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dbaut auq ua Re aomg circle l it e rat ure

TH I N K I N G ,
FE E LI N G ,

DO I N G

B

E

. W . S CRI PTU RE , PH D . . ( LE I PZ I G )

D i r e ct o r f th e
o P sy c h o log i c al Labo rat o ry in Yale Un iv e rsity .

FLOO D AN D V I N CE N T
i b: (dtbaut au qu a m ut urp 1mm
G z

M E A D V I LLE P E NN A
1 50 FI FT H AV E N E W Y O R K
.

1 89 7

4 5 9 a
MAY 1 8

BJ
se as
T PRE FACE

A FE LL OW PS YCH O LO G I ST said to me o ne day, Are yo u no t

af
rai d that all this accu rate an d fin e w o rk in the lab o rat o ry w ill

scare aw ay t h e p u b lic ? Th is b o o k is t h e an sw e r . Yo u m y ,

de ar re ade r, an d I , hav e no t im e , i n cl in at io n ,
or m e an s to
spe n d ye ars in st u dyi n g lab o rato ry
t h e de tails O f th e p h ysi cal
o r t h e O b se rv at o ry ye t w e b o th e nj o y an ac co u n t o f t h e l at e st
,

advan c e s o f e l e c t ri c it y b y a sp e c ialist in p h ysi cs o r a se ri e s O f


ne w p h o t o grap h s O f t he m o o n b y an ast ro n o m e r . Life is so

sh o rt t ha at le arn o n l y o n e thin g w e ll w he th e r it b e
m an can ,

th e b e st m e t ho d o f dye i n g cam b ri c o r t h e m o st e f fic i e n t co n
stru c t io n O f l o co m o t iv e s Th e b o tan ist is q u i t e at h o m e w it h
.

t h e p lan ts b u t is o rdi n aril y as igno rant O f p sych o l o gy as a


sto c k b ro k e r
-
if n o t m o re so

Th e m at h e m atic ian l e arns
.

so m e se ct io n O f m at h e m at ics b u t w o u l d b e j u st as aw k w ard
,

at a c he m i cal an alysis as an y o t h e r o u tside r We all b e l o n g .

t o t he gre at p u bl ic e xce p t in re gard t o t he part ic u l ar h an di


w o rk trade O r sc i e n c e t hat e ac h k n o w s so m e t hin g ab o u t
, , .

And ye t w e are all i n t e re st e d in h e ari n g ab o u t a n ew


s e nc e
c i The re is no thin g t o o go o d fo r th e p u bl ic fo r
.

yo u an d fo r m e th e fin e r t he w o rk , t h e m o re n o ve l t h e in v e n
i
t o n, or t he m o re im p o rtan t t he disco v e ry, t he g re at e r t h e du ty
O f te ll in g it t o l li t t
th e p u b c in an gu ag e ha can b e u n de rst o o d .

l i i
Th e gre at e st O f p sycho o g sts, Wu n dt , has w r t t e n a se rie s Of

le ctu re s o n p syc ho lo gy ( lat e l y t ran slat e d in to E n glish ) b u t t he ,

styl e an d t h e m att e r are f u ll y i n t e ll igi bl e o n l y t o th o se w h o are

al re ady so m e w hat f am ili ar w i t h t h e sc i e n ce N O o n e e l se has .

p ro du c e d a b o o k e xp lai n in g t h e m e t h o ds an d re su l t s o f t h e
n e w p syc h o l o gy This is m y re aso n fo r w ri t i n g o n e
. .

T his is th e first b o o k o n t he n e w o r e xpe rim e n tal p sych o l o gy


, ,

w ritt e n in t h e E n glish lan gu age That it h as b e e n w ri t te n


.

e xp re ssly fo r th e p e op le w ill I h o p e b e tak e n as e v ide n ce o f


, ,

t he att i tu de O f t h e sc i e nce in its de sire t o se rv e h u m an i ty .

I n o n e re sp e ct I hav e de p art e d w i de l y fro m t h e u su al w rit e rs


i ii
iv P reface .

on p y
s c h o o l
gy ; I h a v e w ritt e n p l , e v e ry day E n gl ish an d
ain -

n o t t rie d t o c l o t h e m y ign o ran c e in t h e m ult i tu din o u s



have
syllab ificat io n s an d fran go m axillary co m bi n at i o ns that pass as
p h il o so p h i c E ng li sh .
CO N TE N TS .

WAT C H I N G AN D T E S TI N G ; OR O BS E RV ATI O N
AN D E X PE R I M E NT
T I M E AN D A C TI O N
RE AC TI O N T I M E
-

TH I N K I N G- TIME
S T E A D I N E SS AN D CO N T R O L
PO WE R AN D WI LL
A TT E N T I O N
T O UC H
H O T AN D COL D
S M E L L AN D T AS T E
H E AR I N G
COL O R
COL O R S E N S IT I V E N E SS
S E E I N G WI T H O N E E YE
S E E I N G WI T H TWO E YE S
FE E LI N G
E MOTION
ME M O R Y
R H YT H M I C A C TI O N
SUGG E S TI O N AN D E X PE C TATI O N

MAT E R I A LI S M AN D S P I R I TUAL I SM I N PS Y
C H O LO G Y

XXI I . TH E N E W PS YC H O LO GY
LI S T O F I LLUS TRATI O N S .

The A m e ri can Flag .

FI GU R E .

I . An E xe rc ise in O b se rvatio n
An E xe rc ise in ! u ic k O b se rvatio n
Ap p arat u s fo r R e co rding T im e
A Sp e c im e n R e c o rd
Po sitio n Re ady fo r a Re co rd
M e asu ri n g the Sim u ltan e ity I n Actio ns O f a P
.

iano
p l aye r .

Re su lt O i t he E xp e ri m e nt
I n fl u e n c e O f Fat igu e o n Tapp i n g tim e -

I n fl u e n c e O f M e ntal Ac t i v i ty o n Tap p i n g tim e


-

Rap i dity O f Tapp in g as D e p e n de nt o n Age


Fat igu e in Tapp in g as D e p e nde nt o n Age
A Se rie s O f R e ac t i o ns
Chain re ac t i o n
-

I n th e R e acti o n ro o m-

Re act i o n ke y
-

Re actio n t o So u n d
Th e Pi st o l ke y
-


The R u n n e r s Ke y

Me asu rin g a Ru n n e r s R e act i o n tim e -

The To u ch - ke y
Re acti o n t o To u ch
A Re ac t io n t o Co ld
Re actio n t im e De cre ase s w ith Age
-

Th e V o i c e k e y
-

St rict ly Fo rce d Asso c iat i o ns


Me asu ring M e n tal an d Muscu lar Time in Fe n cmg
App arat u s fo r M e asu ri n g Rap idi ty o f Tho u ght an d
Ac ti o n 58
M e asu ri n g h o w Rap idly a Pu gilist Thinks an d Acts 59
Me asu ring h o w Fast a D o g Thin ks 60
vi i
viii List of I llu stratio ns .

FI GU E
R .

T im e O f T ho u ght Scho o l Ch ildre n


in
Tak i n g a R e co rd O f St e adi n e ss

A rran ge m e n t O f Cap su l e s f
o r S t e adi n e ss u n de r G u i d

an ce O f t h e E ye
A R e co rd O f Ste adin e ss

R e co rdin g a S p o rts m anUn ste adine ss
s

St e adine ss in S tan din g


St u dyin g t h e T re m bl ing O f th e H and
Stu dyi n g t h e Ste adin e ss O f t h e To ngu e
St e adin e ss-gau ge .

M e asu rin g St e adin e ss an d Att e n ti o n .

R e su lt O f E du catin g At te n t io n t o the Arm


Te stin g Ste adin e ss in Si n gin g
S in gi n g th e O ctave
Si n gin g t h e D u o de c im e
Si n gi n g t h e Fifth
Singing th e Fo urth
Sin g in g t he Thi rd
Sp rin g Dyn amo m e t e r
We ig ht j u dg m e n ts in Sc ho o l Ch il dre n
-

I nfl u e nc e O f P it ch o n t h e Po w e r O f G rasp
Dyn am o g raph
G rip O f th e H an d b y an H yste ri c al P e rso n .

Su cce ssive Sq u e e z e s du ring R inging O f a Go n g an d


du rin g Sile n ce
S tro n ge st Co n t racti o ns w h il e Lo o king at D ifle re n t
'

Co l o rs
I n fl u e n ce O f M u sk
Fo c u s an d Fie ld O f Atte nt io n
Fat ig u ing Att e nt io n P re parat o ry t o H ypn o t ism
To u ch we igh ts fo r Fin din g th e Th re sho l d
-

Finding the Th re sh o l d fo r th e Palm O f th e H an d


An E xp e rim e n t in Ti c kl ing
Fi n ding the Le ast N o tice ab le Chan ge in Pre ssu re
S im pl e E sth e sio m e te r
Th e Co m p l e t e E sth e si o m e t e r

Te sti n g a Chil d s I de a O fSkin space -


A risto tl e s I ll u sio n
Lip I ll u sio n
List of I llu stration s . ix

FI GU E R . GE
PA

66 . Space as E sti m ate d b y a To o th unde r T re atme nt


67 . A Co l d po t Map
-s

68 A H o t -spo t Map .

Fin ding t he H o t an d Co ld Spo ts


.

69 .

7O . Bo ili n g a Fro g With o u t H is Kn o wI n g it


7I . Olfact o m e t e r o r S m e ll m e asu re r
,
-

72 . Alt e m atio n O f Odo rs .

73 . Giant Fo rk fo r Findi n g t h e Lo w e st Au dib le To ne .

74 . Wh istl e fo r D e t e rm in in g t he H i ghe st Au di b l e T o ne .

75 . The H ighe st Au dib le To ne as De p e nde nt o n I n


t e n sity .

76 . Fo rks O f Adj u stable Pitch fo r Fin ding the Le ast


N o t i c e ab l e D ifle re n c e
77 Th e T o ne t e ste r
-

E rro r I n H e aring D e c re ase s w i t hA


.

78 .
ge
79 . Ap parat u s fo r Finding t h e M i ddl e To ne .

80 . Fin din g the Thre sho ld o f I n te n sity fo r H e arI n g


81 . M e t ho d O f I n dicati n g I nt e nsity in N o t e s
82 . Se rie s O f N o te s acco rding t o D u rat io n
83 . Th e Co lo r to p -

84 . T e
h C o l o r-w he e l
85 . Pu tt ing TWO Di sks To ge th e r
86 . TWO Di sks w ith Scale
87 . D iagram matic Arrange m e nt O f the Co l o rs
88 . Th e Co l o r c o n e - .

89 . Th e G rays
90 . Sp e ct ru m fro m a G rating
9 1 . Th e Co olr-t rian
g e l
92 M i xing Ye llo w an d B l u e
Ch il dre n hav e Fin e r E ye s fo r Co lo r as the y
.

93 . G ro w
O l de r .

'

94 . Disk t o I ll u strate th e E fle c t O f Co nt rast


95 . G e t ti n g t h e G ray E q u at io n
96 . Th re e -co l o r Pe rso ns
97 . Re d b lin d P e rso ns
-

98 . G re e n blind Pe rso n s
-

99 . O n e c o l o r Pe rso ns
-

I OO . Pe ri m e t e r fo r Me asu rI n g t h e Fi e l d O f Vi sio n
,

Pe ri m e t e r Chart fo r Co l o rs
x List f
o I llu stratio n s .

FI GU E
R .

Findi n g t he Bli n d S p o t
-

P u tt in g a White Circl e on the Bli n


d-Sp o t .

Th e Circl e is R e p lac e d b y t he Co l o rs
What w ill hap p e n n o w ?
Th e R e su lt
B
.

A P u z z l e r fo r th e lin Sp o t
d -

B l -S o t P re t e n ds t o R e ad
T e
h in d p
Te st fo r E ye S te adin e ss
-

a
.

What th e E ye Co nside rs t o b e E q u l Di n
sta ce s

A M isp lace d Lin e


I ll u sio n O f th e I n t e rru p te d Distance
I ll u si o n Fille d Spac e
Of

A M i sp lac e d Line
A M i splac e d L in e
Th e I n t e rru pt e d Di stance
Th e Di sto rt e d S q u are s
A M isp lac e d Line
Th e E n large d Angl e
D isp lac e m e n t b y Incline d Line s
A Ti pp e d Li n e
B re ak ing Paralle l Li n e s
Tip p ing Paralle l Line s .

B e n ding St raigh t Lin e s


Chan g ing t h e Le n gt h O f a Line b y D ifle re n t C
'

ro ss

lin e s .

I ll u sio n O f t h e Cri n o line


We E sti mate b y A re as
Why the B icycle Gi rl App e ars S O Sho rt
The At t rac te d D o ts
An O v e rh an gi n g Co rn ice o r a Stairw ay ? , .

I ll u si o n O f t h e Ye o m e n O f t h e G u ard
Shap e Of the S ky
The M o o n I llu si o n
B o o k S e e n w ith t h e R igh t E ye
B o o k S e e n w ith th e Le ft E ye
Th e R e al B o o k
Bo o k as Act u ally S e e n
Pu t t h e B ird I n th e Cage b y B in o c u lar Vis
io n .

Th e Prism S te re o sco p e
List of I llu stratio n s . xi

FI GU E
R . PA GE
The Bo o k Ste re o sco pe
Act io n O f th e B o o k St e re o sco p e
Tw o Li ke Pi c t u re s
Un li ke Pi ct u re s t o b e Co m b in e d
P ro m e the u s
The Cro ss
Cro sse dDisp ari ty
Uncro sse d D isp arity
Wdhat w e w o u ld E xp e c t w h e n Lo o ki n g at th e Farthe r
.

En
What w e w o u ld E xp e ct w h e n Lo o ki n g at th e N e are r
E nd
What w e w o u ld E xp e c t w he n Lo o k ing at th e M i ddle
What w e Actu ally S e e .

The Slant L i n e
Th e P yram idal Bo x
Th e Fu nn e ls
The Crystals
Th e M u lt i ple Star
Th e Co m p l icat e d Pyram i ds
Th e Th re ad Fi gu re
B ino c u lar Stri fe
B ino cu lar Lu ste r

A B i n o c u lar I ll u strati o n t o M il t o n s Paradi se L o st
Single Sym m e t ry H o ri z o ntal
,

Sin gle S ym m e t ry V e rtical


,

Do u b le Sym m e try
Th re e fo ld Sym m e try
Fo u rfo ld Symme try .

E i gh tfo ld Sym m e try


Pe rfe ct b u t S im p le Symm e t ry I n All D
.

, ,
i re cti o ns
Co m b inatio ns O f Sym m e t ry
Law Of Ple asi n g R e lati o ns O f th e Dim e nsi o ns Ofa

Re ctan gle .

Chan ge l
O f P u se as a R e su lt O f Ple asu re .

Chan ge O f P u lse as a R e su lt O f An ge r .

Chang e O f P u l se as a R e su lt O f Fri gh t

So rro w
Jy
o
xii List of I llu stratio n s .

FI GU E R .
GE
PA

1 76 . An ge r
1 77 . Fright .

1 78 . V e ry Do u btful
A Le af fro m Dai sy 8 Co p y b O

1 79 . Ok -
.

1 80 . Symme tri ca l an d Di re ct Cro ss m e mo ry -

1 81 . M e asure m e nts on Symm e t rical and Dire ct Cro ss


me m o ry .

1 82 . Law o f Fo rge t ting To n e s .

1 83 . Use o f th e Pun fo r M e m o ry P u rp o se s
De p e nde nce Of Ti e m e m o ry o n Age
m -

The Pne u mati c Sho e


Walking with Pn e u matic Sho e s an d R e co rding
Dru m
O
Grap hic R e co rds f Wal ing an d R u nning k .

Th e E le ct ric S ho e .

R e gu lar Re tarde d R hythm


I rre gular R e tarde d R hyth m
Re gu lar Acce le rate d Rhyt hm
I rre gular A ccu rate R h yt h m
R e gu lar Accu rate Rhyt h m
The E le ctric B at o n

Taking an O rche stra L e ade r s R e co rd
Taking a R e co rd w i th E le c tri c Dumb B e lls
Pro duc ing an H allu cin ati o n O f Warm th
'

B lo c ks fo r M e asu ring th e E fle ct Of a S u gge stI o n O f


Si z e
D e pe nde nce o f th e E fle ct of S u ggesti o n o n Age an d
Se x 268

Act u al Po siti o ns O f th e S tar at t he P e ndu lum -b e ats 273

Su ppo se d Po si ti o n s w ith V isu al Atte nt i o n 274

S u pp o se d Po sitio n s w i th Au dito ry Atte nti o n 2 74

J nn
o ha F ri e dri c h H e rb art 284

G ustav The o do r Fe chne r 28 7

H e rmann vo n H e lm ho ltz 288

Wilhe lm Wundt 289

Le ctu re -ro o m I n t h e Yale Labo rato ry


he
.

