CHAPTER 3

METALS AND PLASTICS

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

Explain the methods used to select metals for various applications.

Explain the methods used to select plastics for various applications.

An MR repairs broken parts and manufactures PROPERTIES OF METAL

replacements according to samples and blueprints. To
choose the metals and plastics best suited for that
The physical properties of a metal determine its
purpose, you must know the physical and mechanical
behavior under stress, heat, and exposure to
properties of materials. You also must know how to
chemically active substances. In practical application,
identify materials that are not clearly marked. For
the behavior of a metal under these conditions
instance, stainless steel and nickel-copper are quite
determines its mechanical properties; indentation and
similar in appearance, but they are completely
rusting. The mechanical properties of a metal are
different in their mechanical properties and cannot be
important considerations in selecting material for a
used interchangeably. Some of the properties of
specific job.
materials that an MR must know are presented in this
chapter.
Stress
As with any shop equipment you must observe all
posted safety precautions. Review your equipment Stress in a metal is its internal resistance to a
operators manual for safety precautions and any change in shape when an external load or force is
chapters of Navy Occupational Safety and Health applied to it. There are three different forms of stress.
(NAVOSH) Program Manual for Forces Afloat, Tensile stress pulls a metal apart. Compression stress
OPNAV Instruction 5100.19B, that pertain to the squeezes the metal. Shear stress is forces from
equipment you will be operating. opposite directions that work to separate the metal.
When a piece of metal is bent, both tensile and
Many alloy metals are toxic, and can be compression stresses are applied. The side of the
potentially carcinogenic. The dust or fumes given off metal where the force is applied undergoes tensile
by these alloys could be inhaled and cause serious stress as the metal is stretched, while the opposite side
health problems. Respiratory protection may be is squeezed under compression stress. When a metal
required when machining, sanding or melting alloy is subjected to torque, such as a pump shaft driven by
metals. an electric motor, all three forms of stress are applied
to some degree.

METALS Strain

There are hundreds of metals and alloys that you Strain is the deformation or change in shape of a
may machine in a machine shop. You need not metal when a stress or load is applied. When the load
understand all metals and alloys, but you must have a is removed, the metal is no longer under a strain. The
working knowledge of them and know the common type of deformation will be similar to the form of
terms associated with them. stress applied.

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Strength metal into thin sheets. Lead is a highly malleable
metal.
Strength is the property of a metal that enables it
to resist strain (deformation) when a stress (load) is Brittleness
applied. Strength may be expressed by several
different terms. The most common term is tensile Brittleness is the tendency of a metal to break or
strength, or the maximum force required to pull metal crack when it has not been deformed. Generally, the
apart. To find tensile strength, divide the force harder a metal, the more brittle it is, and vice versa.
required to pull the metal apart by the area in square Pot metal and cast iron are examples of brittle metals.
inches of a prepared specimen.
Toughness
Another term used to describe the strength of a
metal is yield strength, which you will determine Toughness is the ability of a metal to withstand
during the test for tensile strength. Yield strength is shock, to endure stress, and to deform without
established when the metal specimen begins to stretch breaking. A tough metal is not easily separated or cut
while pressure is gradually applied. There is often a and can be bent first in one direction and then in the
relationship between the tensile strength and the opposite without fracturing.
hardness of metals. As the hardness of a metal is
increased, the tensile strength is also increased, and Hardness
vice versa. Charts provide these values for the more
commonly used metals. Hardness of a metal is generally defined as its
ability to resist indentation, abrasion or wear, and
Plasticity cutting. The degree of hardness of many metals may
be either increased or decreased by one or more
Plasticity is the ability of a metal to withstand heat-treatment processes. In most cases, as the
extensive permanent deformation without breaking or hardness of a steel is decreased, its toughness is
rupturing. Modeling clay is an example of a highly increased.
plastic material, since it can be deformed extensively
and permanently without rupturing. Metals with high Hardenability
plasticity will produce long, continuous chips when
machined on a lathe. Hardenability is a measure of the depth (from the
metal’s surface toward its center) to which a metal can
Elasticity be hardened by heat treatment. A metal that achieves
a shallow depth of hardness and retains a relatively
soft and tough core has low hardenability. The
Elasticity is the ability of a metal to return to its
hardenability of some metals changes by adding
original size and shape after an applied force has been
certain alloys during manufacturing.
removed. The action of spring steel is an example of
applying this property.
Fatigue
Ductility Fatigue is the action that takes place in a metal
after repeated stress. When you break a sample in a
Ductility is the ability of a metal to be permanently tensile machine, you need to apply a definite load to
deformed when it is bent or stretched into wire form cause that fracture. However, the same material will
without breaking. To find the ductility of a metal, fail under a much smaller load if you apply and
apply the tensil strength test and measure the remove the load many times. Fatigue may cause a
percentage of increased length. Copper is an example shaft to break after months of use even though the
of a very ductile metal. load has not been changed.
Malleability Corrosion Resistance

Malleability is the ability of a metal to be Corrosion resistance is the ability of a metal to

permanently deformed by a compression stress withstand surface attack by the atmosphere, fluids,
produced by hammering, stamping, or rolling the moisture, and acids. Some metals can be made less

