15 percent titanium ored spot identifies stainless steel.
in structural areas.
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS Neither copper nor its alloys find much use as
As an aircraft technician, you need to be familiar structural materials in aircraft construction.
with two nickel alloys. They are monel and However, due to its excellent electrical and ther-
inconel. Monel contains about 68 percent nickel mal conductivity, copper is the primary metal used
and 29 percent copper, along with small amounts for electrical wiring.
of iron and manganese. It can be welded and has
very good machining characteristics. Certain Of the several alloys that use copper as a base, brass,
types of monel, especially those containing small bronze, and beryllium are the primary alloys used
percentages of aluminum, are heat-treatable, to on aircraft. Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc
tensile strengths equivalent to steel. Monel works and small amounts of aluminum, iron, lead, man-
well in gears and parts that require high strength ganese, magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin.
and toughness, as well as for parts in exhaust sys- Brass with a zinc content of 30 to 35 percent is very
tems that require high strength and corrosion ductile, while brass containing 45 percent zinc has
resistance at elevated temperatures. relatively high strength.
The International Nickel Company, Inc., pro- Bronze is a copper alloy that contains tin. A true
duces a series of high strength, high temperature bronze consists of up to 25 percent tin and, along
alloys containing approximately 80 percent with brass, is used in bushings, bearings, fuel-
nickel, 14 percent chromium, and small amounts metering valves, and valve seats. Bronzes with
of iron and other elements. The alloys, commonly less than 11 percent tin are used in items such as
referred to as inconel, find frequent use in tur- tube fittings.
Figure 7-5. This table illustrates the composition, tensile strength, and elongation of titanium alloys. The degree of strength is
denoted by the smaller hole elongation percentage shown in the last column. The titanium alloy most commonly used by the aero -
space industry is an alpha-beta heat-treated alloy called 6AI-4V. This alloy has a tensile strength of 180 KSI, or 180,000 pounds per
square inch. It is frequently used for special fasteners.
Materials
Beryllium copper is probably one of the most used STEEL
copper alloys. It consists of approximately 97 per-
cent copper, 2 percent beryllium, and sufficient To make steel, pig iron is re-melted in a special fur-
nickel to increase its strength. Once heat treated, nace. Pure oxygen is then forced through the molten
beryllium copper achieves a tensile strength of metal where it combines with carbon and burns. A
200,000 psi and 70,000 psi in its annealed state. controlled amount of carbon is then put back into
This makes beryllium extremely useful for the molten metal along with other elements to pro-
diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball duce the desired characteristics. The molten steel is
cages, and spring washers. then poured into molds where it solidifies into
ingots. The ingots are placed in a soaking pit where
they are heated to a uniform temperature of about
Copper tubing was once used extensively in aircraft 2,200蚌. They are then taken from the soaking pit
fluid lines, but because of its weight and tendency and passed through steel rollers to form plate or
to become brittle when subjected to vibration, it has sheet steel.
been almost entirely replaced by aluminum alloy.
Brass fittings for fluid lines have also been replaced
with either aluminum alloy or steel fittings. Much of the steel used in aircraft construction is
made in electric furnaces, which allow better con-
trol of alloying agents than gas-fired furnaces. An
FERROUS METAL electric furnace is loaded with scrap steel, lime-
stone, and flux. Carbon electrodes are lowered into
Any alloy containing iron as its chief constituent is the steel, producing electric arcs between the steel
called a ferrous metal. The most common ferrous and the carbon. The intense heat from the arcs melts
metal in aircraft structures is steel, an alloy of iron the steel and the impurities mix with the flux. Once
with a controlled amount of carbon added. the impurities are removed, controlled quantities of
alloying agents are added, and the liquid metal is
poured into molds.
IRON
Iron is a chemical element which is fairly soft, mal-
leable, and ductile in its pure form. It is silvery SAE CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS
white in color and is quite heavy, having a density The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has
of 7.9 grams per cubic centimeter. Iron combines classified steel alloys with a four-digit numerical
readily with oxygen to form iron oxide, which is index system. For example, one common steel alloy
more commonly known as rust. This is one reason is identified by the designation SAE 1030. The first
why iron is usually mixed with various forms of car- digit identifies the principal alloying element in the
bon and other alloying agents or impurities. Iron steel, the second digit denotes the percent of this
poured from a furnace into molds is known as cast alloying element, and the last two digits give the
iron and normally contains more than two percent percentage in hundredths of a percent of carbon in
carbon and some silicon. Cast iron has few aircraft the steel. [Figure 7-6]
applications because of its low strength-to-weight
ratio. However, it is used in engines for items such
as valve guides where its porosity and wear charac- ALLOYING AGENTS IN STEEL
teristics allow it to hold a lubricant film. It is also
used in piston rings. As discussed earlier, iron has few practical uses in
its pure state. However, adding small amounts of
other materials to molten iron dramatically changes
Iron is produced by mixing iron ore with coke and its properties. Some of the more common alloying
limestone and submitting it to hot air. The coke agents include carbon, sulfur, silicon, phosphorous,
burns and forms superheated carbon monoxide nickel, and chromium.
which absorbs oxygen from the ore causing the
molten iron to sink to the bottom of the furnace. The
limestone reacts with impurities in the iron and CARBON
coke to form a slag which floats on top of the molten
iron. The slag is removed and the refined metal is Carbon is the most common alloying element found
then poured from the furnace. The resulting metal is in steel. When mixed with iron, compounds of iron
known as pig iron and is typically remelted and cast carbides called cementite form. It is the carbon in
into cast-iron components, or converted into steel. steel that allows the steel to be heat-treated to obtain
High-carbon steels contain between 0.50 and
1,05 percent carbon, and are very hard. These
steels are primarily used in springs, files, and
some cutting tools.
SULFUR
Sulfur causes steel to be brittle when rolled or
forged and, therefore, it must be removed in the
refining process. If all the sulfur cannot be removed
its effects can be countered by adding manganese.
The manganese combines with the sulfur to form
manganese sulfide, which does not harm the fin-
ished steel. In addition to eliminating sulfur and
other oxides from steel, manganese improves a
metal's forging characteristics by making it less brit-
tle at rolling and forging temperatures.
SILICON
When silicon is alloyed with steel it acts as a hard-
ener. When used in small quantities, it also
-1 improves ductility.
PHOSPHOROUS
Phosphorous raises the yield strength of steel and
Figure 7-6. The Society of Automotive Engineers has estab- improves low carbon steel's resistance to atmos-
lished a classification system for steel alloys. For example, pheric corrosion. However, no more than 0.05 per-
SAE 1030 identifies plain carbon steel containing .30 percent cent phosphorous is normally used in steel, since
carbon. higher amounts cause the alloy to become brittle
when cold.
varying degrees of hardness, strength, and tough-
ness. The greater the carbon content, the more
receptive steel is to heat treatment and, therefore, NICKEL
the higher its tensile strength and hardness.
Nickel adds strength and hardness to steel and
However, higher carbon content decreases the mal-
increases its yield strength. It also slows the rate of
leability and weldability of steel.
hardening when steel is heat-treated, which
increases the depth of hardening and produces a
Low-carbon steels contain between 0.10 and 0.30 finer grain structure. The finer grain structure
percent carbon and are classified as SAE 1010 to reduces steel's tendency to warp and scale when
SAE 1030 steel. These steels are primarily used in heat-treated. SAE 2330 steel contains 3 percent
safety wire, cable bushings, and threaded rod ends. nickel and 0.30 percent carbon, and is used in pro-
In sheet form, these steels are used for secondary ducing aircraft hardware such as bolts, nuts, rod
structures where loads are not high. Low-carbon ends, and pins.
steel is easily welded and machines readily, but
does not accept heat treatment well.
CHROMIUM
Medium-carbon steels contain between 0.30 and
0.50 percent carbon. The increased carbon helps Chromium is alloyed with steel to increase strength
these steels accept heat treatment, while still retain- and hardness as well as improve its wear and corro-
ing a reasonable degree of ductility. This steel is sion resistance. Because of its characteristics,
especially adaptable for machining or forging and chromium steel is used in balls and rollers of
where surface hardness is desirable. antifriction bearings.
In addition to its use as an alloying element in steel, MOLYBDENUM
chromium is electrolytically deposited on cylinder One of the most widely used alloying elements for air-
walls and bearing journals to provide a hard, wear- craft structural steel is molybdenum. It reduces the
resistant surface. grain size of steel and increases both its impact strength
and elastic limit. Molybdenum steels are extremely
wear resistant and possess a great deal of fatigue
NICKEL-CHROMIUM STEEL
strength. This accounts for its use in high-strength
As mentioned earlier, nickel toughens steel, and structural members and engine cylinder barrels.
chromium hardens it. Therefore, when both ele-
ments are alloyed they give steel desirable charac- Chrome-molybdenum (chrome-moly) steel is the most
teristics for use in high-strength structural applica- commonly used alloy in aircraft. Its SAE designation
tions. Nickel-chrome steels such as SAE 3130, 3250, of 4130 denotes an alloy of approximately 1 percent
and 3435 are used for forged and machined parts molybdenum and 0.30 percent carbon. It machines
requiring high strength, ductility, shock resistance, readily, is easily welded by either gas or electric arc,
and toughness. and responds well to heat treatment. Heat-treated SAE
4130 steel has an ultimate tensile strength about four
times that of SAE 1025 steel, making it an ideal choice
STAINLESS STEEL for landing gear structures and engine mounts.
Stainless steel is a classification of corrosion-resis- Furthermore, chrome-moly's toughness and wear
tant steels that contain large amounts of chromium resistance make it a good material for engine cylinders
and nickel. Their strength and resistance to corro- and other highly stressed engine parts.
sion make them well suited for high-temperature
applications such as firewalls and exhaust system VANADIUM
components. These steels can be divided into three
general groups based on their chemical structure: When combined with chromium, vanadium pro-
austenitic, ferritic, and martensitic. duces a strong, tough, ductile steel alloy. Amounts
up to 0.20 percent improve grain structure and
Austenitic steels, also referred to as 200 and 300 increase both ultimate tensile strength and tough-
series stainless steels, contain a large percentage of ness. Most wrenches and ball bearings are made of
chromium and nickel, and in the case of the 200 chrome-vanadium steel.
series, some manganese. When these steels are
heated to a temperature above their critical range TUNGSTEN
and held there, a structure known as austenite
forms. Austenite is a solid solution of pearlite, an Tungsten has an extremely high melting point and
alloy of iron and carbon, and gamma iron, which is adds this characteristic to steel it is alloyed with.
a nonmagnetic form of iron. Austenitic stainless Because tungsten steels retain their hardness at ele-
steels can be hardened only by coldworking while vated operating temperatures, they are typically
heat treatment serves only to anneal them. used for breaker contacts in magnetos and for high-
speed cutting tools.
Ferritic steels are primarily alloyed with chromium
but many also contain small amounts of aluminum. HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL
However, they contain no carbon and, therefore, do
not respond to heat treatment. Iron is an allotropic metal, meaning it can exist in
more than one type of lattice structure, depending
The 400 series of stainless steel is a martensitic on temperature. Pure molten iron begins to solidify
steel. These steels are alloyed with chromium only at 2,80038 F. Its structure at this point is known as
and therefore are magnetic. Martensitic steels the A (Delta) form. However, if cooled to 2,554 蚌 ,
become extremely hard if allowed to cool rapidly by the atoms rearrange themselves into a F (Gamma)
quenching from an elevated temperature. form. Strangely enough, iron in this form is
nonmagnetic. When nonmagnetic gamma iron in
The corrosion-resistant steel most often used in air- this form is cooled to 1,666 蚌 , another change
craft construction is known as 18-8 steel because it occurs and the iron is transformed into a
contains 18 percent chromium and 8 percent nickel. nonmagnetic form of the A (Alpha) structure. As
One of the distinctive features of 18-8 steel is that its cooling continues to 1,414 蚌 , the material
strength may be increased by cold-working. becomes magnetic with no further changes in its
lattice structure.
There are two basic forms of steel that you should it in the furnace and allowing both the furnace and
be aware of when it comes to heat treatment. They steel to cool together or by packing the steel in hot
are ferrite and austenite. Ferrite is an alpha solid sand or ash so the heat is conducted away slowly.
solution of iron containing some carbon and exists
at temperatures below the lower critical tempera-
ture. Above this lower critical temperature, the steel NORMALIZING
begins to turn into austenite, which consists of The processes of forging, welding, or machining
gamma iron containing carbon. As the temperature usually leave stresses within steel that could lead to
increases, the transformation of ferrite into austen- failure. These stresses are relieved in ferrous metals
ite continues until the upper critical temperature is by a process known as normalizing. To normalize
reached. Above the upper critical temperature, the steel, it is heated to about 100蚌 above its upper crit-
entire structure consists of austenite. ical temperature and held there until the metal is
uniformly heat soaked. The steel is then removed
Below the alloy's lower critical temperature, the car- from the furnace and allowed to cool in still air.
bon, which exists in the steel in the form of iron car- Although this process does allow particles of carbon
bides (Fe3C), is scattered throughout the iron matrix to precipitate out, the particles are not as large as
as a physical mixture. When the steel is heated to its those formed when steel is annealed.
upper critical temperature, this carbon dissolves
into the matrix and becomes a solid solution, rather One of the most important uses of normalizing in
than a physical mixture. The steel has now become aircraft work is on welded parts. When a part is
austenite, and the iron is in its gamma form. welded, internal stresses and strains set up in the
adjacent material. In addition, the weld itself is a
When the temperature of the steel drops below this cast structure whereas the surrounding material is
critical value, the carbide particles precipitate out of wrought. These two types of structures have differ-
the solution. If steel is cooled slowly, the particles ent grain sizes and, therefore, are not very compati-
are quite large and the steel is soft. On the other ble. To refine the grain structure as well as relieve
hand, if it is cooled rapidly through quenching, the the internal stresses, all welded parts should be nor-
carbon particles remain extremely fine and effec- malized after fabrication.
tively bind the molecular structure of the steel
together, making it hard and strong.
HARDENING
The critical temperature and ultimate strength a Pure iron, wrought iron, and extremely low-carbon
steel develops varies with different alloying agents, steels cannot be hardened by heat treatment since
but the most important factor is the amount of car- they contain no hardening element. Cast iron, on
bon. Low-carbon steel does not heat-treat satisfacto- the other hand, can be hardened, but the amount
rily because of the small amount of carbon. But as and type of heat treatment used is limited. For
carbon content increases, the steel gains the ability example, when cast iron is cooled rapidly, it forms
to be hardened and strengthened by heat treatment. white iron, which is hard and brittle. However,
This occurs up to about 0.80 percent carbon. While when cooled slowly, gray iron forms, which is soft
hardness does not increase beyond this concentra- but brittle under impact.
tion, wear resistance improves with an increase in
the amount of carbon. Carbon steel can be hardened readily. The maxi-
mum hardness obtained by carbon steel depends
almost entirely on the amount of carbon content.
ANNEALING
For example, as the carbon content increases, the
ability of a steel to be hardened increases. However,
Annealing softens steel and relieves internal stress. this increase continues only to a certain point. In
To anneal steel, it is heated to about 50蚌 above its practice, that point is 0.85 percent carbon content.
critical temperature, soaked for a specified time,
then cooled. The soaking time is typically around To harden steel, it is heated above its critical tem-
one hour per inch of material thickness. perature so carbon can disperse uniformly in the
iron matrix. Once this occurs, the alloy is cooled
As the steel cools, the carbon that precipitates out rapidly by quenching it in water, oil, or brine. The
forms large particles that do not bind tightly with speed of the quench is determined by the quenching
the iron. The resulting steel is soft, ductile, and can medium. Oil provides the slowest quench, and
be easily formed. The steel can be cooled by leaving brine the most rapid.
Materials
If the quench is too quick, insufficient time is
allowed for the carbon to precipitate out leaving it
trapped in the alloy. The resultant structure is
known as martensite, a supersaturated solid solu-
tion of carbon in an iron matrix. Although marten-
site is the hardest possible alloy, it is far too hard
and brittle for most applications.
TEMPERING
Tempering reduces the undesirable qualities of
martensitic steel. To temper an alloy, it is heated to
a level considerably below its critical temperature
and held there until it becomes heat soaked. It is
then allowed to cool to room temperature in still air. Figure 7-7. To anneal a piece of chrome-molybdenum steel
Tempering not only reduces hardness and brittle- (SAE 4130), it must be heated to between 1,525 蚌 and 1,57542
ness, but also relieves stress and improves a steel's F. This temperature is achieved when the metal is heated to
ductility and toughness. a bright red.
CASE HARDENING
DETERMINING STEEL TEMPERATURE