Apparatus ro om an d Sw itchbo ard hall


- - in t Yale
Laborato ry .

Wo rksho p in the Yale Labo rat o ry


TH I N K I N G, FE E LI N G, D O I N G .

CHAPT E R I .

WAT CH I N G AN D T E S T I NG ; OR O BS E R V A TIO N AN D

E X PE R I M E NT .

E YE S and N O - E yes
j ourneyed together N E yes . O -

saw only what thrust itsel f upon him E yes was on the
watch fo r everything . E yes u sed the fu n dame n tal
me tho d of all kn o w le dg e o bse rvatio n o r w atch i ng

, .

This is the first thing to b e learned the art o f watch


ing Most O f u s went to school b efore this art was cul


.

t ivat e d an d alas
, , most o f the children still go to
schools o f the same kind There are proper ways O f
.

learning to watch b ut the usual Object lessons in school


,

result in j ust the Opposite W e however cannot go a


.
, ,

step further till we have learned ho w to watch .

D O yo u wish to kno w just h o w your children play


together ? Watch them b ut watch them so that they do
,

n o t fee l your presence .

E very pu blic m an wears a mask b ecause he is watched , .

I f we wish to kno w just wh at ki n d O f a m an he is we ,

must watch him in unsuspected moments A great deal .

O fridicule has b een cast o n the reporters and enthusiasts

who rush into the roo m th at has j ust b een occupied


b y a great man in order to se e how he has left the ch airs ,

how he has treated the curtains how much s o ap he has


,

u sed or how many towels he has soiled


,
or who interview
the cashier to find out just ho w many cocktails he has con
15
Thin king . Fee ling , D o i ng .

su med In one respect these men are quite in the right


. .


They say to themselves The public is interested in ,

knowing j ust what the m an really is when he has his


mask O ff and th at is only when he is alone
, The .

m an who thoughtlessly leaves b ehind a soiled deck O f


cards a whisky b ottle and the Odor o f bad cigars must
, ,

b e quite a di fferent fello w fro m one who has h ad an


artistic dinner and a Copy O fthe latest n ovel or one who ,

has left his Bible and his spectacles on the table .

I f there is anything wrong about this it is n o t the ,

m e tho d ; j ust this method is to b e used in acquiring all


knowledge I n fact I shall want you to watch the
.
,

processes o f thinking feeli n g and doing in ex actly the , , ,

same fashion Lie in wait concealed catch your


.
, ,


process going on in a perfectly n atural w ay More .

over strange as it may seem this is the o n ly way the


, , ,

fundamental rule b eing that the act of w atchi ng m u st


n o t chan e the p e rso n o r th i n w at h d
g g c e .

It is not su fficient to know this rule we must b e con


Th e e rro r o f st an t ly on guard against several very d angerous sources
j u dice
p re .

O f error The fi rst is the error O f prejudice Grand


. .


mother M haS u sed D r Swindle s liver pills all her li fe
. .

long She always b elieved they would do her good ;


.

she remembers the do z en times sh e happened to f eel b et


ter after taking the m and forgets the hundreds O f times
S he did n o t Therefore she has facts incontestable
.

facts to prove the goodness o f the pills Possibly her



.

picture appears in the n ewsp aper with an enthusiastic


testimonial I t is u seless to attempt to convince her
.

that her method o f observation has b een vitiated b y the


e rro r of p r j u dice
e .

O f course this error is very pl ain in other people b ut


, ,

you my dear reader always judge fairly Let me w his


, , .
I Vatching
'
and Testing ,

p e r in your ear : Have you n o t some pet fad on which you


are sure yo u are right and all the rest o f the town are
wrong ?are you n o t quite sure that there is only o n e side
t o the tari f fquestion ? are yo u n o t astounded at the fact
th at some people fi nd a good side to a man yo u know

yes kno w to b e u tterly bad ? D o n t b e ashamed to con
,

fess The great scientist Faraday did


.

It is my firm .

Opinio n that no m an can examine h imselfin the most com


mon things having any reference t o h im personally o r to
any person thought or matter related to him without soo n
, ,

b eing m ade aware o f the temptation t o disb elieve co n


t rary f acts an d the difficulty o fo pposing it I could give .

y o u man y ill ustrat ions persona l t o m yse lf a b ou t atmo s

h e ric magn et ism lines o f f


or ce attraction repul sio
p , , n , ,

etc . I f Faraday coul d go wrong in this way ho w ,

careful m ust we b e in t he o bse rvation s we shall make in ,

t h e experiments we are ab ou t t o perf orm .

A nother v ery dangero us e rro r is that o f u nconsciou s Unco nscio us


addit I o n S
.

Pl ay t he gam e t wen ty qu e stions The co m pan y


of .

c hoose som e o bject and som e o n e who does n o t know

Wh at has b een chosen has t o guess it fro m the an swers


“ ”
Yes o r N O t o his questions S top him when he .

is half through and ask him t o tell yo u What he has c o n


clude d f ro m the di f feren t a n swers Yo u w ill fi nd that he
.

adds f ar m ore tha n is j usti fi ed b y t he answer t o each

q u estion F
. o r e xample so m ,e t hing chosen is n either
animal n o r m ineral it is therefore so the qu e stioner
, ,

thinks v e ge table But suppo se yo u had chosen



,a .


b uckwh eat cak es
Th is e rror is o n e o f t h e m o st tro u blesom e o n es in read

in g printer s proo f; letters and words that h ave b een
omitted b y the co mpo sitor are unconsciously supplied by
Thin king ,
Feeling , D o ing .

the reader A n author on account o f his i n terest is


.
, ,

more liable to this error than any one else he is generally


a very u nreliable proofreader -
.

A familiar case o fthis error is fou nd in the story o fthe


ten white crows which I will leave the reader to hunt up

in his old schoo l b ooks .

This source o f error as Wundt has pointed out ren


, ,

ders almost absolutely wort hless an enormous amount o f


p ainstaking work in animal psychology The facts are .

observed and collected with untiring diligence b ut the ,

critical study o f the results is generally entirely lacking .

Take fo r example a case reported b y Romanes in his


, ,

volume o n animal intelligence .

An E nglish clergym an writes concerning the funereal ‘

F u n e re a l “
b
h a its ”
o fan ts. hab i ts o fants : I h ave n o tI ce d I n one o f my fo rm I
caria a sub terranean cemetery where I have seen some ,

ants b urying their dead b y placing earth a b ove them .

One ant w as evidently much affected an d t ried to ex ,

hume the b odies ; b ut the u nited exertions o f the yellow


sextons were more than sufficient to n eutrali z e the effort

o f the disconsolate mourner .

Wundt asks H o w much is fact and how much imagi


, ,

n ation ? I r is a fact that the ants carry out o f the n est ,

deposit n ear b y and cover up dead b odies j ust as they


, ,

do anyth ing else t h at is in their way They c an then .

pas s to and fro over them without hindrance I n the o b .

served case they were evidently interrupted in this oco n


patio u b y another ant and resisted its interference The
, .

cemetery the sextons the feelings o f t he disconsolate


, ,

mourner which impelled her to exhume the b ody o f the


,

departed all this is a fiction o f the symp athetic imagi


n ation o f the o b server .

A nother friend o f ants gives this account A t one



h t hi gi c n an d Testing .

hal f a doz en or more you n g queens were out


formicary
at the same time They would clim b up a large pebble
.

near the gate face the wind and assume a rampant pos
, ,

t ure S everal having ascended t he ston e at o n e t ime


.
,

there ensued a little pl ayful passage at arms as t o posi - -

tion They n ipped e ach other gently with the m an


d ibles and ch ased o n e another f


, ro m f avorite spots .

T hey however n ever n ipped the workers


, , These l atter .

e viden tly kept a watch upon the S portive princesses


!
oc ,

casio n ally salute d them with their antenna in the u su al

way o r touched them at the abdomen b ut apparently


, ,


allowed them full liberty O f action .

The correctness o f this observation says W undt n eed , ,

n o t b e qu e stioned Why should n o t a number o fyoung


.

q ueens hav e b een crowded together upon a pebble and ,

s om e workers have b een with them an d O ccasion ally ,

t ouched t hem with their antennae as ants do everywhere ? ,

“ ”
Bu t that they sported an d played that t he o thers .
,


kept watch u pon them lik e chaperones and n o w and ,
’—
again did homage to them b y saluting all this is due

to t he imagin ation o f the o bserver H e would h ardly .

have told the story in this w ay had n o t t he suggestive


“ ”
zh ame queen b een introduced fo r the mature female

i nsects I f the adults are
. queens the young ones ,

“ ”
m ust o f course b e
, princesses to the other ants as
,

w ell as in the imagination o f the o bserver And since n o .

p rincess ev e r went out without an attend ant o r a ch ap


e rone the rest o f the t ale f
!
, ollows as a matter o f course .


I f instead o f the n ame
, queen the m ature fem ale ant ,

“ ”
had b een called by the still b etter term mother we ,

would h ave had an entirely di fferent story from the same


facts I leave it to my readers to tell it
. .

Watch Fido the pet dog at play Let your friend


, , .
Thin king , Fe eling , D o ing .

An e xpe ri m e n t
tell the story o fwhat he was doing then tell it yourself .

fo r t h e re ade r Notice how you b oth add your o w n imaginations t o t he


facts . The story as told b y a S harp b usiness man ac ,

customed to b eware o fimagination will b e quite difle re n t ,

from that o f a lady n ovel re ader steeped in romance - .

H o w eas y it is to misinterpret an ob servation if t he


very greatest care is not taken in recording it and ifit is ,

impossible t o vary the circumstances b y experimen t and


thus to obtain accurate knowledge o f the details is well ,

shown b y the following facts .

P ierre Hub er o n e o f the most reli able students o f t he


,

hab its o f ants stated that he had assured himsel f t hat an


,

ant if taken from the nest and returned after an interval


,

o ff our months was recogni z ed b y its former companions


,

fo r they received it in a friendly manner while memb ers ,

o f a di fferen t n est eve n though they b elonged t o t h e


,

same species were driven away The correctness o ft he


,
.

observation cannot b e doubted ; it has also b een con


firmed b y Lu bbock Lubb ock however made the mat
.
, ,

ter a subject o f experiment H e took an t larva fro m .

the nest and did not put them b ack till they were full y
de veloped They too w e re received in a friendly man
.
, ,

ner although there could b e no question o f resembl anc e


,

between the larva and the grown ant There m u st .


,

therefore b e some characteristic peculiar to all members


,

o f a p articul ar n est po ssibly a S pecific O dor which de


, ,


termines the friendliness o f the ants .

E very one o f my re aders is an Observer in a particular


domain o f mental life and I fear commits this error , ,

daily .

A pack o f noisy b oys is at play on the street Ask a .

crusty old bachelor to tell what they are doing Then .


ask mother who has had b oys o f he r own to tell
, ,
Wat hing
c an d Te sti ng .

t he story Yo u will b e surprised t o learn from the fo r


.

m e r wha t v illains those b oys S how themselves to b e b y



their acts whereas mother will poin t o u t to yo u ho w
,

e very m ovement o f the b oys proves them manly f el

lows .

By th e way I happen t o n otice that th e expression b y


,

w hich I have introduced the b oys to my readers contains


s uch an erro r o fprejudice th at they can readily guess the

s ort o fdescription I would write S u ppose I said and felt


.
,



A group o f m erry boys would n o t my account o f
t he very same f acts b e di fferent ?
I shall warn yo u against only o n e e rro r m ore that o f A ot h ,
n e r so u rc e

u n tru stw o rth ine ss of the se n se s as it is called Sir f .


o e rro r
.

Walter Raleigh was one day sitting at a windo w when


he o b served a man come into the courtyard and go up
t o another standing b y the door A fter a fe w words the
.

latter drew his sword t hey fell to fighting an d the first


, ,

comer w as fi nally wounded and carried o u t A person .

w ho had b ee n standing close b eside the door a f terwards


fl atly contradicted the o b servation o f Sir Walter saying ,

t hat the man at the door had n o t b ee n t h e fi rs t to draw


h is sw ord an d that it w as n o t the firs t comer who w as
wounded an d carried o u t Note the fl at contradictions
.

o f eye witnesses in the n ext trial yo u re ad ab out .

Let us n o w t ak e a fe w lessons in observing .

1 . On page 2 2 o f this b ook do n o t turn to it till I


-

h ave tol d you wh at to do you will find a fi gure Write


— .

w hat you se e . I am n o t going to tell you another thing


ab out it n o t eve n wha t the exercise is f or S how the
E xe rcise I
.

figure to other people with the same directions Com .

pare your result with theirs Just as you pro gress in


.

understan ding what t he e xercise is fo r just S O far will ,

y o u hav e profited b y it .
Thin king , Fe e ling , D o i ng .

2 On the second page from this you will fi nd a n u m


.

ber o fletters printed in a squ are Turn over the p age fo r .

just an instan t an d then close the b ook What letters .

c an you remember ? You can readily prepare a se t o f


'

cards with various co mb inations o f letters and can train


E x e rc ise II . your friends in observing Or you can use cu t letters .
,

such as go under the n ame o f l e tter ta blets Make ir -


.

regular comb inations on the table b ehind a screen o f

Fig . 1 . An E x e rc ise in Ob se rv at io n .

some kind e g a b ook snatch the b ook away fo r an


, . .
,

instant and h ave the onlookers write down the ones


,

they saw Then form words instead o f letters Yo u


. .

will n otice that people can catch almost as m any words


as they can catch disconnected letters Or you can .

write o n a slate and turn it over fo r an instant Or yo u .

can use dominoes The Italian game o f morra is fo r


.

this very purpose One person holds up a n umb er o f.

fingers suddenly fo r an instant ; the other guesses ho w


many were shown .

P l num b er f o bjects a t bl in the nex


3. ac e a o o n a e t
E xe rc I se I l l room Le t each person go in and walk once around
.

the t abl e during the time you count twenty Comin g .

out he is to write down a list o f wh at he saw .

A t fi rst yo u can catch almost n othing in these last t wo


e xercises It is very important to continue the pract ice ;
.

you cannot go too far You will b e encouraged by .

knowing that the magician Robert Houdin b egan in t he -

same way He and his so n would p ass rapidly b y a


.

S hop window an d cast an attentive glance at it A fe w


- .
steps further they noted down on paper the objects they
had caught The so n could soon write down forty o h
.

j ee rs This training was kept up till an astounding abil


.

ity w as acquired On the oc casion o f one performance


.

the so n gave the titles o f more than a dozen b ooks in


another room with the order o f arrangement on their
,

shelves He had seen them in a S ingle glance as he


.

passed rapidly through the library .

There are many women who have unintention ally edu


c at e d the m selves to a high degree o f ability in quick o h

servation It can b e safely asserted o f m any a one o f


.

them that seeing another woman pass b y in a carriage


,

at full speed she will h ave had time to analyze her


,

toil e t from her bonnet to her shoes and b e able to de ,

scribe not only the fashion and qu ality o f the stu ffs b ut ,

also say if the l ace b e real or only machine m ade I t is .

said th at when passing on the street eight women out o f


, ,

ten will turn around to se e what the other o n e wears I .

have o ften wondered at the two who did not turn around ,

b ut the reason is clear they did not need to



.

Innumerable exercises in quick and accurate observa


tion can b e u sed in direct assistance to the regular
work o f the schoolroom The spelling o f words can be.

learned b y quick glances ; the outlin e and parts o f a


country can b e taught in greater an d greater detail by
successive quick exercises a problem in mental arith
metic is to be grasped with only a momentary presenta
tion o fit an object is to be draw n fro m an instantaneous
glimp se etc etc Indeed there is not a Single school
.
, .
,

exercise that cannot be so taught as to train this ability .

In fact the Children are n aturally quicker than we su p


,

pose the m to b e it is O ften the case th at lessons o f in


t e re st to the child are c are f ully presented in such a
Thin ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

way as to actually teach him to b e S low instead o fquick .

But watching is not su fficient fo r science Learn to .