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susceptible to corrosive agents by either coating or Ferrous Metals
alloying them with other metals that are corrosion
resistant. Iron ore, the basis of all ferrous metals, is
converted to metal (pig iron) in a blast furnace.
Heat Resistance Alloying elements can be added later to the pig iron to
obtain a wide variety of metals with different
Heat resistance is the property of a steel or alloy characteristics. The characteristics of metal can be
that permits it to retain its properties at high tempera- further changed and improved by heat treatment and
tures. Examples are tungsten steel, which can cut by hot or cold working.
other metals even when red hot, and chromium PIG IRON.—The product of the blast furnace is
molybdenum steel, which is used for piping and called pig iron. Pig iron is composed of approxi-
valves in high temperature, high-pressure steam mately 93 percent iron, 3 to 5 percent carbon, and
systems. varying amounts of impurities. It is seldom used
directly as an industrial manufacturing material, but it
Weldability is the basic ingredient in cast iron, wrought iron, and
steel.
Weldability refers to the relative ease with which CAST IRON.—Cast iron is produced by
a metal can be welded. Weldability depends on many resmelting a charge of pig iron and scrap iron in a
different factors. The basic factor is the chemical furnace and removing some of the impurities from the
composition or the elements that were added during molten metal by using various fluxing agents. There
the metal’s manufacture. A steel with a low carbon are many grades of cast iron, based on strength and
content will be much easier to weld than one with a hardness. The quality depends upon the extent of
high carbon content. You can weld a low alloy steel refining, the amount of scrap iron used, and the
that has low hardenability easier than one with a high method of casting and cooling the molten metal when
hardenability. You also must consider the welding it is drawn from the furnace. The higher the
procedure, such as gas or arc welding. Charts provide proportion of scrap iron, the lower the grade of cast
guidelines concerning the weldabilty of a metal and iron. Cast iron has some degree of corrosion
the recommended welding procedure. Always make resistance and great compressive strength, but it is
weldability an integral part of planning a job that brittle and has a comparatively low tensile strength. It
requires welding. has limited use in marine service.
WROUGHT IRON.—Wrought iron is a highly
Machinability refined pure iron that contains uniformly distributed
particles of slag. It is considerably softer than cast
Machinability is the relative ease with which a iron and has a fibrous internal structure. Like cast
metal can be machined. Several factors affect the iron, it is fairly resistant to corrosion and fatigue.
machinability of metal. They are different alloying Wrought iron, is used extensively for low-pressure
elements, the method used by the manufacturer to pipes, rivets, and nails.
form the metal bar (physical condition), any heat
PLAIN-CARBON STEEL.—Pig iron is
treatment that has changed the hardness, whether you
converted into steel by a process that separates and
use a high-speed steel or carbide cutting tool, and
removes impurities from the molten iron by use of
whether you use a cutting fluid. We’ll discuss some
various catalytic agents and extremely high
of these factors later in this chapter.
temperatures. During the refining process, practically
all the carbon originally present in the pig iron is
TYPES OF METALS burned out. In the final stages when higher carbon
alloys are needed, measured amounts of carbon are
Metals are divided into two general types— added to the relatively pure liquid iron to produce
ferrous and nonferrous. Ferrous metals are those carbon steel of a desired grade. The amount of carbon
whose major element is iron. Iron is the basis for all added controls the mechanical properties of the
steels. Nonferrous metals are those whose major finished steel. After the steel has been drawn from
element is not iron, but they may contain a small the furnace and allowed to solidify, it may be sent
amount of iron as an impurity. either to the stockpile or to shaping mills for rolling

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and forming into plates, billets, bars, or structural It is also used in parts such as ball bearings, shafts,
shapes. and valve stems that are subject to high pressure and
high temperature.
Plain steels that have small additions of sulfur
(and sometimes phosphorous) are called free-cutting Vanadium. —Vanadium is added in small
steels. These steels have good machining quantities to steel to increase tensile strength,
characteristics and are used in applications similar to toughness, and wear resistance. It is most often
carbon steels. The addition of sulfur and phosphorous combined with chromium. It is used for crankshafts,
limits their ability to be formed hot. We will now axles, piston rods, springs, and other parts where high
discuss a few of the plain carbon steels. strength and fatigue resistance are required. Greater
amounts of vanadium are added to high-speed steel
Low-carbon steel.—Low-carbon steel (0.05 to cutting tools to prevent tempering of their cutting
0.30 percent carbon), usually called mild steel, can be edges during high temperatures.
easily cut and bent and does not have great tensile
strength. Steels with less than 0.15 percent carbon are Nickel.—Nickel is added to steel to increase
usually more difficult to machine than those with a corrosion resistance, strength, toughness, and wear
higher carbon content. resistance. Nickel is used in small amounts in the
steel used to armor plate a ship because it resists
Medium-carbon steel.—Medium-carbon steel cracking when penetrated. Greater amounts of nickel
(0.30 to 0.60 percent carbon) is considerably stronger are added to chromium to produce a metal that
than low-carbon steel. Heat-treated machinery parts withstands severe working conditions. Crankshafts,
arc made of this steel. rear axles, and other parts subject to repeated shock
High-carbon steel.—High-carbon steel (0.60 to are made from nickel chrome steel.
1.50 percent carbon) is used for many machine parts, Molybdenum.—Molybdenum is added to steel to
handtools, and cutting tools and is usually called increase toughness, hardenability, shock resistance,
carbon tool steel. Do not use cutting tools of and resistance to softening at high temperatures.
high-carbon steel when the cutting temperature will Molybdenum steel is used for transmission gears,
exceed 400°F. heavy-duty shafts, and springs. Carbon molybdenum
ALLOY STEELS.—The steels discussed so far (CMo) and chrome molybdenum (CrMo) are two
are true alloys of iron and carbon. When other alloy steels with molybdenum added that are widely
elements are added to iron during the refining used in high-temperature piping systems in Navy
process, the resulting metal is called alloy steel. ships. Relatively large amounts of molybdenum are
There are many types, classes, and grades of alloy used in some of the cutting tools used in the machine
steel. shop.
Alloy steels usually contain several different Tungsten.—Tungsten is used primarily in
alloying elements, and each contributes a different high-speed steel or cemented-carbide cutting tools. It
characteristic to the metal. Alloying elements can gives the cutting tools their hard, wear-resistant and
change the machinability, hardenability, weldability, heat-resistant characteristics. Tungsten can be
corrosion resistance, and surface appearance of the air-hardened. It allows tools to be hardened without
metal. If you know how each of the alloying elements using oil or water to cool the tool after heating.
affects a metal, you’ll more readily select the best
metal for a given application. In the following Nonferrous Metals
paragraphs, we’ll discuss a few of the more common
alloy steels and the effects of certain alloying Copper, nickel, lead, zinc, tin, and aluminum are
elements upon the mechanical properties of steel. included among the nonferrous metals. These metals
and their alloys are used in large amounts in the
Chromium. —Chromium is added to steel to construction and maintenance of Navy ships.
increase hardenability, corrosion resistance,
toughness, and wear resistance. The most common COPPER ALLOYS.—Copper has a variety of
uses of chromium are in corrosion-resistant steel uses. You will see it aboard ship in the form of wire,
(commonly called stainless steel) and high-speed rod, bar, sheet, plate, and pipe. As a conductor of both
cutting tools. Stainless steel is often used to heat and electricity, copper ranks next to silver and
manufacture parts that are used in acids and salt water. has a high resistance to saltwater corrosion.