Certain components in aircraft engines and landing
gear systems require metal with hard, durable bear-
When steel must be heat treated without the aid of a ing surfaces and core material that remains tough.
pyrometer, its temperature can be estimated fairly This is accomplished through a process called case
accurately through the use of commercial crayons, hardening. The steels best suited for case-hardening
pellets, or paints that melt at specific temperatures. are the low-carbon and low-alloy steels. If high-car-
The least accurate method of estimating tempera- bon steel is case-hardened, the hardness penetrates
ture is by observing the color of the material being the core and causes brittleness. The two methods
heated. Some of the reasons why color observation presently used to case harden steel are carburizing
is inaccurate include the fact that the observed color and nitriding.
is affected by the amount of artificial and natural
light and the ambient air temperature. However, as
CARBURIZING
a last resort, when annealing or hardening non-
structural components, color observations can be Carburizing forms a thin layer of high-carbon steel on
used. [Figure 7-7] the exterior of low-carbon steel. This form of case-
hardening is accomplished through one of three
methods: pack carburizing, gas carburizing, and liq-
uid carburizing. Pack carburizing is done by enclos-
TEMPERING SMALL TOOLS
ing the metal in a fire-clay container and packing it
As a technician, you frequently need a special with a carbon-rich material such as charcoal. The
tool to suit a unique application. It is often more container is then sealed, placed in a furnace, and
convenient to manufacture such a tool rather than heated to l,700蚌. As the charcoal heats up, carbon
purchase one. To produce a tool that will not monoxide gas forms and combines with the gamma
harm the work and is safe to use, a fabricated tool iron in the metal's surface. The depth to which the
must be tempered. carbon penetrates depends upon the soaking time.
Tool-steel rod can be used to make screwdriver