Th e arm-
c h air labor and t o wait Fo r several thousand years psy
l gy
.

p syc ho o .

c ho lo gists have b een waiting and watching it never o c


curred to them t o labor also Sitting at home in the arm
.

Ch air is ve ry pleasant b ut it is not the way t o do b usines s ,

and consequently psychology has b een going backward .

What is the reaso n th at we to -day do not k n ow how to



train a child s mind properly ? what is the reas on that

Fig . 2 . An E x e rc ise in ! u ic k Ob se rvat io n .

philology is nothing more than a f


history o word changes
-

without an attempt to explain the causes ? what is the


reason that ethics is not a science b ut a conglomeration
o f maxims ? what is the reas on — but stop I will express , ,

it all b y asking What is the reason that the mental


,

sciences to -day are two hundred years b ehind the physi

cal scien ces ? The an swer is sh arp and decisive : Be

cause the science o f mind itsel f psychology owing to , ,

the late introduction O f experiment has not achiev ed ,

the development that it should have done .

T he adve n t o f
I t is to the introduction o f experiment that we owe our
e xpe rimen t .
electric cars and lights our bridges and tall b uildings
,
,
Watching an d Te sting .

our ste m power and factories in fact every p article o f


a -
, ,

our modern civilization th at depends on m aterial goods .

It is to the l ack o f experiment that we must attribute the


medieval condition o f the mental sciences .

I n ordin ary observation we wait fo r things to happen


in one w ay or another ; possibly they never happen in
j ust the circumstances most favorable fo r studying them .

I n an experiment we arrange the Circumstances so th at


the thing will happen as we wish H o w good is the .

m emo ry o f a certain child ? We might wait a long time


b efore he h appened to perform some memory exercise
th at would exactly answer the question Instead o f this .

we experiment on him b y giving him lines o ffigures sets ,

o f syll ables words etc till we know in j ust Wh at con


, , .
,

dition his memory is Galilei would never h ave disco v


.

ered the law o f falling bodies if he had not m ade the ex


rim e n t
p e .

Va ry ly on on e ci rcu mstan ce at a
wi sh to ti me . I f you

fi nd ho w strong a child s memory is at di fferent times o f
the day you should not m ake the morning test with
,

words and the next with figures There might b e a dif .

ference due to the ch ange from words to figures an d you ,

would suppose this di fference to be due to the time o f


day .

E xperiments be divided into three grades ( I )


c an .

Te sts .The test is the simplest form and is an answer to


the question I S somet hing so or not so ? The usu al test
,

o n hypnotized persons is pricking them with a pin to see

whether they feel or do not ; b y flashing a light we de


term ine whether a person is b lind or not ( 2 ) ! u alitative .

e xp e ri me n ts By these we aim to answer the question


.
,

Wh at ? I n experiments on the emotions we ask what


bo dily processes ch ange with them Given a person who .
26 Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

can see to determine what he can se e we make e xp e ri


ments fo r color blindness ( 3 ) ! u an titative experime n ts
- . .

How much ? is the question we ask in this case H o w .

small a di fference can you detect ?ho w m any syllables


can you remember ? how S h arp is your vision ? This is

the highest class o f experiments they are scientific ex


p e rim e n t s in the f
ull sense o fthe word .

The objection is sometimes m ade that experiments in


thinking feeling etc are physical an d not men t al This
, , .
, .

con fuses the means with the thing the tools with the ,

work done The apparatus is physical b ut your ac


.
,

curacy o fjudgment your suggestibility your power o f


, ,

will are mental


,
.

It is perhaps advisable here to warn my readers against


the unjustifiable application o fthe term experiment t o
hypnotic exhibitions to thought transference follies and
,
-
,

to the so called psychical research experimen ts These


- .

amusements are as unrelated to scientific experiments as


clairvoyant healing or faith cure to the science o f medi
-

Ci ne .
CHAPT E R I I .

T I M E AN D A CT I O N .

WH AT is the difference between a bicycle rider and a


locomotive ? The human body closely resembles a com A co n u n dru m .

plicated machine A m an is the counterp art o f an e n


.

gine food is shoveled into the mouth o f the furnace an d


is oxidized i e burned in the b ody producing heat
, . .
, , , .

I n the engine the heat isturned into motion b y means o f


steam ; the steam pushes the piston which moves a series ,

o f levers I n the body the s ame result is reached in ah


.

other way b y muscular contraction ; the muscles o f the


leg fo r example move the complicated system o f levers


, ,

f orm ed by the b ones .

I f a locomotive is turned loose on the track a run


away as the engineers Call it it keeps right o n till the


,

fuel is b urned out o r it meets with a smash ifthe steam


is turned o ff it will stand motionless where you leave it
,
.

Not so the man he acts o f his o w n accord an d you can


n ever b e sure o fwhat he will do next The man or the Th .
l
e so u t io n.

b icyclist cannot be a mere m achine there must be a gov


ern ing power corresponding to the engineer on the loco
motive This governing power in man is the mind ; it is
.

j ust this power co ncerning which we are to busy ourselves .

After all the bi cyclist does not resemble the locomotive


,

till an engineer is put o n The answer to our con n u .

drum is therefore the engi neer


, ,
.

Among the many pro blems in the science o f mind we


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

naturally turn fi rst to that o f w illing an act Why does .

Willing . an d its your hand move ? AS long as you had n o will to move
I

l
it it remained st ill ; b ut when you willed t o move it it
, ,

moved It I s the will to move which preceded the act o f


.

moving There is evidently some relation b etween the


.

will and the act .

Raise your h and Did the hand move w he n you


.

willed it to do so ? or w as the h and a trifle b ehind time ?


Here we h ave at the outset a knotty problem which all
the discussion o f a dozen arm chair psychologists could
-

not solve Apparently the will and the act occur at the
.

s ame moment ; b ut we h ave grown so distrustful o f ap



p are n t ly and evidently th at we must rem ain in

doubt till the cas e is proven o n e way or t he Other by ex


rim e n t
p e .

Here we have an example o f how all psychological


progress is limited to the invention o f experimental
methods and app aratus The question j ust stated can
.

be answered b ecause a method o f experiment has b een


devised ; when the answer comes there is a further ,

quest ion which we at once ask b ut this one cannot b e


,

answered till some o n e finds the means o f experiment .

Since the question as to time has been raised b efore ih ,

quiring what the answer and the second question are yo u ,

must learn how to measure time .

Fo r the purpose o f measuring sm all intervals o f tim e


one o f the most convenient methods is the graphic
method Being one o f the most b eautiful and accurate
.

methods o f experiment it is extensively employed in


,

physics ast ronomy physiology and psychology


, , , .

The fi rst thing to b e done is to se t up a tuning fork -

not a little o n e such as musicians carry in the pocket


, ,

but one a foot long vibrating one hundred times a


,
Time an d Actio n .

s econd By mean s o f a battery and a magn et this fork


.

is kept going o fitsel fas long as we pl e ase The prongs .

o f the f ork move up and dow n o n e hundred times a


second E very time the lower prong moves dow nward
. ,
K o w tke y wo rk .

a point o n the end


clips into a cup o f

mercury whereby
,

an electric circuit is
closed This elec
.

tric circuit passes


through a little in
strument c a l l e d a
time -marker which ,

mak e s a light pointer


move back and forth
Fig 3 Ap pa at us fo Reco di g T im r r r n e.
also one hundred . .

times a second The point o f the time -marker rests o n


.

a surface o f smoked paper o n a cylindrical drum The .

smoked paper is prepared b y stretchin g ordinary glazed


paper around the drum and holding a smoky gas o r
be nzine flame under it A soft black su rface is thus o h
.

t ain e d in which the point o f the marker scratches a line


,

as the drum is turned .

When the time marker is not connected with the fork


-
T e reco rd an d
,
h
t
I s p res e rva
i
t on .

Fig .
4 . A S pe cime n Reco rd .

the point draws a straight line as the drum turns ; b ut


as soo n as connection is made it vib rates and draws a ,

wavy line Fig 4 S hows ho w the marker makes waves


. . .

To pre serve the reco rd i e t o keep the smoke from, . .


,
Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

rubbing o ff the paper is cut from the drum run through


, ,

a varnish and dried the result b eing wh at might well be


, ,

called a study in black and White .

Now ifthe point o f the marker moves back and forth


,

Re adin g t he j ust o n e hundred times a second each complete wave


re c o rd. ,

must mean rim o f a second Consequently if a dot b e .


,

placed on the line at the moment I move my finger and


another at the moment I move my foot as is illustrated ,

in Fig 4 I can tell just ho w much time elapsed b e


.
,

tween the two movements b y counting the waves and


the fraction o fa wave Thus the two dots are distant b y .

seven whole waves and five tenths o f a wave extra the


time is therefore 7Thundredths o f a second o r
, , ,

I n m aking careful records in the laborato ry it is need


fu l to count in thousandths o f a second b ut there is so ,

mu ch uncertainty ab out the last figure th at in the fi nal


statement o fresults it is not only unnecessary to state the
thousandths b u t it is also misle ading on account o f the
,

f alse degree o f accuracy implied We will therefore use .

hundredths o f a second to count by I n order to s ave .


the multitude o f o s an d decim al points let u s introduce
the S ign 2 to in dicate hundredths o f a second just as ,

indicates degrees We will call the S ign


. S igm a .

Thus instead o f we write 4 27 .

We can always tell the time consumed if we can get


Th e t wo do ts
the two dots But how do we put dots on the line when
.

things occur ? That is j ust the di fficult point ; b ecause


we can find no method o f making a dot at the moment
o f willing we cannot tell just when the willing occurs
, .

We h ave however found a way o f making dots when


, ,

most acts are performed .

Suppose we wish to make a dot when a fi nger is


moved The finger is placed on the b utton o f a S pecial
.
Ti me an d Actio n .

telegraph key so arranged that the slightest movement


,

o fthe finger b reaks an electric c ircuit This electric cir .

cuit runs through a l arge


co il o f wire which m akes
a spark whenever the cir
c u i t i s b ro ke n Tw o .

wires run from this spark


coil o n e to the drum an d
,

the other to a metal point


Fig 5 Ready f a R d . . or ec o r .

resting o n the smoked


p aper Whenever a sp ark is m ade it j umps through
.
,

the p aper scattering the smoke an d m aking a white dot


,
.

In Fig 4 t he metalli c point w as the time marker itself


.
-
.

It is evident that every tim e we move the fi nger a dot is


made .

W e wish n o w to find out if when we will to mov e


, , ,

Fig . 6 . M e asu rin g l


t h e S im u tan e it y in Act io ns o fa Pian o -p layer .
Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

the two corresponding fi ngers o f the two hands at t he


same m o ment they really do move as intended o r if o n e
,

is b ehind the other To do t his we .

I ts l
so u t io n . must h ave t w o keys t wo sp ark coils
-
, ,

an d t w o metal points one e ach S ide ,

o f the time line The plan o f th is - .

Fig 7 R
. lt f t h E x arrangement is S hown in Fig 6
e su o e . .

p e im t i Fig 6
r en Th
n
igh t h a d ( p p d t i W he n the fi ngers move t wo sparks
. .

r n u er o s ,
f d
iii: it a i ghgt)
ec
e o ve fl y through th e paper and t wo white
.

dots are m ade D o they o ccur at the same moment ? .

A specimen record is show n in Fig 7 . .

Thus the will to move b oth h ands at the sam e time t e


su lts in moving the two at di f ferent times A careful ih .

v e st igat io n S hows that sometimes the right precedes ,


'

sometimes the left in irregu lar order The difle re n ce , .

frequently amou nts to 1 2 and in a condition o f f atigu e

m ay reach 5 27 The di f ference may seem small


. But .
,

fo r example the ear is very sharp and there are people in


,

the world w ho intending to strike the keys O f a pian o


,

S imultaneously generally hit one S lightly behind t he


,

other with a difference su fli cie n t to b e heard I nstead o f .

pl aying musi c as written such persons play fo r example , , ,

P ract ic a l T here might b e an education al value in using t his


ap p l i at i
c o n s. method with many persons who cannot move two parts
o f the b ody at nearly the same time Various exercis es .
Time an d Act ion .

u sed in preparing speakers an d actors e g S imultane , . .


,

ous movements o f head and h and could b e readily re


,

corded .

It is sufficient fo r p ract I cal purposes that the difference


in time S hould not be noticeable . This is cared fo r by
the instructor It is to b e rememb ered however th at
.
, ,

di fferences which the instructor m ay not notice will n ever


t h e le ss b e n oticed b y m any o f the audien ce Fo r ex .

ample the error o fS imultaneity in piano -playing might


,

readily be great enough to produce a disagreeable im


pression on a l arge part o f the audience and yet be so

small as to have escaped the teacher s correction .

Although such me ans o f testing S imultaneity would be


desirable fo r every p I an o -player it is o f course im prac
, , ,

i
t c a b le to provide smoked drums spark coils etc fo r
,
-
, .
,

general use We must wait till some ingenious mechanic


.

invents a hand arrangement to place directly on the piano


keys .

We have thus answered our question Since when .


,

we will to move two hands at the s ame time the actual ,

m ovements occur at di f ferent times therefore o n each


,

o ccasion the act o fat least o n e h and is later tha n the will .

As t here is no reaso n to suppose that there is any radical


di fference b etween the t w o hands it would b e u nj u st ifi
,

able to draw any other conclusion than that the act is al


ways b ehind the will .

A nd n o w fo r the second question How much is the . H ow m u ch

act b ehind t he will ? Fo r the correct answer we must


wait until the experimenter can fi nd it .

This question is such an important o n e that w e are


forced to m ake a gu ess at it merely in order to get along

with people The time must be as we can judg e from
.


l e ss than I o r 1 00 23 ; an d since
o u r own experience —
, ,
Thin king , Fe e ling , D o i ng .

one second is not worth noticing in ordinary matters o f


life we can n eglect th e time entirely This does n o t
, .

hold good in extreme cases W ith persons influenced by.

curare the act does not follow at all ; in some diseases the
act is much b ehind time But fo r m any practical pur
.

poses the act can b e considered as occurring at the mo


ment o fwilling Such a case is that o f rapidly repeated
.

movements which we will now consider


, . .

A l arge portion o f the community depends on the


rapidity with which it can will and execute certain acts .

One o fthe e le m e n tS o fa good telegrapher is his accuracy


'

and rapidity o f tapping .

The experiments o n tapping are most accurately


made by the sp ark method we h ave j ust described The .

finger is pl aced on a telegraph key as shown in Fig 5 , . .

The person is told to t ap as rapidly as he can Series .

o f sp arks fly o f f the end o f the point o f the time


m arker in Fig 3 On counting up the records we o h
. .

tain the n umber o f hundredths o f a second fo r each t ap .

A good average rate is per t ap or nearly seven ,

taps to the second .

The fastest tapping recorded is given as follows


Middle finger
H and 7 2 .

Tongue 7 2 .

Jaw I I 2
.

Foot 1 I
V

second ) .

F at ig
ue . The rapidity o f tapping decreases with fatigue Fig . .

8 represents the results o f a continuous series o f t aps ,

the lower the line the faster t he tap the straight hori
z o n t al line corresponds to a t ap -time o f 1 5 2 and the

S hort Checks on this line m ark Off the seconds At first .


Tim e an d Actio n .

t he
tapping is rather irregular but it ,
is on the whole very
rapid o n e t a
, p time b eing only 1 1 3 -
. The tapping soon

Fig . 8 . I n fl u en c e of Fat ig ue o n Tappi g-tim


n e.

b ecomes steadier an d rem ains rapid fo r about seventeen


s econds After th at it is somewhat Slower and more ir
.

regul ar owing probably to f


, ati gue .

The mental condition h as a mo st powerful influence on


t he rapidity o f tapping E xcitement m akes the tapping .

m ore rapid The influence o f distracti on o f attention


.

is shown in Fig 9 This figure has the same meaning


. .

as Fig 8 . Adding 2 1 4 and 2 3 produced a m arked


.

slowness in tapping ; so did the mental l abor o f multi

p lying 1 4 by 5 It take s some e f


fo rt f
o r an.ordin ary

Fig .
9 . I n fl u e nce of M en tal Activ it y o n Tapp ing-t ime .

m an to perform these c alculations an d the mental work ,

o f associ ation seemed to leave less energy f o r the work

o f wi ll . The thought suggests itself o f the possibility


o f measuring the amount o f work involved in v arious

s chool exercises by the influence on t apping .

The figure seems to show th at momenta ry distractions


n o t involving any work such as whistling clicking the , ,

t ongue o r lighting a match do not ch ange the rapidity


, , .