3-4
 Copper becomes hard when worked but can be has the general working characteristics of copper but
softened easily if you heat it cherry red and then cool must be worked cold.
it. Its strength, however, decreases rapidly at
temperatures above 400°F. These and the many other copper alloys
commonly used by the Navy have certain physical
Pure copper is normally used in molded or shaped and mechanical properties (imparted by the various
forms when machining is not required. Copper for alloying elements) that cause one alloy to be more
normal shipboard use generally is alloyed with an effective than another for a given application.
element that provides good machinability. Remember this if you go to the metal storage rack and
select a bronze-looking metal without regard to the
Brass. —Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. specific type. The part you make may fail
Complex brasses contain additional alloying agents, prematurely in spite of the skill and attention to detail
such as aluminum, lead, iron, manganese, or that you use to machine it.
phosphorus. Naval brass is a true brass containing
about 60 percent copper, 39 percent zinc, and 1 NICKEL ALLOYS.—Nickel is a hard, malleable,
percent tin added for corrosion resistance. It is used and ductile metal. It is resistant to corrosion and
for propeller shafts, valve stems, and marine therefore often is used as a coating on other metals.
hardware. Combined with other metals, it makes a tough strong
alloy.
Brass used by the Navy is classified as either
leaded or unleaded, meaning that small amounts of Nickel-Copper.—Nickel-copper alloys are
lead may or may not be used in the copper-zinc stronger and harder than either nickel or copper. They
mixture. Lead improves the machinability of brass. have high resistance to corrosion and are strong
enough to be substituted for steel when corrosion
Bronze. —Bronze is primarily an alloy of copper resistance is of primary importance. Probably the
and tin, although several other alloying elements are best known nickel-copper alloy is Monel. It contains
added to produce special bronze alloys. Aluminum, approximately 65 percent nickel, 30 percent copper,
nickel, phosphorous, silicon, and manganese are the and small percentages of iron, manganese, silicon,
most widely used alloying metals. and cobalt. Monel is used for pump shafts and
internal parts, valve seats and stems, and many other
Gunmetal. —Gunmetal, a copper-tin alloy, applications requiring both strength and corrosion
contains approximately 86-89 percent copper, 7 1/2-9 resistance.
percent tin, 3-5 percent zinc, 0.3 percent lead, 0.15
percent iron, 0.05 percent phosphorous, and 1 percent K-Monel.—K-Monel is essentially the same as
nickel. As you can see by the rather complex analysis Monel except it contains about 3 percent aluminum
of this bronze alloy, the term copper-tin is used only and is harder and stronger than other grades of Monel.
to designate the major alloying elements. Gunmetal K-Monel stock is very difficult to machine. You can
bronze is used for bearings, bushings, pump bodies, improve the metal’s machinability considerably by
valves, impellers, and gears. annealing it immediately before machining. K-Monel
is used for the shaft sleeves on many pumps because
Aluminum Bronze. —Aluminum bronze is of its resistance to the heating and rubbing action of
actually a copper-aluminum alloy that does not the packing.
contain any tin. It is made of 86 percent copper, 8
1/2-9 percent aluminum, 2 1/2-4 percent iron, and 1 There are several other nickel alloys that you may
percent of miscellaneous alloys. It is used for valve find in Navy equipment. Inconel; Inconel-X; and H,
seats and stems, bearings, gears, propellers, and S, R, and KR Monel are a few of the more common
marine hardware. alloys.
Copper-Nickel.—Copper-nickel alloy is used ALUMINUM ALLOYS.—Aluminum is being
extensively aboard ship because of its high resistance used more and more in ship construction because of
to saltwater corrosion. It is used in piping and tubing. light weight, easy workability, and good appearance.
In sheet form it is used to construct small storage Pure aluminum is soft and not very strong. When
tanks and hot water reservoirs. Copper-nickel alloy alloying elements such as magnesium, copper, nickel,
may contain either 70 percent copper and 30 percent and silicon are added, however, a much stronger metal
nickel or 90 percent copper and 10 percent nickel. It is produced.