blades, chisels, and punches. This steel has a high
carbon content and is usually obtained in its nor-
malized condition. After shaping the tool, heat it to
a cherry red color and quench it in oil. Next, polish
a portion and reheat it until the proper oxide color
appears. When the tool is quenched again, it should Figure 7-8. Common tools can be tempered by heating the
have the proper hardness. [Figure 7-8] metal until it turns the proper color, and then quenching.
Gas carburizing is similar to pack carburizing, THE BRINELL HARDNESS SYSTEM
except the carbon monoxide is produced by a gas The Brinell hardness tester uses a hydraulic force to
rather than a solid material. In this process, carbon impress a spherical penetrator into the surface of a
from carbon monoxide gas combines with gamma sample. The amount of force used is approximately
iron and forms a high-carbon surface. 3,000 kilograms for steel, and 500 kilograms for
nonferrous metals. This force is hydraulically
Liquid carburizing produces a high-carbon surface applied by a hand pump and read on a pressure
when a part is heated in a molten bath of sodium gauge. When the sample is removed from the tester,
cyanide or barium cyanide. Either of the compo- the diameter of the impression is measured with a
nents supplies the carbon needed to harden the special calibrated microscope. This diameter is con-
metal's surface. verted into a Brinell number by using a chart fur-
nished with the tester. [Figure 7-9]
At times, only a portion of a part must be carbur-
ized. Since carbon does not infuse into a copper-
plated surface, any portion of a part that you do not
want case-hardened should be copper-plated.
NITRIDING
Nitriding differs from carburizing in that a part is
first hardened, tempered, and then ground to its fin-
ished dimensions before it is case hardened. Once
these steps are accomplished, the part is placed in a
special furnace, heated to a temperature of approxi-
mately 1,OOO蚌, and then surrounded by ammonia
gas (NH3). The high temperature breaks the ammo-
nia down into nitrogen and hydrogen. The nitrogen
is absorbed into the steel as iron nitride. Most steels
can be nitrided, however, special alloys are required
for best results. These special alloys contain alu-
minum as one of the alloying elements and are
called "nitralloys." The depth of a nitrided surface
depends on the length of time it is exposed to the
ammonia gas. Surface hardness gradually decreases
with depth until it is the same as the core.
Aircraft engine crankshafts and cylinder walls are
commonly nitrided for increased wear resistance.
However, since nitrided surfaces are highly suscep-
tible to pitting corrosion they must be protected
from the air with a coating of oil.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND

STRENGTH
As noted in the section on the heat treatment of
steel, the smaller the carbon particles introduced
into steel, the harder and stronger the steel becomes.
Because of this, there is a definite relationship
between the strength and hardness of steel. This
relationship does not necessarily exist, however,
with metals other than steel.
Two systems of measuring the hardness of steel are

Figure 7-9. A Brinell hardness tester determines hardness by
commonly used in shops where steel is heat-treated. forcing a penetrator into a sample and measuring the diam-
They are the Brinell and Rockwell systems. eter of the resulting impression.
Materials
THE ROCKWELL HARDNESS SYSTEM
The Rockwell hardness tester gives the same infor-
mation the Brinell tester gives, except that it mea-
sures the depth to which the penetrator sinks into
the material rather than the diameter of the impres-
sion. [Figure 7-10]
To use a Rockwell hardness tester, a sample is thor-

oughly cleaned, the two opposite surfaces are
ground flat and parallel, and all scratches are pol-
ished out. The sample is then placed on the anvil of
the tester and raised up against the penetrator. A 10-
kilogram load, called the minor load, is applied and
the machine is zeroed. A major load is then applied
and the dial on the tester indicates the depth the
penetrator sinks into the metal. Instead of indicating
the depth of penetration in thousandths of an inch,
it indicates in Rockwell numbers on either a red or
a black scale.
Rockwell testers use three types of penetrators: a

conical diamond, a 1/16 inch ball, and a 1/8 inch
ball. There are also three major loads: 60 kilograms,
100 kilograms, and 150 kilograms. The two most
commonly used Rockwell scales are the B-scale for
soft metals, which uses a 1/16 ball penetrator and a
100 kg major load, and the C-scale for hard metals,
which uses the conical diamond penetrator and a Figure 7-10. A Rockwell hardness tester produces the same
information as a Brinell tester by measuring the depth of the
150 kg major load. impression in a sample.
NONMETALLIC STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
Nonmetallic structural materials played a very thin wood glued together with the grain running in
important role in the early days of aviation. the same direction. Each of the laminations can be
However, after the introduction of aluminum, non- spliced, so large components, such as spars, can be
metallic materials saw considerably less use. Today, made from pieces of wood that are not large enough
aluminum is still the most widely used material in for a solid spar. The FAA allows solid and lami-
the construction and repair of aircraft. However, nated spars to be used interchangeably, as long as
since its introduction, several new materials have they are both of the same quality and neither has a
come into use, many of which are spin-offs from the grain deviation that exceeds the allowable limits.
space program. These materials once again have the
aviation industry taking a close look at nonmetallic The third type of wood used for aircraft construc-
materials for use on aircraft. tion is plywood. Plywood consists of three or more
layers of thin veneer glued together so the grain of
each successive layer crosses the others at an angle
WOOD of 45 degrees or 90 degrees.
As you know, far fewer aircraft today are made of
wood. One reason why this is true is because of the
greater economy of building aircraft of sheet metal.
Wooden structures require a great deal of handwork
and, therefore, are extremely expensive. It is possi-
ble, however, that as an aviation maintenance tech-
nician, you could be involved in the restoration of a
classic wooden aircraft, or be asked to make repairs
to a wooden homebuilt aircraft. Therefore, it is
important to be aware of the materials and tech-
niques used on wood aircraft structures.
TYPES OF WOOD
There are three basic types of wood used for aircraft
structure. They are solid wood, laminated wood,
and plywood. Solid wood is used for some aircraft
wing spars and, as the name implies, is made of one
solid piece cut from a log. Most solid wood used on
aircraft is cut from a tree by quarter sawing. When
planks are cut from a log in this fashion, the annual
rings cross the plank at an angle greater than 45
degrees. This reduces the chance of warpage as
compared to planks that are cut straight across, or
plain sawed. [Figure 7-11]
Wing spars require long pieces of extremely high-