They do however improve the reg u lar ity ; the curve


, ,

is smoother It is a noteworthy fact in all our mental


.

l i fe th at the less attention we p ay to an act the more ,

regular it is .

The rapidity o f tapping varies with the time o f day I fl .


n u e n ce o ft h e
The averages o f six weeks o f work gi v e the following “m e O f day o
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

results : at 8 a m t he t ime required fo r m aking 300


. .

taps is at 1 0 a m . at 1 2 m
.
, at 2 .
,

p m
. .
, at 4 p m . at 6 p m
.
, . .
,

I t is noticeable that t hese results correspo nd to t he


I n fl u e n ce o f hab its o f t he pre
h a it b .
v io n s t w o years o f

t he person e xp e ri
m e n te d upon these
years were spent in
pub lic S chool work
with a daily pro
gram b eginning at
8 a I n and closing . .
.

at 4 p m with an . . .
,

hour and a hal f in


Fig 0 Rapidity f Tapp i g as D e pe nd t
. 1 . o n en
on Age .
t e rm issio n at n oon
The rapidity o f action increases steadily with age .

f
Measurements o tappi g time o n o n e hundred New
n -

Haven school chil


dren o f e a c h a g e
f ro m S ix t o seven

teen are S hown in


Fig I O
. The fig.

ures at the left giv e


the number o ftaps
in fiv e s e c o n d s ;
those at the b ottom
the ages The little Fig 1 1 Fatigu e i Tap in as De pen dent
.

p g
. . n
on Are
children are very
S low the boys at each age tap much faster t han the girls .

I n these experiments the children continued tappin g


Fat igue .
after t he five seconds After tapping thirty-five seconds
.

'

longer a reco rd was again taken The difle re n ce betwe e n .


Ti me an d Actio n .
37

t he two sets o f records tells how much the child lost


o wing to f atigu e The results are S hown in Fig 1 1
. . .

The figures o n the left give the percentage o floss ; those


a t the b otto m the ages . Thus at six years o f age the
,

b oys lost 12695 o r 2 3 per cent o f the origin al num b er o f


,

t aps .

The amount o f fatigue w as greatest at eight years


a n d decreased with advancing age It is v ery t e
.

m arkabl e that without exception o f a single age the


g irls were les s f
atigued t ha n the boys A comparison
.

o f the t w o fi gures suggests a conclusion as to the im

p e tu o sit y o f the b oyish cha r acter


.
CHAPT E R III .

R E A CT I ON— TI M E .

WH E N you signal to the car conductor to stop he t e ,

acts by pulling the bell strap the driver reacts t o t he


-
,

sound o f the bell by pulling t he reins and the horses ,

react by coming to a rest By reaction then we will


.
, ,

understand action in response t o a sign al The tim e .

betw een the moment o f the S ignal and the m omen t


o f the act is know n as the react ion -time .

Is th e re any such time ? Quick as thought— that m ust


be pretty quick Let a n umber o f persons stand in I n
.

'
dian file as if ab out t o march ; each o n e places his right
hand on the head ( or shoulder ) o f the person in front .

Fig . 1 2. A S e rie s o f React io n s .

Bend the file around till a complete circl e is forme d with


every righ t hand o n t he head o f t he o n e in fio n t O n e '
.

t han d
o f this file we will cal l the experime n ter ; in his lef

he holds a watch preferably a stop watch All the rest


— -
.

close their eyes The instruction is given : W henever yo u


.

38
R e actio n Time .
39

eel
f a sudden pressure from the hand o n your head you ,

must immediately press the head o f the person in front .

When the second hand o f the watch is at the beginning


-

o fa minute the experimenter presses the head o fthe one


,

in front he presses that o f the next in front and so on


, , .

The pressure thus p asses all around the group an d fin ally


comes b ack t o the e xperimenter A t the moment he .

feels the pressure he notes h o w many seconds h ave passed .

Suppose there were t e n persons in the circle and the

Fig . 1 3. Ch ain-rea ct io n .

watch has gone three seconds then three seconds is the


time required fo r ten acts in response to a signal The .

average time f o r o n e reaction is obtained by dividing the

number o fseconds by the number o fpersons thus in this ,

3
case the reaction time would be 1 1: second or o 3
-
,
.
3
.

Almost all the main experiments in reaction time and -

thinking time can be illustrated in this way by a group


-

o ften or more persons Some o f the most interesting I


.

will indicate after describ in g the more accurate methods .


Thin king , Fe e ling , D o ing .

Others can b e read ily devised by any o n e ing enious at


games .

It takes time then to react A hu n dred years ago


, , .

people did not kno w this And thereb y hangs a tale


. .

Astronomers have to record the moment o f the pas


sage o f a star across lines in a telescope I n 1 795 the .

British astronomer royal foun d that his assistant work ,

ing with another telescope at the same time was making ,

his records too late b y h al fa second Later o n this dif .


,

ference a mounted t o
'

This difle re n c e w as large


enough to seriously disturb the calculations so the poor ,

f ello w lost his place fo r the sake o f eight tenths o f a


second .

Man y years later two famous astron omers were o h


serving the stars together an d recording their passages
across the telescope Strange to say o n e w as stead ily
.
,

behind the other . N o w it would n o t do to make accu


sat io n s against a n ote d astronomer this se t people to
thinking . O n e o f t he astron ome rs went I t o a th ird as
t ro n o m e r and agai n there w as disagreem e n t Finally .
,

after more experience astronomers in general reached


,

the conclusio n that everybody disagreed with everyb ody


else Moreover men who disagreed in one way at o n e
.
,
'

time woul d b e likely to disagre e difle re n tly at another


time ; so that a man did n o t even agree with himself .

As t h is w as evidently n o t the fault o f the star the ,

N o t t he f
au lt o f conclu sio n w as fi nally reached that e ach person had a
t h e star
.

peculiar error o f his own This w as called by the queer


.

n ame , personal equation The British astronomer


.
,

who did n o t suspect that he himsel f might b e incorrect ,

was perhaps n o nearer right than his assistant At any .

rate the actual time o f passing o f the star di ffered from


,

the recorded time .



Americans are noted fo r asking How much ? ,

Science is in this respect merely concentrated Ameri


, ,

can ism it always asks H o w much ? I t is not su f


,

fic ie n t to kno w th at we are always behind time let u s


make a systematic inquiry o f h o w much time we lose .

A miss is as good as a mile b ut it is a very interesting , syst e m at ic

thing to kno w j ust ho w k


w o r p ro p o se d .

bad the m iss is There .

fore we will get t o work


systematically to meas
ure j ust ho w much time
we lose in acting to a
sign al .

E ven the best o f us is


inattentive So to b e
.

Th e iso lat ed
ro o m
rid o fall distraction the .

person e x p e r i m e n t e d
u po n is put in a queer

room called tide iso


,

l ated room w hos e ,

thick w alls and dou ble


doors keep out all sound
and light When a per .

so n locks himsel f in he ,

has no communication
w ith the outside world
except by telephone .

All the sights and Fig 4 I t h R a t i m . 1 . n e e c o n -roo .

sounds can be shut o u t ,

all d isturban ces o ftouch can be made small by com fortable H °W it fee l
s

Th e re are so -ca e d ll q al it
u at iv e sc ie n c e s t h at h av e n o m e t h o ds o f m e as

u re m e n t o r st at ist ics . Th e se are t h e de m ire p s o fth e sc ie n t i fic l


w o r d w it h
w h o m w e m u st p u t u p be cau se ’
w e h av e n t m o re respe c t a bl e m e m be rs o f so

k
cie t y t o t a e t h e ir p ac esl .
Thi n king , Fe e ling , D o ing .

chairs but alas we have let in a sad source o f d isturb


, ,

A so u rce o f ance namely the perso n himsel f Let me describe what


, ,
.

dI st u rban ce .

I hear an d se e in the S ilence an d darkness o f t he room .

My clothes creak scrape an d rustle with every b reath


, ,

the muscles o f the cheeks and eyelids rumble if I hap


pen to move my teeth the noise seems terrific I hear
, .

a loud and terrible roaring in t he head ; o f course I ,

know it is merely the n oise o fthe blood rushing through


the arteries o f the ears ( what you hear when yo u p lace
a shell to the car) but I can readily imagine t hat I pos
,

sess an antiquated clock work and that when I think I


-
, ,

can hear the wheels go round As fo r the light— great .

waves o f l avender colored light sweep down in succes


-

sio n all over the darkness in front ; beauti ful b lue rings
with purple centers grow and grow and burst only t o start ,

o ver again in di fferent colors The physiologist tells us


.

that these are merely effects o fchemical processes going on


in the eye ; and indeed everybody sees these things
, ,

when he closes his eyes at night But that does n o t help .

us to get darkness .

M o re re l iabl e
Be it as it may the results are far more reliable t han
,

l
re s u t s .
those obtained in ordinary laboratories and under ordi
n ary conditions o f distraction b y the rattle o f the
streets the banging o f college clocks the b uzzing o f
, ,

m achinery and the commotion o f students


, .

An l
e x p an at io n .
It must not be thought that the invention o f this room
is an imputation on my part against the attentive powers

o f humanity It is simply a fact t o w hich w e must all
.
,

plead guilty th at we cannot pay attention amid the


,

bustle and roar o f life around us It is easy to imagine .

what a boon an o fli ce on this plan would be to a bu sy


banker o r a newspaper editor .

H aving put th e person in the isolated room with ,


n othing b ut electrical connection to the apparatus in the Re a ct io n to
other rooms we will begin b y asking ho w long he requires to ”W ’
,

react to a sound We will use the graphic method as illus


.
,

t rat e d in Fig 3 with the addition o f the spark method


.
,

explained in Chapter I I Let us b e modern and sen d t he


.

sound by telephone A multiple key in which electrical


.
,
'

currents can b e comb ined in forty -one difle re n t ways is ,

so arran ged that by pressing it a sound is sent through

a telephone and at exactly the same moment a spark is


made o n the drum .

Th e various arrangements fo r making the experiments Great accu racy


oh me d
have been developed to a high grade o f accuracy and
convenience In the recording room
.

the smoked dru m stands on the


table the electric fork I s I n front the
, ,

multiple key in the middle The .

multitude o f wires and accessory ap


paratus seems to make a hopeless
chaos but they are all carefully ar
,

range d f o r convenience and accuracy .

The perso n in the isolated room


let u s call h im the observer fo r short ,

— S its com f ortably with the telephone


at his e ar and with a curious electri c Th e bse rvero .

reaction key ( Fig 1 5 ) in his han d


-
.

( t h e ord inary telegraph key has

proved itself too awkward and


fatiguing ) .The forefinger is placed
Fig 5 React ion-k y 1 . e
in the hole o fthe smaller or movable
. .

, ,

slide and the thum b is placed in the hole or against the


, Th e re a ct io n
.

hook o f the lo wer o r adj ustable slide Flexible wires


, , .
ke y ‘

lead t o the post at the top and to the mov able slide .

The hand is placed in any convenient position and the ,


Thin king ,
Fee ling , D o i ng .

thumb and finger are held apart The slightest move .

ment o f the finger makes a spark on the drum .

When the multiple key is pressed the telephone cir ,

Th e e x p e ri cuit is Closed and whatever sound is sent through the


men t
transmitter is then heard by the person experimented
.

upon At exactly the same instant a record is made o n


.

the time line on the drum The moment the so und is


- .

Fig . 16 . React io n t o S o un d .

heard by the person experimented upon he moves the ,

finger in the reaction key thus a second record is made


-

on the time line A record similar to that o f Fig 4 is


-
. .

obtained ; the number o f waves however will depend , ,

on the particular person the p articular sound etc


, , .

Th e av e ra e g Fo r noises the reaction time is a trifle S horter than fo r


-

resu tsl .

tones Fo r example a pe rson who reacts to a noise in


.
,

1 I E will take perhaps fo r a tone E ven the whistle .


of a locomotive is not so conducive to a quick jump by
the passengers on the platfo rm as a sudden escape o f
steam .

A particular case o freaction to sound is found in start


ing a race In short -distance or sprint racing the time
.
, ,

required fo r the re
action is a very im
portant factor The .


starter s p i s t o l i s
fired and the racers
are o f f b ut the m an
,

with a very short


reaction time w i l l
-

have gained a re
Fig 7 Th P i t l k y 1 e s o - e
sp e c t ab le f
raction o f . . .

a second over the Ot her To measure this reaction -time


.


an electric contact is put on the end o fthe starter s pistol .

The arrangement is shown in Fig 1 7 The firing o fthe . .

t o l causes
the wing to fly
back and break an
e l e c t r i c circuit thus ,

making a record A .


runner s key o f the
kind shown in Fig 1 8 .

is attached to the run


Fig 8 Th R
1

K y e u nne r s e
ner by a thread The
. . .

start o f the runner jerks and b reaks the thread ; this


moves the lever an d makes another record .

Although I have never had time to carry out an ex S o me re su lt


s.

tended series o f experiments on racers the e xp e ri ,

ments made h ave shown a fe w facts The fi rst point .

no ticeable is that long distance runners are very much


-
Thin king ,
Fee ling , D o ing .

Fig . 1 9. M e asu rin g a R ’


unn e r s React io n -t ime .

slower than sprint runners who practice quick starting ;


this shows that the reaction time can b e reduced by prae-

tice The reaction time seems to be longer where the


.
-

whole body has to be started than where only a finger is


moved the mass to be moved thu s seems to h ave an ih
fl u e n c e on the time In some races the pistol has gone O ff
.

and the photograph has been made o fthe runners b efore


they h ave reacted .

The r e a c t i o n
React io n -
t im e time to touch can
to t o u ch .

I

be found by using
an i n stru m en t
shown in Fi 2
g 0 . .

Fig 20 .Th T h k y
e o uc - e
.

The flexible C0 n .

du cto rs carrying the cu rrent p ass through the screws o f


this stimulator an d then through the reaction key The - .
person experimented upon closes his eyes Som e one .

takes the stimulator an d touches him whereupo n h e ,

reacts by moving h is finger as b efore The stimulator .

makes a record o n t he drum an d so does the key .

It can b e laid down as a general law that a weak touch

Fi g . 21 . Re actio n t o T o u ch .

is ans w ered by a slow er reaction than a moderately st rong


o ne .As the touc h b ecomes stronger the reaction time -

decreases b ut when it b ecomes very strong t he time is


,

agai n lengthened . The moral is th is : ifyo u wan t tim e


t o recover af ter dealing a blow h it yo ur an tago n ist v ery
,

hard o r almost n o t at all .

To e xperiment o n t he re
actio t ime f
n - o r temp erature

s e n s a t i o n s a metal b all is

scre wed o n the touch st im u -

lator in place o f the ru bber


tip The ball is heated o r
.

co oled as des ired .

The reaction -tim e fo r cold


is somew hat shorter t h a n
F i A R a ti t C ld
that fo r hot an d bo th are
,
g . 22. e c on o o .

longer tha n fo r touch Fo r example t he figures fo r o n e


.
,

e x erimenter are touch 1 12 cold 1 2 2 hot 1 327


p , , , .

The react io n -time t o light is fo u nd b y usin g an e lectric


Thin king ,
Fee li ng , D o i ng .

React io n -time flash instead o fthe telephone The intensity o fthe light .

t o lig h t .
has a very great influence A very weak ligh t might .

give 33 2 while a strong one would give 20 3 fo r the same


,

person .

This interval renders it possible fo r the photographer


to get perfectly natural fl ash light pictures The flash -
.

goes o ff the picture is taken and all is again dark in a


, ,

couple hundredths o fa second But such a small time is .

q u i c k e r than re
action time and so -

the whole is done


be fore the persons
c an move .

Childre n become
steadily quicker as
React io n -t ime they gro w o l d e r .

m Ch '
ld m '

The results o f the


N e w Have n meas
u re m e n ts are S hown
Fig 3 R a t i t im D w ith Ag
on-
in Fig 2 3
2 e a c e ec re ses e.
The
. .

. .

figures at the left indicate the number o f hundredths o f


a second required f o r reaction to sight those at the bot
tom the ages The topmost line in the figure relates to
.

another m atter Boys are much quicker than girls at


.

each age that is in S imple reaction ; h o w they com



,

pare in quickness o fthought will be told in the following


ch apter .
CHAPT E R IV .

TH I NKI NG - TI M E .