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 Each of the aluminum alloys has properties publishes Unified Numbering System for Metals and
developed specifically for a certain type of Alloys. It provides a clear and easily understood cross
application. The hard aluminum alloys are easier to reference from the designation of one numbering
machine than the soft alloys and often are equal to system to other systems where a similar metal is
low-carbon steel in strength. involved. Some of the numbering systems that you
may need to identify are as following:
ZINC ALLOYS.—Zinc is a comparatively soft,
yet somewhat brittle, metal. Its tensile strength is Aluminum Association (AA)
only slightly greater than that of aluminum. Because
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
of its resistance to corrosion, zinc is used as a
protective coating for less corrosion-resistant metals, Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
principally iron and steel.
Aerospace Materials Specifications (AMS)
Pure zinc has a strong anodic potential. It is used American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
to protect the hulls of steel ships against electrolysis
between dissimilar metals caused by electric currents American Society of Mechanical Engineers
set up by salt water. Zinc plates bolted on the hull, (ASME)
especially near the propellers, decompose quite
American Society for Testing and Materials
rapidly, but greatly reduce localized pitting of the hull
steel. (ASTM)
Copper Development Association (CDA)
TIN ALLOYS.—Pure tin is seldom used except
as a coating for food containers and sheet steel and in Military Specification (MIL-S-XXXX,
some electroplating applications. Several different MIL-N-XXXX)
grades of tin solder are made by adding either lead or
Federal Specification (QQ-N-XX, QQ-S-XXX)
antimony. One of the Navy’s main uses of tin is to
make bearing babbitt. About 5 percent copper and 10 The Unified Numbering System lists all the
percent antimony are added to 85 percent tin to make different designations for a metal and assigns one
this alloy. Various grades of babbitt are used in number that identities the metal. This system covers
bearings. Each grade may have additional alloying only the composition of the metal and not its
elements to give the babbitt the properties required. condition, quality, or form. Use of the Unified
Numbering System by the various metal producers is
LEAD ALLOYS.—Lead is probably the heaviest
voluntary, and it could be some time before its use is
metal with which you will work. A cubic foot of it
widespread. Another useful publication is NAVSEA
weighs approximately 700 pounds. It has a grayish
0900-LP-038-8010, Ship Metallic Material
color and is amazingly pliable. It is obtainable in
Comparison and Use Guide.
sheets and pigs. The sheets normally are wound
around a rod, and pieces can be cut off quite easily. The two major systems used for iron and steel are
One of the most common uses of lead is as an alloying the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the
element in soft solder. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). The
Aluminum Association method is used for aluminum
DESIGNATIONS AND MARKINGS OF and is discussed later in this chapter. Other
METALS nonferrous metals are designated by the percentage
and types of elements in their composition. The Navy
You must understand the standard designations of uses these methods to mark metals so they can be
metals and the systems of marking metals used by the identified readily.
Navy and industry so you can select the proper
material for a specific job. There are several different Ferrous Metal Designations
numbering systems currently in use by different trade
associations, societies, and producers of metals and You should be familiar with the SAE and AISI
alloys. You may find several different designations systems of steel classifications. These systems,
that refer to a metal with the same chemical which are in common use, have a four- or five-digit
composition, or several identical designations that number to indicate the composition of the steel. The
refer to metals with different chemical compositions. major difference between them is that the AISI system
The Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. (SAE), normally uses a letter before the numbers to show the

3-6
process used to make the steel, and the SAE system Table 3-1.—SAE Numbers with Their Corresponding
Alloying Elements
does not. The letters are B—acid Bessemer carbon
steel; C—basic open-hearth or basic electric-furnace
carbon steel; and E—electric-furnace alloy steel. Type of Steel SAE Number
The first digit normally indicates the basic type of Carbon Steels 1xxx
steel. Table 3-1 shows the SAE numbers with their Plain carbon 10xx
corresponding alloying elements. Free cutting (screw lock) 11xx
High manganese 13xx
The second digit normally indicates a series Nickel Steels 2xxx
within the group. The term series usually refers to the 3.50% nickel 23xx
percentage of the major alloying element. Sometimes 5.00% nickel 25xx
the second digit gives the actual percentage of the Nickel-Chromium Steel 3xxx
chief alloying element; in other cases, the second digit 1.25% nickel, 0.60% chromium 31xx
may indicate the relative position of the series in a 3.50% nickel, 1.50% chromium 33xx
group without reference to the actual percentage. Molybdenum Steels (0.25% molybdenum) 4xxx
1.0% chromium 41xx
The third, fourth, and fifth digits indicate the 0.5% chromium, 1.8% nickel 43xx
average carbon content of the steel. If the carbon 2% nickel 46xx
3.5% nickel 48xx
content is less than 1.00 you will have only four
digits. The carbon content is expressed in points; for Chromium Steels 5xxx
example: 2 points = 0.02 percent, 20 points = 0.20 Low chrome 51xx
Medium chrome 52xx
percent, and 100 points = 1.00 percent. To make the
various steels fit into this classification, it is Chromium-Vanadium Steels 6xxx
sometimes necessary to vary the system slightly.
However, you can easily understand such variations if Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum 8xxx
(low amounts)
you understand the system. Let’s look at a few
examples. Check them against the number in Silicon-Manganese 92xx
table 3-1.

(1) SAE 1035: The first digit is 1, so this is a

carbon steel. The second digit, 0, shows there is no Other series within the molybdenum steel group
other important alloying element, so this is a PLAIN are identified by the second digit. If the second digit
carbon steel. The next two digits, 35, show that the is 1, the steel is chromium-molybdenum steel; if the
AVERAGE carbon content is 0.35 percent. There are second digit is 3, the steel is a nickel-chromium-
also small amounts of other elements such as molybdenum steel; if the second digit is 6, the steel is
manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur. a nickel-molybdenum steel. In such cases, the second
digit does not indicate the actual percentage of the
(2) SAE 1146: This is a resulfurized carbon steel alloying elements, other than molybdenum.
(often called free cutting steel). The first digit
indicates a carbon steel. The second digit shows an (4) SAE 51100: This number identifies a
average manganese content of 1.00 percent. The last chromium steel (first digit) with approximately 1.00
two digits show an average carbon content of 0.46 percent chromium (second digit) and an average
percent. The amount of sulfur added to this steel carbon content of 1.00 percent (last three digits). The
ranges from 0.08 to 0.13 percent. Manganese and actual chromium content of SAE 51100 steels may
sulfur in this quantity make this series of steel one of vary from 0.95 to 1.10 percent.
the most easily machined steels available.
(5) SAE 52100: This number identifies a
(3) SAE 4017: The first digit, 4, indicates that chromium steel (first digit) of a higher alloy series
this is a molybdenum steel. The second digit, 0, (second digit) than the SAE 51100 steel just
indicates there is no other equally important alloying described. Note, however, that in this case the second
element, so this is a plain molybdenum steel. The last digit, 2, merely identifies the series but does NOT
two digits, 17, show that the average carbon content is show the percentage of chromium. A 52100 steel will
0.17 percent. actually have from 1.30 to 1.60 percent chromium