quality wood that is free from imperfections. Since
wood of this size and quality is very expensive,
Figure 7-11. (A) 48 Quarter-sawing produces a plank
many manufacturers use laminated wood. more resistant to warpage. (B) 48 The annual rings of a
Laminated wood is made of two or three pieces of quarter-sawed plank cross at an angle more than 45
degrees.
Materials
SPECIES OF WOOD MAHOGANY
Two basic species of wood are used for aircraft con- This hardwood is heavier and stronger than spruce.
struction: hardwood and softwood. Hardwoods Mahogany's primary use in aircraft construction is
come from deciduous trees having broad leaves, for face sheets of plywood used as aircraft skin.
while softwoods come from coniferous trees with
needle-like or scale-like leaves. These terms are
quite deceptive, as some of the so-called hardwoods BIRCH
are softer than some of the woods that are classified Birch is a heavy hardwood with very good shock
as softwoods. For example, balsa wood is extremely resistant characteristics. It is recommended for the
light and soft, but, because of its type of leaf, is clas- face plies of plywood used as reinforcement plates
sified as a hardwood. on wing spars and in the construction of wooden
propellers. [Figure 7-12]
SPRUCE
QUALITY OF WOOD
Sitka spruce is the most common wood used in
aircraft structures. Some of the reasons why sitka Any wood approved for aircraft construction or
spruce is so widely used is because it is rela- structural repair must meet specific requirements
tively free from defects, has a high strength-to- regarding quality and allowable defects. Some of the
weight ratio, and is available in large sizes. In categories a wood's quality is based on include how
fact, since sitka spruce is such a high quality straight the grain is, the number of knots, pitch
wood, the FAA has chosen it as the reference pockets, splits, and the presence of decay.
wood for aircraft construction.
GRAIN DEVIATION
DOUGLAS FIR Regardless of the species of wood used for aircraft

structure, it must have a straight grain. This means
The strength properties of Douglas fir exceed those all of the wood fibers must be oriented parallel to
of spruce; however, it is much heavier. Furthermore, the material's longitudinal axis. A maximum devia-
it is more difficult to work than spruce, and has a tion of 1:15 is allowed. In other words, the grain
tendency to split. must not slope more than one inch in 15 inches. In
some woods it is difficult to determine exactly
NOBLE FIR
This type of fir is slightly lighter than spruce and is

equal or superior to spruce in all properties except
hardness and shock resistance. Noble fir is often
used for structural parts that are subject to heavy
bending and compression loads such as spars, spar
flanges, and cap strips.
NORTHERN WHITE PINE

Northern white pine possesses excellent working
and gluing characteristics, but its strength is slightly
lower than that of spruce.
BALSA
Balsa is an extremely light wood that is grown in
South America. Because balsa lacks structural
strength, it is often sliced across its grain for use as
Figure 7-12. This laminated wood propeller is made of thin
a core material for sandwich-type panels that
strips of birch wood glued together, with the grain of all
require light weight and rigidity. strips running in the same direction.
which way the grain runs, but you can see the grain having extra wide summer-growth rings indicates
direction by putting a bit of free-flowing ink on the the wood was subjected to compressive stresses
wood. The ink is absorbed into the fibers along the during its growth, and is denser and weaker than
grain making it easier to identify. wood that grew normally. Because of this weakness,
compression wood cannot be used in aircraft con-
struction or repair.
KNOTS
A knot in a piece of wood identifies a point where a
branch grew from the tree trunk. Knots may be COMPRESSION FAILURE
round, oval, or spiked in shape, depending on the Compression failure occurs when a tree falls and
way the lumber was cut. For example, spike knots must not be confused with compression wood. If a
are knots that have been cut parallel to a branch. tree falls across a log, some of the wood fibers on the
Spike knots weaken a board and are not acceptable tree's lower side may buckle. This buckling severely
in wood for aircraft construction or repair. weakens the wood and is identified by irregular,
thread-like lines across the grain. Any wood show-
Hard knots up to 3/8 inch at their maximum dimen- ing this type of failure has been weakened to an
sion are acceptable in aircraft wood with the fol- extent that it is unacceptable for use in aircraft con-
lowing restrictions: struction or repair.
1. These knots must not be in the projecting por
tion of I-beams, along the edges of rectangular
or beveled unrouted beams, or along the edges CHECKS, SHAKES, AND SPLITS
of the flanges of box beams, except in low- A check is a crack that runs across the annual rings
stress areas. of a board and occurs during the seasoning process.
2. They must not cause a grain divergence at the A shake, on the other hand, is a crack or separation
edge of the board or in the flanges of a beam that occurs when two annual rings separate along
more than 1:15. their boundary. A split is a lengthwise separation of
3. They must be in the center third of the beam the wood caused by the wood fibers tearing apart.
and no closer than 20 inches to another knot Wood having any of these defects is not allowed in
or other defect. aircraft structure.
Small pin-knot clusters are acceptable if they do not
cause excessive grain deviation. Although knots of
up to 3/8 inch are allowed in some places, any STAINS AND DECAY
wood having knots larger than 1/4 inch in any direc-
tion should be used only with extreme caution. Stains caused by decay usually appear as streaks
in the grain. These streaks may extend several
feet from the decayed area. As a rule, stains that
uniformly discolor the annual rings are evidence
PITCH POCKETS of decay. Rotted wood characteristically ranges
Small openings within the annual rings of a tree can from red to white in color. For example, a stain
fill with resin and form pitch pockets. These pock- caused by red rot in its early stages is reddish-
ets weaken a piece of wood slightly and, therefore, purple. However, in its developed stage the
are acceptable only in the center portion of a beam, heart-wood becomes honeycombed with small,
provided they are at least 14 inches apart and mea- soft, white pockets. Even in its early stages,
sure no more than 11/2 inches by 1/8 inch by 1/8 decay seriously reduces the toughness of wood,
inch deep. and in its well-developed state leaves wood with
little or no strength.
Decay is caused by fungi that grow in damp wood,