TH E Si mple reaction -time has led to a method o f


measuring the time o fthought One o fthe fii n dam e n tal
.

processes o f thought is recognition To determ i ne t he .

time o f recognition the subject reacts o n one occasion


just as quickly as he can without waiting to notice what
,

he is reacting to I n popular phrase he hits back with


.
,

out waiting to know what struck him Recognition can .

not b e said to b e present On the n ext occasio n he fully


.

recognizes what he hears sees o r feels b efore he reacts


, , .

The di f ference in time b et ween these t w o cases gives the


recognition time Properly S peaking the forme r reaction
- .
,

would b e the true simple reactio n b ut this distinctio n is


, ,

o ften overl o oked and b oth kinds are then lumped


together .

E xperiments on one su bject gave the f ollowing recog R g eco n it io n .


t m ’ i
n itio n times : f fo r a letter 5 Z f or a
e.
- o r a color 3 E , ,

short word 5 2 , .

These times refer to experiments where the perso n is


ready and eager t o recogn ize the object H o w long it .

would take to recognize an object unwillingly e g a , . .


,

tradesman b y an E nglish snob has not yet been deter


,

mined .

A single figure such as a triangle or a square is recog


, ,

n iz e d as quickly as a S imple color We can grasp .

enough o f a triangle to recognize it without attending t o


49
Thin king , Fe e li ng , D o ing .

al
det i s ; a three cornered figure is as simple as a color
-

when n othing b ut its co rn e re dn e ss is n oticed A S ingle .

letter takes the same time as a S hort word The total .

impression o f a well known object is S o familiar to us


-

that we need no more divide it into its parts in order to


distinguish it than we do in the case o f a simple color .

In reading we do not divide the word into its letters we ,

grasp the word as a Whole by a single thought .

The various letters o f the alphabet require di fferent


Re co gnitio n o f times fo r recognition There are slight di fferences fo r
l e tt e rs.
.

letters o f di fferent sets o f type ; they vary from


to 5 3 The following sets o f letters
are arranged in the order o f time required .

P oo r .

m w d g v y j p k fb l i g h rx t o v a n e s o z

m w p q v y k b d j r l o n i g h u a t t s x z c e

dp q m y k n w o g v x h b j l i a t u z r s c fe

A German requires 1 3 to 2 2 more time to recogni z e a


Ge rm an l e t te rs. letter o f h is antiquated alphabet fo r example I n than , , ,

to recognize a letter in the Latin type W But in read ,


.

ing words no more time is required to recogni z e the


word in either case The t wists and tails o f the Old
.

letters cause a loss o f time in recognizing a single letter ,

but in grasping the words only the main features receive


attention anyway .

Another o f the fundamental processes o f thought is


D isc rim ination
t mei . discrimination : I S it white or black loud or weak , ,
Thin king Time .

ho t or cold ? In all cases it takes time to decide .

Suppose that the person o n whom the experiment is D i imi at i sc r n on

made is to discriminate between two different tones In “m f t


.
e or o n e s'

addition to the arrangement described on p age 43 we t e ,


'

q uire t w o tuning forks


-
o f difl e re n t pitch T h e sound is .

sent by telephone as be f ore The pe rson is told not to react


.

t ill he has recogni z ed which tone he hears Sometimes .

o n e tone is sent sometimesthe other


, I fwe determine the .


person s reaction time fo r a single tone w here he knows
-
,

that only o n e tone is used and also the reaction time ,


-

with discrimination between two tones we are j ustified in ,

subtracting the f ormer from the latt er and calling the ,

result the discrimination time fo r two tones -


In a .

s imilar m anner the discrimination - time fo r three four or , ,

m ore tones can be measured .

The discriminat ion time fo r sight can be very prettily F igh t


-
o rs .

illustrated . The Geissler tub es are filled with di ffer


e n t gases so that when an electric current is sent through

the m they S how di fferent colors A n induction coil ( or .


-

s park -coil ) is fitted up so that the current can be sent


t hrough an y one at pleasure To get the simple reaction .

t ime one tu b e alone e g a red tube is used the time


, . .
, , ,

b etween the flas h and the reaction being measured as


b e fore Then two three etc are used j ust as men
.
, , .
, ,

t io n e d f o r tones . Ordinary times fo r discrimin ation can


be represented b y the following specimens fo r two o h
j e c t,s 8 3 ; fo r three 1 2
4 ;
,
fo r four or five 1 5 2 , .

The next element o f thought li fe to b e considered is C h i -t im -


o ce e .

c hoice . H o w sh all we determine the choice time ? The -

Geissler tubes can be ve ry conveniently used fo r this


purpose The subject places his five fingers on a fiv e
.

knobbed telegraph key When he sees the red light he .

is to press h is thumb when he sees the yello w he is to


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

press h is forefinger ; and so on There are thus five o h .

jects fo r discrimination and five movements b etween which


to choose O f course the time is much lengthened I f
. .

Re su lts
. we know the discrimination time and reaction time fo r
- -

five colors we can subtract these from t he total tim e


,

wit choice thus getting the choice time fo r five


h ,
- It is .

evident that the choice time fo r two three four six or


-
, , , ,

more objects c an b e similarly found One subject gav e .

a choice time o f 8 3 fo r two fingers wit h steady increas e


-
,

up to 40 3 fo r ten fingers .

A fter some practice with the same fingers fo r the sam e


colors the act o fchoice gradually falls o u t and the move
,

ment become s associated to the color The extra tim e .

still remaining might be con sidered as a kind o f associa

tion time fo r movements The association time in the


- - .

'

usual meaning is measured difle re n tly .

The time o fdi scrimination an d choice combined can b e


ob tained fro m a group o f persons without any other ap
paratus than a watch The persons o f the group stan d
.

in a ring as shown in Fig 1 3 each with his hand


, .
,

on his neighbor s head In the first place the simpl e .
,

reaction time is measured by gi v ing the head a slight


-

push and sending the push all around the circle as de ,


scribed o u page 39 Nex t time says the e xp e ri
.
,

menter ,

each o f you will receiv e a slight push o n t he
h ead either forward or b ackward You are to send t he .


push along in the same way .

The experiment is made three or four times s ometimes ,

with a forward push sometimes with a backward one


, .

E ach person n o t know ing which he is to receive


, ,

will be obliged to discriminate and then choose the ap


p p
ro riat e movement o f the hand By su b tracting t h e .

si m ple reaction time from t his last result the time fo r


-
,
Th in king Time .

d iscrimination choice fo r two things is obtained


an d .

Then the experiment is repeated with three movements


right le f
,
t or forward Then with four : right left fo r
, .
, ,

ward or b ackward The time will be found to grow


, .

longer as the number increases .

The time o f association o f ideas w hich is wh at is A iat i , sso c on


“m e'
u sually me ant by association time is best m e asured by -
,

c alling out words or showing picture s to some one who is

t o tell wh at he associ ates to each Fo r example I call .


,

“ “
o ut house an d yo u say street .

A peculiar mouth key is pl aced before tran smitter Th m t h-k


-
e ou e y.

in the r e c o r d i n g
room an d a some

w h at simil ar one in
t he exp eri m e n t
ro om Th e ex
.

rim e n t e r s h o u t s
p e

s om e w ord e g , . .
,

“ ”
g l as s . This
c auses the thin plate

in the mouth key to -

rattle and m ake a

spark record on the


drum A t the s ame
.

m oment the subject


Fig 4 R a ti by V i e ; o th V i k y 2 e c on o c r, e o ce - e
h ears the word in
. . .

t h e telephone at his c ar He shouts b ack wh at he .

“ ”
first thinks o f e g water This m akes a similar
, . .
, .

record The total time b etween the two record s less the
.

d iscrimin ation time an d choice time will give the associ a


- -

t ion time
-
.


The associations m ay be o fv ariou s kinds I n free F “ w ith
.

re e

asso ciation the subject thinks o f wh atever he pleases “ “


.
0
,
Thin ki ng , Fe eling , D o ing .

The time fo r free association can be put in the neighb or


hood o f 8 0 3 .


In a forced association the subject is allowed to as
Fo rce d sociate only objects bearing certain relations to the object
aS S OC I at I O fl .

presented . Thus whenever he hears the n ame o f a


,

country he must name o n e o f its cities In such a case .

he has a moderate range o f association In a strictl y .

forced associ ation there is no f


reedom Thus whenever .
,

the nam e o f a person is mentioned his native land must ,

be associated .

F o rce d Asso c iat io ns .

As specimen results we can give the following associa



R esu lts . tion times : translatio n from one s o w n langu age to o n e
-

a trifle less familiar 1 5 27 to 30 3 giving the succeedin g


,

month o fthe year 2 5 3 to 30 3 ; simple addition o f t w o


,

figures ,
to 2 2 3 simple multiplication o f two figures ,

2 5 3 to 3 5 3 .

A p articul ar form o f association is found in the logical


Thin king Ti me .

j udgment . I n f
act many o f the ,
f
orced associations are
really abb reviated logical j udgments S uppose it to b e .

required to associate the whole when a part is given e g , . .


,

“ ” “ ”
given root asso ciated tree ; th is is simply a prae
,

tical abb reviation o f a root is a part o f a tree More .

difli c u lt cases can be dev ised It holds good as a gen


.

eral rule that in actual thinking the forms o f logical


thought b ecome forced associations .

All o u r acts are complication s o fthinking times S im -


,

p le reaction -times and action -times


, S tudy o fmental and
.

muscular time fo r practical purpose s has been made in


o nly a f e w cases .

The visit o fseveral expert swordsmen to Yale furnished


the Opportunity fo r some experiments on their rapidity in
so me o ft h e f undamental movements o ffencing .

The fi rst experiment included a determination o f the F i rst e xpe ri


m en t .
simple reaction time and o f the time o f muscular move
-

ment The fencer stood ready to lunge with the point


.
,

o fthe f oil resting to o n e S ide against a metal disk A .

fl exible conducting cord fastened to the h andle o f the


,

foil hung in a I oop from the b ack o f the neck


, A large .

metal disk was placed directly in front o f the fencer at a


distance o f75 m Just ab ove this disk w as a flag held on
°

af oil b y an operat or standing behind it A movement o f .

the flag was the signal upon which the lunge w as ex


e cu t e d .

The spark method of


recording was S O arranged that
the primary circuit passed through the electric switch a ,

S park coil the fl exible conduct ing cords the f


-
, oils and , ,

e ither o n e o f the t w o disks E very make and b reak o f


.

this circuit mad e a S park record on the drum A s long .

as t h e foils rested against the disks the current w as closed .

The movem ent o fthe flag-foil broke the circuit fo r an ih


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

Stant m aking a record o f the moment o f signal


,
.


The first movement o f the fencer s foil broke the
circuit again at the small disk maki n g a record o f ,

the moment o f reaction The striking o f the foil .

against the large disk made a third record The time .

Fig . 26 . M e asu rin g M e n tal an d M u sc u lar T im e in F e n c in g .

between the first and second records gave the simple re


action time
-
that b etween the second and third gav e the
time o f mov ement through the given distance About .

ten experiments w ere made o n each person .

S e co nd e x p e ri
In the second experiment the flag foil w as moved in -

m e nt .
various direction s The point o f the foil rested against
.

the small disk The movement in an y w ay o fthe flag w as


.

the signal fo r a corresponding m ovement o f the foil .

Acts o f discriminatio n an d choice were thus int roduced


into the reaction time The movement o f the foils gave
- .
Th in king Time .

records as before The time required can be called the


.

reaction time with discrimination and choice A bout ten


- .

experiments were m ade o n each person .

The persons experimented u pon consisted o f D r .

Graeme Hammond D r E chve rria D r P F O Co n ,



.
, . . .

nor and Mr Shaw ( all expert amateur fencers ) A


, .
, .

Jacob i master o f arms o f the New York Athletic Club


, ,

Prof Ladd formerly practiced in fencing and Prof


.
, , .

W illiams with no knowledge o f fencing


, .

Th e results were
1 Simple reaction time : E chve rria 1 727 W illiam s-
.

R , ,
l
esu ts .

1 92 ; Hammond 1 927 Ladd 2 32 J acobi 23 53;


, , ,


S haw 2 3 2 O Co n n o r 26 2
, , .

2 .Time o f muscular movement involved in the lunge


m ’
through 75 : Jacobi 2 7 2 ; O Co n n o r 292 ; E chve r
c
, ,

ria, 3 1 27 ; Shaw 3 2 2 ; Hammond


, 3 2 27; Ladd 5 2 27 , ,

W illiams 5 7 ,

3 . React i on -time with di scrimination Hammond ,

2 227 Ladd 24 2 W illiams 2 5 3 Jacobi 2 93 E ch


, , ,


verria 30 27 S haw 3 6 27 O Co n n o r 36 3
, , , .

The experiments prob ably derive their chief value as C l


o n c u sio n s.

calling attention to the experimental study o fthe psycho


logical elements involved ih games sports gymnastics , , ,

and all sorts o f athletic work Without experimenting .

o n l arge numbers o f f encers and others I would not ,

attempt to make any quantitative comparisons b etween


t h e two The following qualitative conclusions seem
.
,

however to be fully j ustified


, .

It is possible to analyze fencing movements


into their mental and bodily elements an d to measure ,

them .

2 The average fencer is not quicker in simple reaction


.

( where a f
e w ment a l elements are involved ) than a
Th in king , Fee ling , D o ing .

trained scientist and neither class shows an excessive


,

rapidity .

3
. W hen once the mind is m ade up to execute a
movement fencers are far quicker in the actual e x e c u
,

tion In rough figures it takes them only half as long


.
,

as the average individual .

4
. As the ment al process b ecomes more complicated the ,

time required b y t he average fencer is greater than that


required by a trained scientist The shortest t ime o fall .
,

however is that o f D r Hammond whose mental quick


, .
,

n ess has probably been developed in some other way .

5
. The general conclusion seems to be that fencin g
does not develop mental quickness more th an scientific
pursuits but it does develop to a high degree the rapid
,

ity o f executing movements It would be important to .

determine if this holds good o f t he other sport s an d ex


e rc ise s or if some o f them
, are especially adapted to
training mental quickness .

In order t o study the quickness o f movements o f the


arm we u se the apparatus S h o w n in Fig 2 7 A horizon ~
. .

t al brass b ar c arries o n it thre e adjustable blocks A B , , ,

and C The block A has a flag which m ay b e suddenly


.

Fig . 27
. Apparat u s fo r M easu ring Rap idit y of T h ght a
ou nd Actio n .

jerked to one side by a thread The other blocks have .

ligh t bamboo sticks projecting u pward The whole ar .

rangement as u sed o n a pu gilist is shown in Fig 28 . .

The boxer takes his position an d places his fist j ust b e


hind the stick at C At the moment the flag moves he
.
Thin ki ng Time .
59

is t o strike straight out The apparatus is connected


.

with the spark coil and the recording drum


- .

The flag is jerked ; this m akes a spark on the time


line The boxer strikes knocking down both sticks
.
,
.

E ach stick makes a spark also We thus h ave three .

sparks on the time line The time between the first and
- .

the second gives the simple reaction o f the boxer ; that

Fig . 28 . M easu rin g ho w Rap idl y a P gil i t T h i k


u s n s an d Act s
.

between the second an d the third gives the time req u ired
fo r the fist to travel the di stance between the two sticks .

The b oxer is next told th at the flag will be jerked to


the right or left in irregu l ar order an d he is to punch
only when it goes to the left He is thus obliged to dis .

criminate and choose Sp arks are obtained as before


.
,

b ut the time b etween the first two dots is longer because


two extra mental acts are included .

It is possible to u se not only men women c hildren , , ,


Thin king , Fe e ling , D o ing .

athletes pugilists and others as animals fo r experiment


, ,

we can also u se dogs an d cats One o f my pupils has .

contrived a S imilar arrangement fo r measuring how fast


a dog thinks The general plan is S hown in Fig 2 9
. . .

The results cannot yet b e made pu blic as it is the rule ,

o f the laboratory to let the experimenter speak first .

In the New Haven experiments the school children

Fig . 29 . M e asu rin g ho w Fa ts a Do g Thi kn s


.

were required to distinguish b et ween two colors reactin g ,

t o blue and not to red This involved the mental proc


.

e sses o fdiscrimination and choice in addition to simple ,

reaction The results are S hown in Fig 30 The figures


. . .

at the b ottom indicate the ages ; those at the le ft give the


number o fhundredths o f a second required fo r reaction
with dis crimination and choice The topmost line does .

not concern u S here .


Thin king Time .

The time required decreases with age On the whole .