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with an average carbon content of 1.00 percent (last Nonferrous Metal Designations
three digits).
Nonferrous metals are generally grouped
Navy blueprints and the drawings of equipment
according to their alloying elements. Examples of
furnished in the manufacturers’ technical manuals
these groups are brass, bronze, copper-nickel, and
usually specify materials by federal or military
nickel-copper. Specific designations of an alloy are
specification numbers. For example, the coupling on
described by the amounts and chemical symbols of
a particular oil burner is identified as cast steel, class
the alloying elements. For example, a copper-nickel
B, MIL-S-15083. This particular cast steel does not
alloy might be described as copper-nickel, 70
have a designation under any other metal
Cu-30 Ni. The 70 Cu represents the percentage
identification systems because there are no
of copper, and the 30 Ni represents the percentage
chemically similar castings. On the other hand, a
of nickel.
valve stem designated MIL-S-862, class 410 (a
chromium stainless steel) may be cross referenced to The following list contains common alloying
several other systems. Some of the chemically elements and their symbols:
similar designations for MIL-S-862, class 410 are as
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . Al
follows:
Carbon . . . . . . . . . . . C
SAE = J405 (51410)
Chromium . . . . . . . . . Cr
Federal Spec. = QQ-S-763(410) Cobalt . . . . . . . . . . . Co
AISI = 410 Copper . . . . . . . . . . . Cu
Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . Fe
ASTM = A176(410)
Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . Pb
ASM = 5504
Manganese . . . . . . . . . Mn
ASME = SA194 Molybdenum . . . . . . . . Mo
Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . Ni
is a very useful book to use when cross referencing Phosphorus . . . . . . . . . P
numbers.
Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . Si
Sulphur . . . . . . . . . . . S
Table 3-2.—Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Classifications
Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . Sn
Alloy Percent of Aluminum Numbers Titanium . . . . . . . . . . Ti
Aluminum 99.00 percent pure 1xxx Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . W
Copper 2xxx Vanadium . . . . . . . . . V
Manganese 3xxx Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . Zn
Silicon 4xxx In addition to the designations previously
Magnesium 5xxx
described, a trade name (such as Monel or Inconel) is
sometimes used to designate certain alloys.
Magnesium and 6xxx
Silicon The Aluminum Association uses a four-digit
designation system similar to the SAE/AISI system
Zinc 7xxx described for steels. The numerals assigned, with
Other 8xxx their meaning for the first digits of this system, are
listed in table 3-2.
Unused 9xxx
The first digit identifies the major alloying
element, and the second digit indicates alloy

3-8
modifications or impurity limits. The last two digits T5 Artificially aged only
identify the particular alloy or indicate the aluminum
purity. T6 Solution heat treated, then artificially
aged
In the 1xxx group for 99.00 percent minimum
aluminum, the last two digits show the minimum T7 Solution heat treated, then stabilized
aluminum percentage to the right of the decimal point.
T8 Solution heat treated, cold worked,
The second digit shows modifications in impurity
then artificially aged
limits. If the second digit in the designation is zero,
there is no special control on individual impurities. If T9 Solution heat treated, artificially
the second digit is 1 through 9, it shows some special aged, then cold worked
control of one or more individual impurities. As an
example, 1030 indicates a 99.30 percent minimum T10 Artificially aged, then cold worked
aluminum without special control on individual
impurities. Designations 1130, 1230, 1330, and so Note that some temper designations apply only to
on, indicate the same purity with special control of wrought products and others to cast products; but
one or more individual impurities. most apply to both. A second digit may appear to the
right of the mechanical treatment. This second digit
Designations 2 through 8 are aluminum alloys. In indicates the degree of hardening; 2 is 1/4 hard, 4 is
the 2xxx through 8xxx alloy groups, the second digit
1/2 hard, 6 is 3/4 hard, and 8 is full hard. For
indicates any alloy modification. The last two of the
four digits identify the different alloys in the group. example, the alloy 5456-H32 is an aluminum/
magnesium alloy, strain hardened, then stabilized, and
In addition to the four-digit alloy designation, a 1/4 hard.
letter or letter/number is included as a temper
designation. This designation follows the four-digit
alloy number and is separated from it by a dash. As Standard Marking of Metals
an example, 2024-T6 is an aluminum-copper alloy
solution. The T6 designation shows the metal is heat Metals used by the Navy are usually marked by
treated, then artificially aged; T6 is the temper the producer with the continuous identification
designation. The following list contains the marking system. We’ll explain the system in the
aluminum alloy temper designations and their following paragraphs. Do not depend only on the
meanings:
markings to be sure you are using the correct metal.
F Fabricated Often, the markings will be worn off or cut off and
O Annealed recrystallized (wrought only) you are left with a piece of metal you are not sure
about. Additional systems, such as separate storage
H Strain hardened (wrought only) areas or racks for different types of metal or etching
H1, plus one or more digits, strain hardened on the metal with an electric etcher could save you
only time later.
H2, plus one or more digits, strain hardened, The continuous identification marking system,
then partially annealed which is described in Federal Standards, is a means
H3, plus one or more digits, strain hardened, for positive identification of metal products even after
then stabilized some portions have been used. In this system, the
markings are actually “printed” on the metal with a
W Solution heat treated, unstable temper
heavy ink that is almost like a paint, and they appear
T Treated to produce stable tempers other at intervals of not more than 3 feet. So, if you cut off
than F, O, or H a piece of bar stock, the remaining portions will still
T2 Annealed (cast only) carry the proper identification. Some metals, such as
small tubing, coils of wire, and small bar stock cannot
T3 Solution heat treated, then cold worked be marked readily by this method. On these items,
T4 Solution heat treated and naturally tags with the marking information are fastened to the
aged to a substantially stable condition metal.