COMPRESSION WOOD and is prevented by proper seasoning and dry stor-
If a tree leans in its growth, its annual rings are not age. A simple way of identifying decayed wood is to
concentric. Furthermore, the summer wood, which pick at a suspected area with the point of a knife.
is represented by the heavier and darker rings, will Sound wood will splinter, while a knife point will
be much larger on the lower side of the tree. Wood bring up a chunk of decayed wood.
DRY ROT Perspex. Acrylic is stiffer than cellulose acetate,
Dry rot is a misnomer, because dry wood, particu- more transparent and, for all practical purposes, is
larly kiln dried wood, does not rot. For fungi to colorless. It burns with a clear flame and produces a
attack wood and cause decay, moisture must be pre- fairly pleasant odor. Furthermore, if acetone is
sent long enough to thoroughly saturate the wood. applied to acrylic it leaves a white residue but
Dry rot can be detected by inserting a knife point remains hard. [Figure 7-13]
into the area and prying a small piece out. If the
wood is good, it splinters, while decayed wood
crumbles. THERMOSETTING RESINS
Thermosetting materials usually have little strength
Prevention of dry rot is simply a matter of using kiln in themselves and are generally used to impregnate
dried wood with a moisture content of 20 percent or linen, paper, or glass cloth. For example, both fiber-
less, and protecting it from the elements. glass cloth and mat have a great deal of strength for
Application of a good finish such as a varnish or their weight, but lack rigidity. To convert fiberglass
urethane and adequate placement and maintenance into a useful structural material, it is impregnated
of drain holes are also a necessity in preventing dry with polyester resin and molded into a desired
rot. The only repair for dry rot is replacement of the form. Polyesters cure by chemical action and, there-
affected material. fore, differ from materials that cure by evaporation
of an oil or solvent. Polyester resin has a complex
molecular structure that, in its pure form, is thick
PLASTICS and unmanageable. For this reason, a styrene
monomer is added to polyester resin to thin it and
Just as plastic has become a major part of our every- make it more workable.
day life, it also has become an important element in
the construction of aircraft. Plastics, or resins, fall
into two major classifications: thermoplastic and If left alone, a mixture of polyester and styrene
thermosetting. eventually hardens into a solid mass. To prevent
this, inhibitors are added to resins to extend their
working time. However, when the resin is to be
used, a catalyst must be introduced to suppress the
THERMOPLASTIC RESINS inhibitors and initiate the curing process.
Thermoplastic materials in their normal state are Furthermore, the resin's curing time can be appre-
hard, but become soft and pliable when heated. ciably shortened by the addition of a measured
When softened, thermoplastic materials can be amount of an accelerator. The amount of accelera-
molded and shaped, and retain their shape when tor needed depends on the ambient temperature and
cooled. Unless their heat limit is exceeded, this the thickness of the resin layer.
process can be repeated many times without dam-
aging the material.
Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials

are used for aircraft windshields and side windows.
They are cellulose acetate and acrylic. Early aircraft
used cellulose acetate plastic because of its trans-
parency and light weight. However, it has a ten-
dency to shrink and turn yellow and, therefore, has
almost completely been replaced. Cellulose acetate
can be identified by its slightly yellow tint and the
fact that, if a scrap of it is burned, it produces a sput-
tering flame and dark smoke. Another way to iden-
tify cellulose acetate is with an acetone test. When
acetone is applied to cellulose acetate it softens.
Figure 7-13. Modern aircraft construction makes extensive

Acrylic: plastics are identified by such trade names use of plastic materials for engine cowlings, wheel fairings,
as Lucite or Plexiglas, or in Britain by the name windshields, and side windows.
The actual cure of polyester resin occurs when a the resin to increase its viscosity. Among the more
chemical reaction between the catalyst and accel- familiar thixotropic agents used in aviation mainte-
erator generates heat within the resin. The less nance are microballoons. These hollow glass or
surface area there is for heat to escape, the more phenolic balls range in diameter from about 10 to
heat remains in the resin and the faster it cures. 300 microns, or about the size of fine sand.
Therefore, when submitted to identical condi- However, microscopic inspection reveals that
tions, a thick layer of resin cures more rapidly microballoons are perfect spheres.
than a thin layer.
After an epoxy or polyester resin is properly mixed,
a thixotropic agent is carefully added to make a
EPOXY RESIN paste. This paste has enough body to remain in
Another type of resin that can be used in place of place when it is troweled onto a surface. After the
polyester in laminated structures is epoxy resin. resin cures, it can be sanded to the required contour.
Epoxy has a low percentage of shrinkage, high
strength for its weight, and the ability to adhere to a
wide variety of materials. Unlike polyester resins REINFORCING MATERIALS
which require a catalyst, epoxy resins require a
hardener, or curing agent. For many years aircraft control cable pulleys have
been made from thermosetting resin reinforced
with layers of linen cloth. The resin-impregnated
Another difference between epoxy and polyester is layers of cloth are cured in a mold under high
the ratio in which each resin is mixed with its cata- temperature and pressure to form pulleys that
lyst or hardener. For polyesters, about one ounce of have high strength, but do not wear control
catalyst is used with 64 ounces of resin. Epoxies, on cables. [Figure 7-15]
the other hand, use a ratio of about one quart of cur-
ing agent with four quarts of resin. [Figure 7-14]
When layers of paper are impregnated with a ther-
mosetting resin such as phenol-formaldehyde or
urea-formaldehyde, they can be molded into either
THIXOTROPIC AGENTS flat sheets or complex shapes. Once cured, this
Some plastic resins are extremely sensitive to tem- material is stiff and acts as an exceptionally good
perature changes. For example, at temperatures electrical insulator. It is, however, quite heavy.
around 60蚌 some resins become extremely thick, Electrical terminal strips have traditionally been
while at temperatures above 90蚌 they become very made of paper-reinforced resin.
thin. Since heat is used to effect the cure, many
resins are likely to run off any inclined or vertical
surface before they have a chance to set. To elimi-
nate this problem, a thixotropic agent is added to
Figure 7-14. When mixed in proper portions, epoxy resins Figure 7-15. Phenol-formaldehyde resin is used to impreg-
form a high-strength adhesive and provide a good bond nate linen cloth to make control cable pulleys. These pulleys
between many types of materials. have high strength but do not wear the control cable.
Glass fiber greatly enhances the strength and dura- The cellular core for laminated honeycomb material
bility of thermosetting resin. For high strength may be made of resin-impregnated kraft paper or
requirements, the glass fibers are woven into a glass cloth. When this material is cut to the proper
cloth. On the other hand, where cost is of greater shape and bonded between two face sheets of resin-
importance than strength, the fibers are gathered impregnated fiberglass cloth, it makes an electri-
into a loose mat which is saturated with resin and cally transparent material that has a high strength-
molded into a desired shape. [Figure 7-16] to-weight ratio and is extremely rigid. [Figure 7-17]
Ceramic fiber is a form of glass fiber designed for