,

the boys and girls are equally quick the di fferences gen ,

e rally being t o o sm all to be worth notici n g It might be .

suggested th at S ince boys are quicker in simple reaction


, ,

they must take a longer time fo r mere discrimination an d


choice in order to give equal totals The figures seem .

to in dicate that fo r
the more involved
mental processes the
girls are quicker but ,

I hesitate to admit
such a libel on my
own sex .

Irving said t h a t
Americans worship
only one god the ,

Almighty D o l l a r .

H e w as w r o n g ;
there is a mightier
one the Moloch o f
,

Time .

Time the great Fig 3 T im fTt t t at Va i Ag i r o us es n


lClf
o l
l
: . 0. e o

5 l l ° 1 c re n ’
independent v a r i
able is the only f
,
orce over which we can gain no control .

Man can annihilate space an d fight power with power M ighty t im ,


e.

but tick tick tick the little watch counts O ff the se c


— —
, ,

o u ds not one o fwhich can be hindered from co ming or


,

be recalled when p ast .

Time is the most precious o f commodities No .

one wants a six hour train to Boston when a fiv e


-

hour train is at h and Slow horses to the en gi n e give


.

the fire a fatal opportunity B attles have b een gained


.

b y the quickness o f the cavalry D eath m ay readily.


Thin king , Fee ling , D oi ng .


b e carried at the sword s point o f a quick antagon ist .

Time is money Rapid thought and quick action


.

Val u e o ft im e .
sometimes make all the difference b etween success and
failure
. E very thought we think eve ry act we perform , ,

takes time A man who can think and act in one hal f
.

the time that another man can will accumulate mental ,

or m aterial capital twice as fast I f we could think .

twice as fast as we do we would live twice as long al


, ,

though we would live only the same number o f years .

Country people think more slowly than city people the


uned u cated more Slowly than the educated I n general the .

Americans are very rapid thinkers To d ay the mental .

processes o f the m ass o f the people go at a much more


rapid grate than they did a fe w centuries ago The mind .

has been educated b y our whole civ ilization to act more


rapidly . To day our thoughts travel like trolley cars
- - .

The difference b etween the sluggish E n glishman o f


medieval times and the quick Yankee o f to day is de -

’ ”
lightfully told in M ark Twain s K ing Arthur I f it .

were possible to take a man o f t w o centuries ago an d


bring him into the l aboratory the results ob tained from
,

experiments upon him would b e entirely different from


those obtained from one o fthe students o f to day The - .

reactions o f the student would b e much more rapid e s ,

p e c ially the complicated o nes A great


. de al in the edu
cation o f children is to reduce their reaction times -
.

When the country boy first comes into the schoolroom


everything he does takes him a very much longer time
than when he has been there fo r a while especially an y ,

complicated act Arithmetic fo r e xample is simply a


.
, ,

m atter o fthe association o fa set o fideas We give j ust


a
.

so much time to do an example When that time is over


.

the pencil must be put down the slate dropped The


, .
Thin ki ng Time .

child who is slo w is at great disadvantage E ducation in .

arithmetic especially mental arithmetic has fo r its object


, ,

mainly the reducing o fthe time in associ ating ideas say


one half toward producing a firm memory o f the associ
at io n s and the other hal fin making them more rapid .

Rapidity in movement and thought is a part o f our E d at i uc on of


ap i dit y r
education to which we must pay some attention Mental .
.

rapidity is increased b y repetition provided the repeti


,

tion does n o t continue long enough to bring opposing


forces into play .

For example the o ftener we repeat a
,

poem from memory the more rapidly it can be done


, ,

provided we do not b ecome fatigued .

To increas e the rapidity o f the act it is not su f


fi cient
to simply repeat it withou t fatigue u nless there is pres
ent a conscious or unconscious determination to change
the time o f the process there is no reason fo r expecting
,

it to ch ange The fi rst requisite fo r increase in rapidity


.

is thus a desire fo r such an increase .

Let it b e required to increase the rapidity with which


Ill
a child performs his arithmetical associations I fallowed a it hm t i
t at i us r ro m
on f
. r e c.

to do his sums in any time b e pleased to take constant ,

practice might not cause the slightest change in rapidity .

I f however he were stimulated by heari n g the pencils


, ,

o fhis comrades b y seeing them fi nish b ef


, ore him or b y ,

the general influence o f a b right sunny day he might


, ,

do his work m ore rapidly although he had not had the


,

slightest intention o f doing so or perhaps even the


knowledge that he had done so Such influences might
.

b e called unconscious motives By a conscious motive


.

we would mean a definite intention o f getting the su m


done more quickly Our general experience in li fe j us
.

t ifie s us in b elieving that a conscious motive is more e f fi


cient than an unconscio u s one .
Th in ki ng ,
Fe e ling , D o ing .

The m anner in which rapidity o f thought is increased


by practice in learn ing a language has b een made the
subject o f experiment Ten b oys were taken from each .

class o f a hi gh school an d were asked to read rapidly the


first hundred words o f a Latin b ook The number o f .

seconds that they required is S hown in the following li st

Class I O, average age verage time


a 26 2

9 ,
( C ( I I t I t 3
9 , I I , 1 35
8, I 2, 1 00
3

7 .
1 3 . 89 ‘

1 4»

79

S I 1 5» 57
1 6. ’
4. 54
1 8.

3. 49
2, 1 9 , 4 8 3


1 , 22, 43

The lowest class knew nothing about L atin the rest ,

had begun it in Class 9 .

When the same children were tested with their native


language the results were successively 7 2 5 43
5
,
3
,

39
3
,
2 6 2 5 2 There 5
w a
,s a simil
3
ar
,
g ain .

Wh e re t he gai
n
Was the gain due to general gain in mental rapidity ?
li es .

One hundred p apers o ffiv e famili ar colors were show n and


each child was required to n ame them The average .

times were 66 79 6 6 6 3 5 6 6 3 6
3
3 54
,
3
,
3
,
3
,
3
,
3
,
3
,
3
.

There had been a general gain in quickness but not


nearly so great a gain as fo r the words A study o f the .

blunders m ade by the children showed that in the next to


the lowest class there was a very slight tendency to grasp
the L atin letters as words they blundered occasionally
by reading a similar word fo r the correct o n e In the .

succeeding an d higher classes this mi staking o f words


became steadily mo re frequent they had been trained to
! Lo w e st c lass o m it t e d .
Thin king Time .

grasp larger groups as sin gle things and in this manner


to save time in discrimination .

This same ability to grasp a greater quantity o fmatter Lha g iagt i n u e n


t p y e r n er .

by means o f characteristic m arks whereby the details ,

can b e supplied as needed is what makes the difference


,

b etween E nglish and Latin in the composing room .

While setting up E nglish the compositor works b y the


em that is b y q uantity while setting up foreign words
, ,

he works b y the hour as such work is very Slow


, .

How f ar we can push the education o f rapidity in all


H igh l y e d u

the elements that make up thinking time reaction time


- -
,
at d ap,
id i
ct y e r .

i
and action time can be seen in the records fo r ap dity
- r

o f telegraphing and typewriting .

By careful estimate it has b een found that in general


press matter the average number o f letters per word is
five and that the average number o f vibrations o f the
,

key in the formation o f the telegraphic characters is five


to each letter Thus it is seen that there are twenty -five
.

vib rations o f the key in the formation o f each word .

N OW were it possible f
, o r an operator to transmit sixty

words per minute he would make one word or five letters


, , ,

per second b eing twenty fiv e vibrations o f the key per


,
-

second .

When we consider that the telegraphic alphab et is


made up o f dots and dashes and spaces o f various
lengths and that these almost incredibly rapid vib rations
,

must b e S o clear an d clean cut as to b e easily read b y the


car we can f
, orm an approximate idea o f the wonder o f
such an achievement The most rapid manipulator in
.

the country has reached a speed o f fift y four words per -

Ch am lo h ip
p
ns
minute which is about 2 33 v ib rat ip n s o f the key per
, re c o rc

second E xpert typo telegraphers can receive an d re


.
-

cord his tran smission s with ease .


66 Th in king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

By use o f the Phillips system o fco de words an expert


transmitter and typo telegrapher can handle press m atter
-

at the rate o f from S ixty-five to seventy words per


minute One noted telegrapher claims to have read by
.

S ound from automatic transmission up to seventy words


per minute which is in the neighb orhood o fthirty vib ra
,

tions o f the instrument per second To do this the car


.

must be long and carefully trained to b e able to disti n guish


an d translate into words an d sentences the soun ds coming

to it in such rapid vibrations It would be impossi ble to


.

read fro m a transmission much beyond this S peed .


CHAPT E R V

S TE A D I N E S S AN D CO N T R O L .

S TE A D I NE S S o fa
ction may be steadiness o f position
o r steadiness o f movement I n position the impul ses to
.

the v arious mu scles are so arranged that the member or


t he body remains still I n movement the impulses are
.

varied in power in such a way that a change occurs .

In studying action voluntary or involuntary we need


, ,

Fig 31. . T ki g a R
a n e co rd o fS t e adine ss.

toh ave some method o f reco rding every part o f the act . Ai r t ransm is
5I
Th i s 15 found i n the p rI n CI ple o f ai r transm i ssi on .

In investigations o f the steadiness o f p osition we gen


67
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

e rally make u se o f a pair o f c apsules E ach one con


Th e l
capsu e s.
.

sists o f a little metal d ish covered with thin ru bber .

From one dish a tube leads to the other A very ligh t .

lever is placed above each dish ; the lever carries a


light plate which rests on the rubber top I f one o f .

the levers is moved downward as by the hand in Fig ,


.

3 1 the rubber will be pressed in an d the air will b e


,

Slightly pressed out through the tube The pressure .

will pass along the tube to the other cap sule where it ,

will b ulge the rubber top and will make the other lever
move upward When the lever is released the spring
.
,

will draw it back the air will be drawn in an d the other


, ,

l ever will move downward .

Th e rec o rd. To make a record a fine metal point is attached t o


,

the second lever an d is m ade to write on a surface o f


smoke A metal cylinder is covered with paper an d is
.

then smoked in a gas fl ame as previously described , .

The m OS t frequently u sed cylinder fo r slow movements

Fig .
32
. A rran g l
e m e n t o f Cap su e s fo r St e adin ess u n de r G u idance o f t h e E ye .

is a clock work drum o f the kind shown in Fig 3 1


- . .

The fine point o fthe s e cond or recording lever is mad e , ,

to touch the surface o f the smoked p aper The point .

then writes a picture ( upside down ) o f the movement


imp arted to the end o f the receiving lever .

S t e adin ess o f
Let us now take some particular problem such as t he ,

t h e arm.
steadiness o fthe arm guided b y the eye The arrange
, .
S teadin ess an d Con tro l

m ent canb e that shown in Fig 3 2 E very shake o f the .

a rm w ill b e t ransmitted to t h e recording point an d wil l

b e scratched in the smoke on the drum Under guid .

Fig .
33 . A Rec o rd o f S t e adin es s .

a nce o f the eye the position can be kept the same ;


whether the steadiness increases or decreases remains to
b e determined The lever o f the receiving cap sule is
.

m ade very long I ts point is held b y the finger opposite


.
Un de r g u idam e
“ we e ye ’
a dot on a card It is impossible to keep the point
.

O ppos ite the dot t here is constant shaking .

A Specimen record is given in Fig 33 D uring the . .

t ime b etween the t w o vertical s trokes t he attention was


disturb ed b y some o n e walking around the room .

Let us study steadiness in a concrete case say in hold ,

Fig .
34 . Reco rdin g a S po rt sman

s U n st e adin e ss .
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

A

sp rt sm an s
ing a gun The sportsman takes his position stand
.
,
o
i
st e ad n e ss .
ing with gu n aimed at the target A thread hangs dow n
,
.

from the gun with a small S inker at the end to keep it


stretched The thread is given one turn around the arm
.

o f a receiving c apsule as seen in the figure


, .

St e adin e s s in The method is a wonderfully convenient one and can


st an din g .

be applie d to a
study o f a l m o s t
every position taken
b y t h e body By .

placing the arm o f


the receiving c ap
sule on the he ad as ,

S hown in Fig 35 a .
,

record o fthe fl u ct u
ation in height can
be made .

Person s inclined
T re m bl i g o f
n to loss o f c o n t r o l
t h e h an d .

over their mu scles


often S how sym p
toms in early life It .

is well to test t he
Fig 35 S t adi
. . i S t a di g
e n ess n n n .

s t e a d i n e s s o f t he
hand in child ren A very convenient method o f stu dy
.

ing the trembling o fthe h and is show n in Fig 3 6 The . .

cap sule is connected with the recording cap sule as before .

T re m bl i g o f
n By a tongue cap sule as in Fig 3 7 we are able t o
-
, .
,
the t o n g ue
t e ll ho w still the tongue c an be held I f it should b e
.

proven po ssible by the trembling o f the tongue in child


hood to foretell which person s would become t alkative in
lat e r life precaution ary measures might be taken
, .

The most intere sting fact about these experiments in


S te adiness an d Con tro l .

s teadiness is that the w ill is to have a steady position b ut W ill a p so o se d


p
ti
ect ive AS the will is exerted the
t he e x e cu tio n is def
t
.
x o e e cu on.

steadiness o f position is increased This is sometimes so .

marked as to be visible to the eye directly I have seen .


t h e scalpel tremble in a surgeon s hand so that a serious

Fig .
36 .

tI eif
S t u yil
I a f
T
m .
re m bl in g o f Fig .

ff
ifies d lii s
s n t lI e S t e ad
0 r‘g u e

accident appeared inevitable yet when the supreme mo


ment came the hand guided the knife with admirable
steadiness .

Proceeding fro m steadiness fo r position we come to S t adi e n ess o f

the question o f steadiness o f movements Owing to the m m t .


o ve e n s.

difficulties o f apparatus this subject has not received so


,

much study as the other There are however several .


, ,

very practical and simple experiments that can be made .

In free hand drawing it is frequently desirable to make D aw i


-
ga r n

a straight line The line as actually m ade is always t aigh t l i


.
s r ne .

more or less irregular I once proposed the following.

problem Suppose we desire to draw a line I o o mm long ,

what is the most accurate method o f making it straight ?


AS it was most important to know the facts fo r school
children the experiments were performed on ten b oys
, .

The boys all sat at their desks in just the same p o


sit io n s. A sheet o f paper seven inches long by four
inches wide w as placed b efore each In the middle o f .

mm
the sheet were two dots I OO apart lengthwise o f the ,

paper At a given sign al each boy dre w a straight line


.
Thinking , Fee ling , D o ing .

b etween the dots Afterwards a ruler was laid on each


.

Sheet so that its edge cut the dots With a p air o f di .

v ide rs t he greatest deviat ion o f the line dra w n f


rom the
true straight line was found .

Resu lts .
In the first sets the b oys sat squ arely in front o f the
desk holding the pencils in the usual way grasped near
, ,

the middle The line was d rawn with a S ingle movement


.

o f the pencil without going over it a second time o r


,

erasing . The first line drawn was horizontal i e , . .


,

parallel to the front surface o f the body On the second .

se t o f papers the line drawn was vertical the other con ,

dit io n s remaining the same I n the third se t the line


.

was 4 5 to the right in the fourth 4 5 to the le ft The


°
,
°
.

positions o f these lines can b e thu s shown


5 270
ll 45
\
°
325
° °
?
, \4
The facing position proved to be more favorable fo r
horizontal and vertical lines than fo r inclined lines The .

right side position is also more favorable fo r horiz ontal


-

an d vertic al than f
°
o r 45 and This is what we
might expect as a result o f the law that the eye moves
more easily upward downward right and left ( i e ver
, , , . .
,

tically and horizontally ) than in intermediate positions


, .

In drawing horizontal lines and 3 2 5 lines the right °

E l
xp anat ion
side position is more favorable than the facing position
.

fo r the others facing is preferable This is perhaps to .

be explained by the fact that the forearm swings around


the elbow in a curve which in order to produce a st raight
line must be compensated b y a b ackward and forward
movement o f the upper arm around the shoulder I n .

the facing position with the paper directly in front the


, ,

forearm touches the b ody at the start and the hand is


bent at the wrist As the arm moves it becomes freer
.
,
S te adiness an d Con trol .

and a more n atural position is assumed This change .

in the m anner o f carrying the arm would tend to intro


duce uncertainty into its movements With the arm .

raised upon the desk in the right S ide position it is -

b rought clear o f the body and the line can b e executed


,

in o n e sweep
°
. I n drawing the 4 5 line the arm is just
as free in the facing as in t he right side position and we
-

'

find little difle re n c e in the res u lts I n drawing the ver


.

tical line we would n aturally expect much greater accu


racy when the motion is a simple forward or b ackward
movement o f the arm around the shoulder as in the ,

facing position than when the arm has to undergo com


,

plicated adjustment with the elbow raised Why there .