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 Figure 3-1.—Examples of continuous identification marking.

The manufacturer is required to make these recognized technical society or industrial association,
markings on materials before delivery. The marking such as the American Iron and Steel Institute
intervals for various shapes and forms are specified in Some of the physical conditions and quality
the Federal Standard previously mentioned. designations for various metal products are as follows:
Figure 3-1 shows the normal spacing and layout.
CR . . . . . . . . . . . . . cold rolled
For metal products, the continuous identification
marking must include (1) the producer’s name or CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . cold drawn
registered trademark and (2) the commercial HR . . . . . . . . . . . . . hot rolled
designation of the material. In nonferrous metals the
government specification for the material is often used. AQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . aircraft quality
The producer’s name or trademark shown is that of the CQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . commercial quality
producer who does the final processing or finishing
before the material is marketed. The commercial 1/4H . . . . . . . . . . . . quarter hard
designation includes the following information: 1/2H . . . . . . . . . . . . half hard
1. A material designation, such as an SAE H . . . . . . . . . . . . . hard
number, an AISI number, or an ASTM (American HTQ . . . . . . . . . . . . high tensile quality
Society of Testing Materials) specification
AR . . . . . . . . . . . . . as rolled
2. A “physical condition” and quality
HT . . . . . . . . . . . . . heat treated
designation-that is, the designation of temper or other
physical condition approved by a nationally G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ground

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IDENTIFICATION OF METALS and file test. When you perform these tests, you
should compare the unknown metal with a known
The various base metals, such as iron, copper, sample of some metal. You also will need good
lead, zinc, and aluminum have certain identifying lighting, a strong permanent magnet, and access to a
characteristics, such as surface appearance and lathe. A word of caution: when you perform these
weight. This helps persons who work with or handle tests, DO NOT be satisfied with the results of only
these materials to distinguish one from another. one test. Use as many tests as possible so you can
There are, however, a number of related alloys that increase the chances of an accurate identification.
resemble each other and their base metal so closely
that they defy accurate identification by simple
means. You may have to send these metals to a Spark Test
shipyard for analysis.
There are other means of rapid identification of Spark testing is the identification of a metal by
metals. These methods, however, do not provide observing the color, size, and shape of the spark
positive identification and should not be used in stream given off when you hold the metal against a
critical situations where a specific metal is required. grinding wheel. This method of identification is
Some of the methods that we’ll discuss here are adequate for most machine shop purposes. When you
magnet tests, chip tests, file tests, acid reaction tests, must know the exact composition of a metal, make a
and spark tests. The latter two are most commonly chemical analysis. You need a lot of experience
used by the Navy and we’ll discuss them in more before you can identifiy metals by a spark test. To
detail. Table 3-3 contains information related to gain this experience, you’ll need to practice by
surface appearance, magnetic reaction, lathe chip test, comparing the spark stream of unknown specimens

Table 3-3.—Rapid Identification of Metals

3-11
with that of known specimens. Many shops maintain indicate a high carbon content. View C shows shafts,
specimens of known composition for this purpose. forks, and sprigs that indicate a medium carbon
content. View D shows shafts and forks that indicate
Proper lighting conditions are essential for good a low carbon content.
spark testing. You should perform the test in an area
where there is enough light, but no harsh or glaring The greater the amount of carbon in a steel, the
light. You may find that many ships have a spark test greater the intensity of bursting in the spark stream.
cabinet. Generally, these cabinets consist of a box To understand the cause of the bursts, remember that
with a dark, painted interior, mounted on top of a while the spark is glowing, the carbon in the particle
workbench. A bench grinder is mounted inside the contacts oxygen in the air and is burned to carbon
cabinet. Test specimens of known composition are dioxide (CO2). The CO2 in the gaseous state
stored in shelves at the end of the cabinet. Where increases in volume and builds up pressure that is
possible, the testing area should be away from heavy relieved by explosions of the particles. If you
drafts of air. Drafts can change the tail of the spark examine the small steel particles under a microscope
stream and may result in improper identification. when they are cold, you’ll see they are hollow spheres
Generally speaking, a suitable grinding wheel for with one end completely blown away.
spark testing is an 8-inch wheel of 30 to 60 grains
turning at 3,600 rpm. This provides a surface speed Steels with the same carbon content but different
of 7,537 feet per minute. alloying elements are not always easily identified
because alloying elements affect the carrier lines, the
The speed of the grinding wheel and the pressure bursts, or the forms of characteristic bursts in the
you exert on the samples greatly affect the spark test. spark picture. The effect of the alloying element may
The faster the speed of the wheel, the larger and retard or accelerate the carbon spark or make the
longer the spark stream. The pressure of the piece carrier line lighter or darker in color. Molybdenum,
for example, appears as a detached, orange-colored,
against the wheel has a similar effect: the more spearhead on the end of the carrier line. Nickel seems
pressure you apply to the test piece, the larger and to suppress the effect of the carbon burst. But, the
longer the spark stream. Hold the test piece lightly
but firmly against the wheel with just enough pressure
to prevent the piece from bouncing. Remember, you
must apply the same amount of pressure to the test
specimen as to the sample you are testing.
Be sure to keep the wheel clean at all times. A
wheel loaded with particles of metal will give off a
spark stream of the type of metal in the wheel mixed
with the spark stream of the metal being tested. This
can confuse you and prevent you from properly
identifying the metal. Dress the wheel before you
begin spark testing and before each new test of a
different metal.
To do a spark test, hold a sample of the material
against a grinding wheel. The sparks given off, or the
lack of sparks, help you identify the metal. Look for
the length of the spark stream, its color, and the type
of sparks.
Figure 3-2 shows the four fundamental spark
forms. View A shows shafts, buds, breaks, and
arrows. The arrow or spearhead is characteristic of
molybdenum, a metallic element of the chromium
group that resembles iron and is used to form
steel-like alloys with carbon. The swelling, or buds,
in the spark line indicate nickel with molybdenum. Figure 3-2.—Fundamental spark forms.
View B shows shafts and sprigs, or sparklers, that