use in high-temperature applications. It can with- Most metal cores are made of a cellular material
stand temperatures approaching 3,000蚌, making it consisting of extremely thin aluminum. Like the
an effective laminate for use around engines and honeycomb, the metal core also is bonded between
exhaust systems. However, its disadvantages face sheets of fiberglass-reinforced resin.
include its weight and expense.
Kevlar61 fiber is one of the most commonly used A third type of core is the wood core. Most wood
cloth reinforcing fabrics. In its cloth form, Kevlar is cores consist of balsa wood that has been cut across
a soft yellow organic fiber that is extremely light, its grain and the end-grain slabs bonded between
strong, and tough. Its great impact resistance makes two face sheets of fiberglass or metal. This provides
it useful in areas where damage from sand or other an exceptionally strong and lightweight structural
debris can occur. These areas include around land- material that is used for floors, wall panels, and air-
ing gear and behind propellers. Kevlar is rather dif- craft skins.
ficult to work with, however, and does not perform
well under compressive loads. The honeycomb materials used in fiberglass lamina-
tions can also be sandwiched between thin sheets of
Graphite fibers are manufactured by heating and aluminum alloy. This type of core is referred to as
stretching Rayon61 fibers. This produces a metal-faced honeycomb and is used where abrasion
change in the fiber's molecular structure that resistance is important.
makes it extremely lightweight, strong, and tough.
LAMINATED STRUCTURAL MATERIALS NONMETALLIC COMPONENTS
To increase the strength and rigidity of many non- In addition to the nonmetallic materials used in air-
metallic structures, one of several structural materi- craft structures, modern aircraft utilize a great deal
als are laminated between two layers of cloth and of nonmetallic materials on a variety of important
resin. Some of the more common core materials components. Therefore, you, as a technician, should
include honeycomb, aluminum, wood, and metal- be familiar with these materials as well as their
faced honeycomb. proper use and handling.
Figure 7-16. Thin filaments, or fibers, of glass are woven into a cloth to reinforce thermosetting resins to form various types of
aircraft structures.
Figure 7-17. A high-strength structural material used to provide an electrically transparent, streamlined housing for radar antenna
is made of fiberglass-reinforced honeycomb.
SEALS cally designed for use under various operating con-
ditions and temperatures. For example, an O-ring
Seals or packings serve both to retain fluids in their intended specifically as a stationary seal generally
operating systems and to exclude air and contami- will not seal a moving part such as a hydraulic pis-
nants. However, with the increased use of high- ton. In other words, an O-ring is useless if it is not
pressure fluid systems, packings and gaskets must compatible with the system it is used in.
also be able to perform under a wide range of oper-
ating pressures and temperatures. As a result, pack-
ings are made in the form of O-rings, V-rings, and U- Advances in aircraft design necessitate new O-ring
rings, each designed for a specific purpose. As an compositions to meet changing operating condi-
example, synthetic or natural rubber packings are tions. Hydraulic O-rings were originally established
generally used as "running seals" in units that con- under AN specification numbers 6227, 6230, and
tain moving parts, such as actuating cylinders, 6290 for use with MIL-H-5606 hydraulic fluid, at
pumps, and selector valves. [Figure 7-18] temperatures ranging from -65 蚌 to +160 蚌 .
However, new component designs raised operating
temperatures to as high as 27566 F, requiring the
O-RING PACKINGS development of new compounds that can withstand
these harsher conditions.
O-ring packings effectively seal in both directions
and, therefore, are used to prevent both internal and
external leakage. O-rings are the most commonly Manufacturer's color coding on some O-rings is not
used seals in aviation. In installations subject to a reliable or complete means of identification. Color
pressures above 1,500 psi, backup rings are used codes identify only system fluid or vapor compati-
with O-rings to prevent the O-ring from being forced bility and, in some cases, the manufacturer. In addi-
out, or extruded. tion, the coding on some O-rings is not permanent.
On some O-rings the color may be omitted due to
Most O-rings are similar in appearance and texture. manufacturing difficulties, or interference with
However, the material an O-ring is made of is typi- operation. Furthermore, the color-coding system
provides no means to establish an O-ring's age or
temperature limitations.
To avoid these problems, O-rings are available in

individual hermetically sealed envelopes labeled
with all pertinent data. The part number on a sealed
envelope provides the most reliable compound
identification.
Although an O-ring may appear perfect at first

glance, slight surface flaws are often present that
can lead to leakage under various operating pres-
sures. Therefore, before installing an O-ring inspect
it for cuts, abrasions, or surface imperfections that
could affect its performance. Rolling an O-ring on
an inspection cone or dowel reveals its inner diam-
eter surface. Inspect this area for small cracks, parti-
cles of foreign material, or other irregularities that
can cause leakage or shortened life.
BACKUP RINGS
For applications such as actuators that subject a seal
to pressure from two sides, two backup rings must
be used. When an O-ring is subject to pressure on
only one side, a single backup ring is generally ade-
Figure 7-18. Packing rings are manufactured with different quate. In this case, the backup ring is placed on the
profiles to suit varying operating requirements. side of the O-ring away from the pressure.
Materials
Backup rings are commonly made of Teflon68 toward the pressure. U-ring packings are primarily
and, therefore, do not deteriorate with age, are low-pressure packings that are used with pressures
unaffected by any system fluid or vapor, and less than 1,000 psi.
tolerate temperature extremes well in excess of
those encountered in high-pressure hydraulic
systems. Their dash numbers indicate both their SHOCK ABSORBER CORD
size and the dash number of the O-ring for which To absorb the shock loads associated with landing,
they are dimensionally suited. Any Teflon backup some older aircraft utilize shock absorber cord on
ring can be used to replace any other Teflon backup their landing gear. The cord is installed between the
ring if it is of proper overall dimension required to two main gears and stretches under heavy loads
support the applicable O-ring. Backup rings are allowing the main gear to spread out and absorb
not color coded or marked and must be identified sudden shocks.
from package labels.
Shock absorber cord is made from natural rubber
When inspecting backup rings, ensure that the sur- strands encased in a braided cover of woven cotton
faces are free from irregularities, that the edges are cords treated to resist oxidation and wear. To
clean and sharp, and that scarf cuts are parallel. achieve a high degree of tension and elongation,
When checking Teflon spiral backup rings, make rubber strands are stretched to three times their
sure that the coils do not separate more than 1/4 original length before the woven jacket is applied.
inch when unrestrained.
Three colored threads are braided into a cord's
outer cover. Two of these threads are the same
V-RING PACKINGS (CHEVRON)
color and represent the year the cord was manu-
V-ring packings (AN6225) are one-way seals that are factured. The third thread, which is a different
installed with the open end of the "V" facing the color, represents the quarter of the year the cord
pressure. Each V-ring packing consists of a male and was made. The colors cover a 5-year period and
female adapter that hold the packings in the proper then repeat. [Figure 7-20]
position after installation. In order for a seal to per-
form properly, it is also necessary to torque the seal There are two types of elastic shock-absorbing cord.
retainer to the value specified by the manufacturer Type I is a straight cord, and Type II is a continuous
of the component being serviced. [Figure 7-19] ring, known as a "bungee." Type II cords have the
advantage of being easily and quickly replaced, and
do not have to be secured by stretching and whip-
U-RING PACKINGS ping. Shock cord is available in standard diameters
U-ring packings (AN6226) and U-cup packings are from 1/4 inch to 13/16 inch.
used in brake assemblies and brake master cylin-
ders. Since U-ring and U-cup packings seal in only
one direction, their concave surfaces must face
Figure 7-20. Since a shock absorber cord's elasticity deterio-