'

should b e a difle re n ce with the 3 25 line it seems impo s


°

sible t o say Both positions facing and right side are


.
, ,

o n the whole equally f avorable fo r accuracy .

Holding the pencil far from the point is in general the


m os t accu rate method ; n ear the point is as accurate as
the middle grip With the pencil far from the point the
.

lin e is drawn with a smaller movement o f the hand ,

which would give a b etter result than a larger m g ve m e n t


requiring adjustments fro m el b ow and shoulder Fo r .

horizontal lines the far grip is the most accurate fo r 4 5 °

the same is true ; fo r vertical lines the middle and the


far grips are the same the n ear grip is un f
,
avorab le for

the 3 2 5 line the n ear grip is the b est t he far grip is


°
,

n ext, the middle grip is very un favorable That the .

°
3 5
2 line f
orms an exception to the adv antages o f the
far grip and is much less regul ar th an the others is evi ,

de n tly connected with the awkward contraction o f the


fingers in this direction .

Can steadiness be increased by practice ? This prob I fl n u e n ce of


r c t ic e
le m can b e answered in respect to the hand The ar P a
.
:
Th in king , Fee ling , D oing .

ran gement fo r m e asuring steadin ess has b een made very


Th e st e adin e ss S imple involving n o capsu les o r drums I t consists o fa
, .

ga g
u e’
flat block o f hard rubb er supported vertically b y a rod .

O n the face o fthe b lock is a strip o fb rass in which t here


are five hard ru bb er circles 1 m m 2 mm m m m m a d
3 4
, n
, , , ,

mm i
5 n diameter Th e edges o f the circles are flush
.

w ith t he b rass The object is t o touch the ru bb er circle


.

with the m etal p o in t at the end o f a S tick b y a single


steady movement .

S u ffi cient u nst e adi


n ess o f the hand
will cause the point
to touch th e metal .

With the same circle


the steadiness o fthe
hand can b e co n sid
Fig 38 S t adi -a g
g e re d to b e directly
. . e n ess u e .

proportional to the percentage o f successful t rial s To .

indicate when the metal point strikes the plat e in stead


o fthe circle an electric current can b e sent f
, rom o n e pole
o f a b atte ry through an electri c h ell - to a b inding post -

connected with the metal plate and from the other pole ,

through a flexible condu ctor to the metal point Any .

contact o f the point with the plate will cause the b ell t o
ring .

In making the experiment the plate is se t up in front


e x“
o f the person experimented upon The pointer is .

grasped in the middle like a lead pencil the forearm is


rested o n a cushion at the edge o f the table and the trial
is made b y a single steady movement under guidance o f
t h e eye ( Fig .

A series o f experiments on the subject o f steadin e ss


w as lately carried out in my l ab oratory The first se t .
S te adin e ss an d Co n trol .

consisted o f t wenty experiments wi th the left hand the


result was fifty per cent o fsu ccessfii l trials Immediately R s lts .
e u .

thereafter twenty experiments were made wit h the right

Fig .
39
. M easu rin g S t eadin ess an d A tt en t io n .

hand with the result o f sixty per cent o fsuccessful trials


, .

O n th e following day and o n each successive day two ,

hundred experiments were taken with the right hand ,

the same conditions in regard t o time b odily condition , ,

an d positio n in m aking the experiments b eing maintained

as far as possi b le The percentage o f successful trials


.

ran as follows : 6 1 64 6 5 75 74 75 8 2 79 78 8 8
, , , , , , , , , .

The increase in accuracy is represented in the curv e in


Fig .
4 0 .

On t he tent h day the left hand was tested with twenty


experiments as b efore with seventy-fiv e per cent o f su c
,

u l t rials
ce ssf showin g an in crease o f twen t y -fiv e per
,

cent wit hout practice in the time duri n g which the right
hand had gained as Shown by the figures above This .


curious process I have ventured to call cross edu
-


cation .

The question o f the possib ility o fgaining in steadiness


Thin kin g . Fee ling , D o ing .

by practice is thus defi nitely settled W e find also that .

the left hand gains by practice o f the right .

Ki g
n de r art e n Let u s notice in passing how much these experiments
wo r k
resemble the cork work b ead work perforating and
.

- -
, , ,

weaving o f the kindergarten and the sewing o f higher ,

classes .

The pitch o f a tone sung from the throat depends on


S teadin e ss I n the tightness with which the vocal cords are stretched
g g
sin i n .

by the muscles o fthe larynx I fa singer can keep these .

Fig .
40
. l
Resu t o fE du c at in g Att e n t io n t o the Arm .

muscles steady in position the tone remains the same ,

if he allows them to Chan ge ever so little the ton e


changes .

M e th o d o fe x
A means fo r studying the accuracy o f singing a tone .

pe rim e n t .
and ke eping it is found in the gas capsule and mirror
,
-

tuning ork The gas capsule consists o f a little b ox


f -
.
-

Fi
( g 4 )
. 1 divided into two parts b y a thin rubber mem
brane A gas pipe leads to one p art and a sm all b urner
.

is attached The person sings into the other part


. .

E very vib ration o f the voice shakes the membrane an d


S te adin e ss an d Con trol .

makes the little flame bob up and dow n too rapidly to be


seen This flame is placed in front o f a tu n ing fork
.
-

having a little mirror on one end The tuning fork is se t


- .

Fig .
41 . T es tin g S teadi n ess g g
in S in in . Th e Uniso n .

goi n g and the person S ings the same tone A curved .

flame wit h a single point appears i n the mirror .

A ny inaccuracy o r chan ge in the pitch o f the singing


makes the picture rotate in the m irror I f it rotates in .

the way the flame points the person sings t o o lo w if


,

backwards then too high I f the S inger is only a trifle


, .

wrong the rotation is slow a poor singer mak e s the


,

picture fly around at all sorts o f Speeds .

The apparatus can do more than this S uppose the .

fork is tuned to middle C Then let the person sing .

the tones indicated b y the quarter note s the hal fnote


-
,
-
Th in king , Fee ling , D o ing .

indicating the tone o f the fork When the unison is .

sung a flame with a S ingle point is seen When the


,
.

octave is sung a double pointed flam e appears ( Fig


,
- .

Fig 42 S in in g g th e Fig .
43 S in in g g th e F lg 44 S in in g th e
O
. . . .

g
.

ctav e . D u o dec im e . F ifth.

Fo r the duodecime we get three points ( Fig ‘

fo r the double octave four points These poin ts seem to .

b e upright b ut fo r musical intervals such as the fifth


, , ,

the pointed flames are twisted together Fo r the fi fth .

Fig .
45 . S in in g g th F e o u rt h . Fig .
46 . S in in g g t h T hi d e r .

we se e three poin ts t w isted as in Fig 44 fo r the fourth .

we ge t Fig 4 5 fo r the third Fig 4 6


.
, . . .

When these intervals are properly sung the flames ap


pear sharp and steady ; any inaccuracy causes rotation .

The apparatus thus tells dire ctly ho w steadi ly the singer


maintains his pitch .
CHAPT E R VI .

PO WE R AN D WI LL .

WH AT is the relation b etween the force will and of


'

t he force o faction ? W hat w as the difle re n ce b etween


Samson slayi n g the lion and Samson S horn o f his locks ?
Was the will the same in b oth cases ? A t o n e moment
we will t o grip the pencil tightly at the n ext loosely in
,

t he first case it can not b e take n from u s in the second it ,

readily S lips D oes t he act correspon d t o the will ?


.

We can at least measure one thing namely the force Th


, , , ,
e

o f the act Numerous dyn amometers as the in st ru


.
— “08 m m “?

ments thereto are called have —

b ee n i n vented The simplest p o s


.
,

sibly the b e st f orm o fa dyn am o m


,

eter is an ordinary spring scale - .

An arrangemen t fo r studying the


strength o f pressure b etween
thumb an d forefi nger is shown in
Fig 4 7 The iro n frame carries a
. .

spring-scale o f the appropriate


strength The thumb is placed o n
.

the cork an d the fi nger o n the


hook o fthe scale W hen the tw o .

are presse d together t he pointer


Fig 47 S pring Dynamo met e. . r.
o n the sc ale S hows t h e amount o f

force exerted Spring scales o f various strengt h can be


.
-

u sed . D yn amometers have b ee n constructed fo r the


79
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

hand foot knee extension o f the two arms lifting b y


, , , ,

the back an d so on They are all I think I can say


, .
, ,

merely rough instruments fo r testing and have n ever


been developed into scientific apparatus .

How accurately can we exert o u r force o fwill ?


When o n his return home Ulysses desired to punish
the insolence o f the b eggar I rus by inflicting a severe , ,
.

blow yet feared lest the well known power o f his arm
,
-

would betray him if he put forth his whole strength he ,

deliberated on the amount o fforce to b e employed ,

Wh th t t ik h im lif l t t h a t h
e er o s r e e ess o e e r

At f ll h im w it h a m a d bl w
o nce , o r e e s u re o ,

an d decided to deal one which would only fracture the


jaw This was evidently a very fine regul ation o f the
.

amount o fexertion .

AS a matter o fexperiment let u s determine the accuracy


Use o ft h e
dyn am o m e t e r
.
fo r the thumb an d fin g e r grip with the dynamometer o f
- - -

Fig 4 7 The swinging stop at the b ack is so fixed b y the


. .

collar that when the stop extends across the frame the ,

hook strikes and hinders further movement The move .

ment is arr nged to stop t y one pound or 500 grams


a a sa ! .
, ,

The person is seated with the eyes closed The stop is .

swung on and the pressure is exerted till the hook strikes .

This is a pressure o f 500 grams The finger is released .


,

the stop is turned back an d the experiment is repeated


,
.

As the person finds no hindran ce he stops when he ,

thinks he is exerting the sa m e force as before The .

actual position o f the pointer is read o ff and the error is


noted Suppose he stops at 495 g he then makes an
.

error o f_ 5 8 .

E xperiments with the whole squeeze o f the hand indi


cate that if on an average a man makes a mistake o f
,

I
n i t ifi w k a d i
sc e n i il iz d
c or t i t h g am i t h
n n c v it f w igh t
e c o u n r es e r s e un o e .
twenty grams on a weight o f 200 grams he will make ,

one o f308 on 400 8 40 8 on 800 8 and 4 6g on 1 600 8 As


, , .

the weight gro ws larger the actual amount o f the aver


,

age error ( o r average m istake ) increases thus it is 20 8


on 200 8 and 4 68 on 1 600 8 But the proportion o f the
.

error is not increased or even the same but is decreased ,

20 g is a much larger part o f200 8 th an 4 6g o f 1 60 0 g

Fig .
48 . D ec re ase I
o f nacc u racy o f W eigh t-j u dgme n ts in S c hoo l Ch ildre n
o fS u ccessiv e Ages .

A method o fmaki n g similar experiments with the arm


is to lift cylindrical weights b et ween th umb and finger .

The weights are sorted into two groups those that ap ,

pear the same as the standard used and those that appear
di fferent The amount o f difference that passes unno
.

ticed gives an idea o f the accuracy o f the j udgment .

This is generally said to b e a judgment b y the muscle



sense .

Up t o th is point we have experimented on the force o f


the voluntary act and have said nothing about the rela
tion between the force o f will and the act itself The .

force o f the act we have measured in pounds or grams .

Will not being a mechanical process cannot be meas


, ,

u re d by any physical f orce it can be measured only in


terms o fwill .
TI zin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

By maki n g use o f the same met hod o f reasonin g as in


regard t o time we can draw a general conclusion in re
gard to the force o fact as dependent on the force o fwil l .

Suppose we will t o pull wit h the tw o hands wit h just the


same force do t he results di ffer ?
To solve the problem we use two dynamometers The .

person experimented upon squeezes with the right han d


and the left hand wit h what he considers equal force .

O n looking at the scale the records are read and the dif
ference n oted Here are some I have obtain ed The
. .

indicates that the right hand w as stronger the the ,

same fo r the left each record is the average o f ten ex


p e rim e n t s .

A F jan itor
.
, ounces
M S woman
W S girl 3§ years
. .
, ,

.
,

I . 2

We se e that although the wi ll is app arently alike in


both cases the acts are n o t Nevertheless since the dif .
,

ference is a sma ll fraction o f the force o f act we can say ,

that withi n corresponding limits the force o f wi ll can be


considered to b e indicated b y the force o fact Fo r most .

o f the points we are a bout t o consider we c an take any

differences in the force o fact as representing correspond


ing di fferences in force o f will .

The importance o fa cultivation o faccuracy o f force in


making an effort is known to those who play b all b il ,

liards tennis bagatelle or quo its The smith an d the


, , , .

gold worker must hit with just the right intensity The
- .

proper force in the b reathing movements is what the


speaker an d the singer have to learn .

The strongest possible ef fort has received more atten


S tro n est
po ssib e ef
fo rt. tion than the accuracy o fe ffort In using the dyn amo m .
P o we r an d Wi ll .

eter experimen ts the spring is given free play


fo r t hese
an d the e ffort is made as strong as the person can make it .

The greate st power ob tai n able wit h a determined effort


o f will vari es from the strength o fHercules to the feeble
ness o f an invalid The actual amoun t o f force o b tain
.

able from various persons is a problem o f an t hropology ,

with which we are not con cerned we shall u se t he force


o f action as a mean s o f studying will power .

'

The greate st possib le e fio rt depends o n the general


mental condition The greatest possible effort is greater
.

o n the average am ong the intelligent E uropean s th an

among the Af ri can s or M alays It is greater fo r in te lli


.

gent mechanics than fo r common lab orers who work ex


e lusively b ut unint e lligently with the hands
, ,
I n te llec .

tual e xcitement increases the power A lec turer actually .

b ecomes a stronger m an as he steps o n the platform A .

schoolb oy hits harder when his rival is on the same play



groun d A bear s fe ar fo r the safety o f her cub s might
.

well b e considere d proportional to the numb er o fpounds


di fference in the force o fher blow I venture to suggest .

that the difference b etween the greatest possible effort


'

when alone an d the greate st p o ssible e fio rt when


b efore a roomful o f ladies b e used as the measure o f a

young man s vanit y .

The amount o fforce corresponding to the greatest pos


sible effort is increas ed b y practice It is incre dible to .

me ho w in face o f our general experience o f gymnas ium


work some wri ters can assert that practice make s no
change in the greate st p o ssible effort At an y rate in .
,

experimen ts made u n der my direction the change could


b e stead ily traced day b y day .

Curiously enough this increase o f force is n o t con


,

fined to the particular act I n the experiments referre d


.
Tlzin bing , Fee li ng , D o i ng .

to the greatest possib le effort in gripping was made o n


,

the first day with the left hand singly and then
with the right hand ten times each The records
, .

were : fo r the left 1 5 pounds fo r the right 1 5 pounds


, , , .

Thereafter the rig/i t hand alone was practiced nearl y


,

every day fo r eleven days while the left hand w as not ,

used The right hand gained steadily day b y day on


.

the twelfth day it recorded a grip o f 2 5 pounds The .

left hand recorded on the same day a grip o f 2 1 pounds .

'

Thus the left hand had gained six pounds or more than ,

one third b y practice o f the other hand


, .

A great deal has b een said o f the relation o f physical


exercise to will power I think that what I h ave s ai d
.

sufficiently expl ains how we can use the force o f ac t as


an index o f will power It is unquestionab le that gym
.

nastic exercise increases the force o f act The con .

clu sio n seems clear the force o f will fo r those particular


acts must b e increased It has often b een noticed that
.

an ac t will grow steadily stronger although not t h e

slightest change can be seen in the muscle .

O f course I do not say th at the developed muscl e


,
g
S t ren t h an d
wi ll . does not give a greater result fo r the same impulse th an
the undeveloped one but I do claim that much o f t h e
increase or decrease o f strength is du e to a change in
will power Fo r example no one would say that San
.
,

dow the strong m an has a more powerful will than an y


, ,


body else But Sandow s strength varies continu ally
.
,

an d although p art o f this vari ation


, m ay b e due t o
changes in the muscles a l arge portion is due to a change
,

in force o f will When Sandow is weak make him


.
,

angry an d note the result .