3-12
nickel spark can be identified by tiny blocks of piece. With your eyes focused at a point about
brilliant white light. Silicon suppresses the carbon one-third the distance from the tail end of the stream
burst even more than nickel. When silicon is present, of sparks, watch only those sparks that cross your line
the carrier line usually ends abruptly in a flash of of vision. You’ll find that after a little while you will
white light. form a mental image of an individual spark. After
To make the spark test, hold the piece of metal on you can fix the spark image in mind, you are ready to
the wheel so you throw the spark stream about 12 examine the whole spark picture.
inches at a right angle to your line of vision. You’ll In the sample of low-carbon steel, notice that the
need to spend a little time to learn at just what spark stream is long (about 70 inches) and the volume
pressure you must hold the sample to get a stream of is moderately large. The few sparklers that may occur
this length without reducing the speed of the grinder.
Don’t press too hard because the pressure will are forked. In the sample of high-carbon steel, the
increase the temperature of the spark stream and the stream is shorter (about 55 inches) and large in
burst. It also will give the appearance of a higher volume. The sparklers are small and repeating, and
carbon content than that of the metal being tested. some of the shafts may be forked.
After practicing, select a couple of samples of White cast iron produces a spark stream about 20
metal with widely varying characteristics; for inches long (see fig. 3-3). The volume of sparks is
example, low-carbon steel and high-carbon steel. small with many small, repeating sparklers. The
Hold first one and then the other against the wheel. color of the spark stream close to the wheel is red,
Always touch the same portion of the wheel with each while the outer end of the stream is straw-colored.

Figure 3-3.—Spark pictures formed by common metals.

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 -

Gray cast iron produces a spark stream about 25 may be one of the stainless steels. A reaction that
inches long. It is small in volume with fewer produces a brown-colored liquid indicates’ a plain
sparklers than white cast iron. The sparklers are small carbon steel. A reaction that produces a brown to
and repeating. Part of the stream near the grinding black color indicates a gray cast iron or one of the
wheel is red, and the outer end of the stream is alloy steels with its principal element either
straw-colored. chromium, molybdenum, or vanadium. Nickel steel
reacts to the acid test by forming a brown to
The malleable iron spark test will produce a spark
greenish-black liquid. A steel containing tungsten
stream about 30 inches long. It is of moderate volume
reacts slowly to form a brown-colored liquid with a
with many small, repeating sparklers toward the end
yellow sediment.
of the stream. The entire stream is straw-colored.
The wrought iron spark test produces a spark You get a different result when you do an acid test
stream about 65 inches long. It has a large volume on nonferrous metals and alloys. As the material
with few sparklers. The sparklers show up toward the desolves you’ll see shades of green and blue instead
end of the stream and are forked. The stream next to of the brown-black colors that usually appear on
the grinding wheel is straw-colored, while the outer ferrous metals. Except on nickel and Monel, the
end of the stream is a bright red. reaction is vigorous. Nickel’s reaction to nitric acid
Stainless steel produces a spark stream about 50 proceeds slowly and develops a pale green color. On
inches long, of moderate volume, and with few Monel the reaction takes place at about the same rate
sparklers. The sparklers are forked. The stream next as on ferrous metals, but the characteristic color of the
to the wheel is straw-colored, and white at the end. liquid is greenish-blue. Brass reacts vigorously, and
the test material changes to a green color. Tin bronze,
Nickel produces a spark stream only about 10 aluminum bronze, and copper all react vigorously and
inches long. It is small in volume and orange in color. the liquid changes to a blue-green color. Aluminum
The sparks form wavy streaks with no sparklers. and magnesium alloys, lead, lead-silver, and lead-tin
Monel forms a spark stream almost identical to alloys are soluble in nitric acid, but the blue or green
that of nickel and must be identified by other means. color is lacking.
Copper, brass, bronze, and lead form no sparks on the
grinding wheel, but you can identify them by other It’s easy to see that you’ll need good visual skill to
means, such as color, appearance, and chip tests. identify the many different reactions of metals to
You’ll find the spark tests easy and convenient. nitric acid. Acid test kits are available containing
They require no special equipment and are adaptable several different solutions to identify the different
to most any situation. Here again, experience is the metals. Some of the kits can identify between the
best teacher. different series of stainless steel (300, 400 series).
They also can quickly identify low-alloy steels, nickel
Acid Test steels, and various bronze alloys. All large repair
ships and shore repair facilities have a NON
When you need to identify metal quickly, the DESTRUCTIVE TEST (NDT) laboratory. The
nitric acid test is the most common and easiest test personnel assigned to them will help you to identify
used in the Navy today, but you can use it only in various metals in more critical situations, or when you
noncritical situations. It requires no special training need a greater accuracy on a repair job.
in chemistry. It is most helpful in distinguishing
between stainless steel, Monel, copper-nickel, and
carbon steels. Whenever you perform an acid test, be
sure to observe all safety precautions. PLASTICS
To perform the nitric acid test, place one or two
drops of concentrated (full strength) nitric acid on a Plastic materials are increasingly being used
metal surface that has been cleaned by grinding or aboard ship. In some respects, they tend to surpass
filing. Observe the resulting reaction (if any) for structural metals. Plastic is shock resistant, not
about 2 minutes. Then, add three or four drops of susceptible to saltwater corrosion, and in casting,
water, one drop at a time, and continue observing the lends itself to mass production and uniformity of end
reaction. If there is no reaction at all, the test material product.