rates with age, a color code indicates its date of manufac-
Figure 7-19. A chevron seal must be installed with the ture.
female adapter facing the pressure.
GASKETS Some materials are ready for use as packaged, but
others require mixing before application.
Gaskets are used in fluid systems around the end
caps of actuating cylinders, valves, and other units.
A gasket is shaped specifically for its intended use ONE-PART SEALANT
and sometimes resembles the shape of an O-ring.
Gasket materials used in stationary applications One-part sealants are prepared by the manufacturer
between two flat surfaces include copper, cork, and are ready for application as packaged. However,
and rubber. the consistency of some of these compounds can be
altered to satisfy a particular application method.
For example, if thinning is required, a thinner rec-
SOLID COPPER WASHER ommended by the sealant manufacturer is mixed.
A solid copper washer is commonly used for spark
plug gaskets and some hydraulic fittings that TWO-PART SEALANT
require a noncompressible yet semi-soft gasket.
When compressed between two solid surfaces, the Two-part sealants are compounds requiring separate
copper deforms to provide a tight seal. packaging to prevent curing prior to application.
The two parts are identified as the base sealing com-
pound and the accelerator. Two-part sealants are
CORK GASKETS generally mixed by combining equal portions (by
When mating surfaces are uneven or rough, a gasket weight) of the base and accelerator compounds and
must be placed between the two surfaces. any deviation from the prescribed ratios can reduce
Furthermore, the gasket material must be able to the material's quality.
expand or compress to provide an adequate seal.
Cork works well under these circumstances and is To ensure the proper ratio is used, all sealant mate-
often used in areas such as between an engine rial should be carefully weighed in accordance with
crankcase and accessories, or anywhere a gasket is the manufacturer's recommendations. Sealant mate-
required that can occupy an uneven or varying space. rial is usually weighed with a balance scale
equipped with weights specially prepared for vari-
ous quantities of sealant and accelerator. To ensure
RUBBER SHEETING a proper mix ratio, the base and accelerator should
be thoroughly stirred before they are weighed.
Rubber sheeting is often used anywhere a com- Accelerator which is dried out, lumpy, or flaky
pressible gasket is required. Its flexibility allows it should be discarded. Some manufacturers produce
to compress easily to provide a tight seal. However, pre-weighed sealant kits that require no weighing.
if rubber seals are exposed to gasoline, oil, or some In this case the entire quantity provided is mixed.
types of hydraulic fluid, they will deteriorate.
After the proper amount of base compound and
WIPERS accelerator have been determined, the accelerator is
added to the base compound. Immediately after
Wipers clean and lubricate the exposed portions of adding the accelerator, thoroughly mix the two parts
piston shafts. By literally wiping a surface, they by stirring or folding, depending on the material's
prevent dirt from entering the system and help consistency. Mix the material carefully to prevent
protect the piston shaft from scoring. While air entrapment in the mixture. Avoid rapid or pro-
wipers can be either metallic or felt, the two are longed stirring, since it shortens the sealant's avail-
sometimes used together, with a felt wiper able working time. To ensure a compound is well-
installed behind a metallic wiper. mixed, test a small portion by smearing it on a
clean, flat metal or glass surface. If flecks or lumps
are found, continue mixing. If the flecks or lumps
SEALING COMPOUNDS cannot be eliminated, the batch should be rejected.
Certain areas of all aircraft are sealed to withstand
pressurization, prevent fuel leakage or passage of The working life of mixed sealant typically ranges
fumes, or to prevent corrosion by sealing against the from a half hour to four hours, depending on the
weather. Most sealants consist of two or more ingre- sealant class. Therefore, mixed sealant should be
dients that are compounded to produce a desired applied as soon as possible or placed in refriger-
combination of strength, flexibility, and adherence. ated storage.
Materials
SEALANT CURING If heated air is used, it must be properly filtered to
The curing rate of mixed sealants varies with tem- remove moisture and dirt,
perature and humidity. For example, at tempera-
tures below 60 蚌 curing is extremely slow. Heat should not be applied to any faying surface
However, a temperature above 70蚌 typically results sealant installation until all work is completed. All
in a faster curing time. A temperature of 77蚌 with faying surface applications must have all attach-
50 percent relative humidity is the ideal condition ments, permanent or temporary, completed within
for curing most sealants. the application limitations of the sealant.
If you must accelerate the curing time of a sealant,
you may increase the temperature by applying heat. Sealant must be cured to a tack-free condition
However, the temperature should not be allowed to before applying brush top coatings. Tack-free con-
exceed 120蚌 at any time in the curing cycle. Heat sistency is the point at which a sheet of cellophane
can be applied by using infrared lamps or heated air. pressed onto the sealant no longer adheres.

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AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL

Naturally aged alloys, such as the copper-zinc- -T Solution heat treated

When annealing clad aluminum metals, they

-T9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, and -H Strain hardened.

-H3 Strain hardened and stabilized.

As discussed earlier, the number of solution heat- -Hx2 Quarter-hard

STRAIN HARDENING -Hx9 Extra-hard

Alpha-beta alloys are the most versatile of the tita-

Beta alloys have medium strength, excellent

DETERMINING STEEL TEMPERATURE

Tool-steel rod can be used to make screwdriver

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDNESS AND

Two systems of measuring the hardness of steel are

To use a Rockwell hardness tester, a sample is thor-

Rockwell testers use three types of penetrators: a

Wing spars require long pieces of extremely high-

DOUGLAS FIR Regardless of the species of wood used for aircraft

This type of fir is slightly lighter than spruce and is

NORTHERN WHITE PINE

Decay is caused by fungi that grow in damp wood,

Two types of transparent thermoplastic materials

Figure 7-13. Modern aircraft construction makes extensive

Ceramic fiber is a form of glass fiber designed for

To avoid these problems, O-rings are available in

Although an O-ring may appear perfect at first

Figure 7-20. Since a shock absorber cord's elasticity deterio-

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