3-14
CHARACTERISTICS pressed into one sheet depends upon the thickness
wanted. The end care of the product dictates the
Plastics are formed from organic materials, choice of paper, canvas, wood veneer, or glass fabric.
generally with some form of carbon as their basic Paper-based material is thin and quite brittle and it
element. Plastics are synthetic materials, but they are breaks if it’s bent sharply, but canvas-based material
not necessarily inferior to natural material. On the is difficult to break. As layers are added to paper-
contrary, they have been designed to perform based material, it gains in strength, but it’s never as
particular functions that no natural material can tough and strong in a laminated part as layers of glass
perform. Plastics come in a variety of colors, shapes, fabric or canvas.
and forms. Some are as tough, but not as hard, as
steel; some are as pliable as rubber; some are more Laminated materials are widely used aboard ship.
transparent than glass; and some are lighter than For example, laminated gears are used on
aluminum. internal-combustion engines, usually as timing or
idler gears; on laundry equipment; and on certain
Plastic materials fall into two major divisions— pumps. In comparison with metal gears, plastic gears
THERMOSETTINGS and THERMOPLASTICS. are quieter in operation, pick up less heat when
It’s necessary to know which one you are using if you friction is generated, and wear longer.
are going to perform any kind of shopwork on
plastics. Plastics are identified by several commercial
designations, by trade names, and by military and
Thermosettings are tough, brittle, and heat federal specifications. There is such a large number
hardened. When placed in a flame, they will not burn of types, grades, and classes of plastics within each
readily, if at all. Thermosettings are so hard that they major group that you cannot rely only on the
resist the penetration of a knife blade; any such recognition of a trade. Use the appropriate federal
attempt will dull the blade. If the plastic is immersed supply catalog to cross reference the military
in hot water and allowed to remain, it will neither (MIL-P-XXXX) or federal (FED-L-P-XXXX)
absorb moisture nor soften. designations to the correct procuring data for the
Thermoplastics, on the other hand, become soft Federal Supply System.
and pliable, or even melt when they are exposed to
heat. When cooled, they retain the shape they took MACHINING OPERATIONS
under the application of heat. Some thermoplastics
will even absorb a small amount of moisture, if they Since machining operations on plastics call for
are placed in hot water. A knife blade will cut easily you to cut parts from sheet or rod stock, use various
into thermoplastics. metal-cutting saws; remove stock from parts by
When you test a plastic by inserting it into a fire, rotating tools as in a drill press or a milling machine;
be careful, because thermoplastics will burst into cut moving parts with stationary tools, as on a lathe;
sudden intense flame and give off obnoxious gases. If and do finishing operations.
you use the fire test, be sure to hold the plastic piece
well away from you. Sawing

MAJOR GROUPS You can use several types of saws—bandsaw,

jigsaw, circular saw—to cut blanks from plastic stock.
You don’t need to know the exact chemical Watch the saw speed carefully. Since the plastic will
composition of the many plastics in existence. But, it not carry away most of the heat generated, there is
will help if you have a general idea of the composition always danger that the tool will overheat to the point
of the plastics you are most likely to use. Table 3-4 that it will burn the work.
provides information on some groups of plastics that
a machinery repairman may use. Drilling
Laminated plastics are made by dipping,
spraying, or brushing flat sheets or continuous rolls of In drilling plastics, back the drill out frequently to
paper, fabric, or wood veneer with resins, and then remove the chips and cool the tool. A liberal
pressing several layers together to get hard, rigid, application of coolant will help keep the drill cool. To
structural material. The number of layers that will be get a smooth, clean hole, use paraffin wax on the drill.

3-15
Table 3-4.—Major Groups of Plastic

3-16
Table 3-4.—Major Groups of Plastic—Continued

3-17
Lathe Operations You can remove surface scratches and pits by
hand sandpapering with dry sandpaper of fine grit.
Lathe operations are about the same for plastics as You also can wet-sand by hand, with water and
for metals. The difference is in the type of tool and abrasive paper of fine grade. If you need to remove a
the manner in which it contacts the work. For large amount of material, use sanding wheels or disks.
plastics, set the tool slightly below center. Use
cutting tools with zero or slightly negative back rake. After you have removed the pits and scratches,
For both thermosettings and thermoplastics, buff the plastic. You can do this on a wheel made of
recommended cutting speeds are 200 to 500 fpm with loose muslin buffs. Use rouge buffing compounds,
high-speed steel tools and 500 to 1,500 fpm with and deposit a layer of the compound on the outside of
carbide-tipped tools. the buffing wheel. Renew the compound frequently.

Finishing Operations When you buff large, flat sheets, don’t use too
much pressure, and don’t hold the work too long in
Plastics must be finished to remove tool marks one position. When buffing small plastic parts, be
and produce a clean, smooth surface. Usually, careful that the wheel does not seize the piece and pull
sanding and buffing are sufficient for this purpose. it out of your grasp.

3-18