The power exerted varies according to what we hear ,

feel or see Music colors emotions c hange our strength


, .
, , , .
With the thumb d fin ge r grip the greatest pressure
-an - -
I fl n u e n ce o f

I can exert during silence is eight pounds When some m x . us c .


o n e plays the giants motive from the Rheingold my

g rip shows 8% pounds The slumber moti v e from


.

t he Walkii re reduces the power to 7% pounds Let .

me suggest to my readers that they rig up a simple


dynamo meter and keep it b eside the pian o in order to
measure the stimulating power o f each composition .

The e ffect o f martial music o n soldiers is well known .

Th e M arse illaise was a force in the French Revolution .

Just how much o f the inspiriting e ffect is due to the


rhythm the time the melody and the h armony has not
, , , ,

b een determined A very great deal depends o n the


.

itch Plato empha i z es t he influence o f the proper


p . s

music on the formation o fcharacter He goes no further


.

t han to speci f y the gen eral scales in which music should


b e written . The high Lydian is plaintive the Ionian ,

a n d Lydian are so f t an d convivial the D orian is the


,

music o fcourage an d the Phrygian o ftemperance Aris


, .

t o tle agrees in general but considers the Phrygi an music


as exciting and orgi astic It has long b een supposed that
.
Tkin king , Fee ling , D oi ng .

the di fference among the scal es w as o n e o f arrangement


P babl
ro e ex o f the intervals within the octave corresponding to the ,

p lan at io n
m ajor an d the minor but the more recent O pinion is that
.

the difference is one o fpitch The Lydian is a tone to .

a tone and a half


h igher than th e
Phrygian and the ,

D orian is a tone be
low the Phrygian .

T h e D o r i a n is
neither too high nor
too low and ex ,

e c‘ c
presses a m a n l y
Fig 49 I fl n fP it h th P w
u e n ce o fG a p
c on e o er o r s
. .

character .

I fl
n u e n ce o f
It might be suggested that the special melodies associ
p it c h .
ated with each scal e m ay hav e had much to do with the
case Nevertheless it h as b een proven that the pitch
.

itselfhas an effect on the greatest strength o fgrip Fig . .

Fig .
50 . D ynamo g ap h
r .


49 shows the number o f pounds f
o r one person s h and
grip as the scale was run up on the pi ano .

In order to indicate the pressure continuously the


dynamometer can b e arran ged in connection with the D ynamo g ap h
r .

capsule o f the graphic method One such arrangement .

is shown in Fig 5 0 As the hand squeezes the dyna . .

m o m e t e r the pointer on the dru m moves to one side .

E very fluctuatio n in the squeeze is shown and when the ,

smoked paper is taken from the drum and varn ished we


h ave a complete record Su ch a tracing from an hyst e ri .

cal person squeezing as hard as possible is shown in Fig .

5 1 .

The power of squeeze is ch an ged by v arious disturb I n fl u en c e of


310 18 38 .

Fig .
51 . Reco rd o fS t ro n g est Grip o ft h e l
H an d b y an H yst e rica Pe rso n .

au ces The sudde n jerks in the line o f Fig 5 1 are the


. .

results o f the ringing o fa gong The sudden increases .

in power occur each time when the gong is struck .

Successive single contractions can also be registered on

Fig 5 2. Re co rd o fS u cce ssive Squ e e zes du rin g Ringin g o fa Go ng an d


l
.

ur mg S i e nc e .

the drum Fig 5 2 shows the successive squeezes o fone


. .

person with the hand first while a gong was b eing


sounded then in silence The use o f the gongs on the


,
.

trolley cars as a strengthening tonic might be suggested


-

to physicians .

I fl n u en ce
The colors also afle ct the squeeze Wlt h some persons l , c o o rs,
Tkin ki ng , Fee ling , D o i ng .

e s p e c i a l l y hysterical people The .

strongest hand squeez e in the case o f -

one such subject is shown in Fig 5 3 . .

This suggests a n e w principle in the


°f
selection o f colors fo r the h ouse fo r ,

uniform s etc We know the stimulating


,
.

'

e fle ct o fthe red fl a o fan archy and the


g
soothing influence o f a dark blue sofa .

A red bedquilt is a contradiction .

Tastes an d smells have di f ferent

Fig 54
. . I n fl u en ce o k
fM us .

fla f
g ii if
;
s o (
on t c t io i v
F1g
'

k e fle cts
54 shows the e f
fect o f
'

Lo o in g at D ifl e r . .

zfi gzgfi gg
f
'

if
‘ fs
g musk on the power o f a tired person .

d; r ’ re
Tobacco has a stimulating effect .

Joy and anger increa se the power ,

sorrow an d fright de c rease it An entertaining novel is .

a will stimulant a prosy text -book actually weakens us


-
.
CH A PTE R VI I .

A TT E N TIO N .

AT TE N t io n !
W hy do you suppose such a co m
mand is necessary to a company o f soldiers o r a class o f
b oys ? W ould they n o t do as well without attention ?
O f course not ; an inattentive or unexpec tan t company
o f soldiers w ill s t art to march in utter disorder or will

ground arms with a running fusilade o f ban gs instead o f


a sin gle thump .

W hat is this difle re n ce b etween attention an d in att e n


tion b et ween expectat ion and surprise ? How can we
,

turn inattent ion into attention ?


In the first place W hat is attention ? It is a very sad
,

fact b ut I cannot tell what it is The innumerable psy


, .

c ho lo gies attempt to define it b ut when they have defin ed


,

it you are sure to know just as much ab out it as b e fore


, .

When you first move into a n e w neighborhood you ,


Ill u st rat io n
notice every house every tree almost every stone as
.

, , ,

you pass to and fro As you grow accustomed to the


.

surroundings you gradually cease to notice them Fi


, .

nally you pay so little heed to them that you are un able
at the end o f a walk to tell what you have j ust seen b y
the way This fact is expressed by saying that at first
.

you attended to what you saw an d afterwards did not .

I can illustrate this process o f attention in another


A no t h e r
way You are now reading the sentences on this page ill
.
ust rat io n .

you are giving full attention to what I say But at the .

89
Tkin king , Fee ling ,
D o ing .

same time you are receiv ing touch impre ssions from the
book in your hand and from the clothes you wear you
hear the wagons on the street or the howling o fthe wind
an d the rustling o f the trees you s m ell the roses that
your hostess h as placed on the table N o w that I have .

mentioned them you notice them— o r pay attention to


them When you were attending to what you were
.

reading they were only dimly present .

F o c u s an d fie d l I w ill suppose that you are attending to what you are


o fatt en t io n
reading all those sounds touch e s smells etc are only
.

.
, , , ,

dimly in the fie ld o f your experience while these words


are in the fo cu s ( or b urning point ) o f experience
- .

Probably you can gain a good idea o f the di fference


b etw een the focus
and the field o fpres
ent experience by
taking an analogy
from the art o fpho
t o g ra p h y . As k
your friend the ama
t e u r photographer
to bring around his
camera He sets it .

up and lets you look


at the picture on t he

ground glass The .

Fig 55 Foc a d F i ld
us n f Att ti
e o en on.
glass is adjusted so
. .

that the picture o f a person in the middle o f the room is


sharply seen ; all the other objects are somewhat blurred
,
,

depending on their distance fro m him Change t he .

position o f the glass b y a trifle The person becomes


.

blurred and some other object becomes sharp Thus fo r .

each position o f the glass there is an object or a group ,


Atte n tio n .

of objects distinctly seen while all other objects are


,

bl u rred To make one o f the blurred objects distinct


.
,

the position o f the glass must b e changed and the fo r


merly distinct object b ecomes blurred .

In like manner we fully attend to one object or group


,

o f objects at a time ; all others are only dimly noticed .

As we turn our attention fro m one object to another


what w as formerly distinct becomes dim .

The illustration with the camera is not quite complete .

You can keep the objects quiet in the room b ut you can
not keep your thoughts still The mental condition .

would be more nearly expressed by pointing the camera


down a busy street Yo u focus first o n o n e thing then
.
,

on another The things in focus pass o u t o f it others


.
,
'

come in Only b y special e flo rt can you keep a moving


.

person or wagon in focus fo r more than a moment .

Instead o f talking all around attention as psycho lo ,

gists hav e been doing fo r two thousand years let us ask ,

a f e w practical questions The possib ility o f answering


.

some o f them arises from the fact that we can now ex


im n t on attention The impossi b ility o f answering
p e r e .

the others is due to the lack o fpsychological lab oratories


an d trained psychologists to m ake more experiments .

In the first place How m any objects can b e attended


,

to at a time ? O bjects c an o f course be more or less , ,

complicated A house fo r example is a s ingle object


.
, ,

if we do not look into the details ; it is a multitude if


we count the windows doors roof chi mneys etc as , , , ,
.
,

“ ”
separate objects By the word object then we will
.
, ,

understand any thing or group o f things regarded as


a single thing Thus the natural tendency would be to
.
,

regard the letters M X R V as four objects four let ,

ters whereas MOR E would b e regarded as one object


, ,
Tkin king , Fe eling , D oi ng .

a word unless we stop to con sider the letters separately


, .

E xpe rimen ts
. E xperiments are made by exposing pictures lette rs , ,

words etc to view fo r a brieftime One way o f doing


, .
, .

this is to prepare slides fo r the projection -lau tem an d


throw the view on the screen fo r an instant .

A more convenient way is to fix the pictures or letters


on cards or to prepare a table on which actual objects
are placed A photographic camera with a quick shut
.

ter is aimed at them The person experimented upon is


.

so placed that he cannot se e the o bjects b ut can se e the

ground glass .

I fyou cannot use a lens with shutter the experiment ,

can be tried roughly in the manner expl ained on page

22 the time o f sight o f the card must however b e less , ,

than one tenth o fa second .

E xperi ments o f this kind show that four an d some ,

ti mes even five disconnected letters numerals colors


, , , ,

etc can b e grasped at the s ame time


.
, W hen the o b .

j e c ts are so a rranged that they enter into combinations


that m ake complex objects m any more can b e grasped , .

Thus two words o f two syllables each word contain in g


, ,

six letters can be grasped as readily as four single


,

letters .

This ab ility to grasp and remember complicated o b


e c t s increases with age Childre n seem to grasp only
j .

the details sep arately an d to b e unable to gain a general


view with the parts in proper sub ordin ation In draw .

ing a horse un skilful persons will begin with the


head proceed with t he back then the rear legs etc
, , ,
.
,

thinking o fonly one thing at a time the result is generally


that the various p arts are out o f all proportion The .


details are often so isolated in the child s mind that he
will draw parts entirely sep arated from one another .
This is the case with the child that drew an oblong an d

a square sep arately to stan d fo r t he two sides o f a bo x


seen in perspective .

Let u s consider first the methods o fforcing attention to M et h o d s of

an obj ect or as is frequently said o f forcin g the obj ect


, , ,

into attention .

The first law I shall state is B igne ss reg u lates the


f o r c e of atte n ti on Young
. children are attracted to o b
j e c ts by thei r b igness .

A dvertisers make it a b usiness to study the laws o f


attention . American advertisers in the past and also
largely in the present rely chiefly on the law o f b igness .

They know that o n e large advertisement is worth a mul


t it u de o f sm al l ones A certain New York life in su r
.

ance company puts up the b igge st b uilding The N ew


Yo rk Wb rld builds the highest tower Churches fre .

quently vie in building n o t t he most b eauti ful b ut the


, ,

largest house o f worship .

Curiously enough the rage fo r notice even invades the


,

solemnity o f death Joseph Frank was not content to


.

have his ashes rest in peace o n the shore o f the Lake o f


Como he must erect a pyramid to attract the attention
o ftravelers , Richard Smith lately b equeathed
fo r a b ig memorial arch in P h iladelph ia .

Bigness however costs The art o f su cce ssfii lly ap


, , .

plying this law o f b ign e ss lies in finding the point at


wh ich any increase or any decrease in size lessens the
profit Fo rexample let u s suppose that we have man u
.
,

fact u re d a n e w kind o f cl o th As long as nob ody pays .

any atten tion t o th e matter nobody b uys W e deter , .

mine to spend in advertising b y a b rief notice fo r


a large number o ftimes in the regular type o fthe paper .

A mong the numerous other advertisements ours attracts


Th in king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

no attention the money is wasted W e try again .


,

putting in half as many advertisements b ut making each


twice as l arge W e get a b etter return By continually
. .

increasing the size at the expense o f the number o f rep


e t it io n s we get steadily b etter return s t ill the b igness o f
,

the advertisement is su fli cie n tly striking to render any in


crease unnecessary Any further increase does no good


.

by reason o f its size b ut does injury b y decreasing the


,

number o f repetitions The skilful advertiser w ill stop


.

just at the m aximum point .

It is a curious fact that the keenness o f b usiness men


often leads them unconsciously to anticipate the disco v
crie s o f science The law by which the intensity o f at
.

tention is related to b igness h as never ev e n been proposed


in the psychological laboratory yet the succe ssful adv e r,

t ise rs h ave learned it by practical experience The law .

I have here explained in popular form an d the laws I am


ab out to mention should an d must be made the subject
o f the most caref ul most accurate and most extended
, ,

investigation in the psychological l ab oratories E very .

detail every application must b e sought fo r There is


, , .

no more vital qu e stion in all mental science than this one


o f attention . The whole su bject o f interest about ,

which we are accustomed to hear so many Herbarti an


platitudes is merely one phase o fit The scientific p sy
, .

l
cho o g sts i are deeply to blam e — as I am included in the

reproach I can speak freely fo r not having by e xp e ri


ment and measurement rescued this ch apter o f all chap


ters from the clutch o f the old psychology .

The second law o f attention which I venture to pro


'

Law l
o f u te n
pose is the law of i n tensity o r brig htne ss according to ,
sit y.

which the i n te n sity of a sen satio n infl u en ce s the amo u n t


of atten tio n paid to it Here also we have no experi mental
.
re sults we must fo r our ex amples rely on the art o f
, ,

psychology rather th an on the science .

'

The shopkeeper well knows the e fle c t o fa gilded sign E xamp l . es.


The druggist s b right light forces you to notice him .

The headlight on the trolley car serves another purpose


-

in addition to lighting the track The Madison Squ are .

Garden in New York advertises itselfby its b right lights .

The clanging gong t he excruciating fish -horn the


, ,


rooster s crow and the college yell are all fo r the pur
,

pose o fattracting attention Fu ll b lac k le t t e rs fo r par


.

agrap h headings or advertise m ents are more e fl e ct iv e

than ordinary type or outline letters .

Cleanliness is not the only reason why a man -o f-war is


kept in a high degree o f polish Th e furnishings could
.

b e just as clean if painted with black asphalt b ut the ,

effect on the o fficers and m e n would be quite difle re n t .

It is difli cu lt to get full attention to duty and discipline


in a dingy vessel .

This same principle is applied in instruction An old App l i at i . c on to


t ea h i g c n
o r ru sty piece o f apparatus c annot com mand the s ame
.

attention from the studen t s as a b rightly v arnished and


n ickel plated one
- .

Students in a chemical lab oratory do not pay nearly as


good attention to their manipul ations if they work over
scorched stained tables an d black sinks The director o f
,
.

one l aboratory in Belgium cov ers his tables with fine ,

white l ava tops The expen se is at first great but the


- .
,

increased attention more than repays the cost E xp e ri .

ence has shown that the students working at those tab les
keep their glassware cleaner an d do their c hemical work
with more c are than those who work at the ordinary
wooden tables .

W e noticed the u se o f b igness fo r memorial purposes ;


Thin king , Feeling , D o i ng .

the u se o f b rightn e ss is also common The b rill ian cy .

o f stai n ed glass windows att racts at the present day as

much attention at a m o derate expens e as could b e at


tracted b y a costly be aut if , ul statue o r tab let .

Law o l ing
ffe r- . Th e th ird law I shall call th e law offee ling ; it can b e
stated in t his way The deg re e of atten tio n paid to an
ob j e ct d ep e n ds o n the i n te ns ig f
ro the f ee li ng a rou se d .

The feeling may be either o f liki n g o r disliking .

Painful se n sations arouse a strong dislike The .


b urned child dreads the fire it is equ ally true that a
burned ch ild watche s the stove The very name o f .

c roup strikes terror into t h e mother an d the slightest

hoarseness arous e s her attention .

Fe w feelings are so inten sely pleasu rab le as those o f


the young mother Watch the te n sio n the at tention
.

to ev ery movement o f the child .

In f ormer days b eauti ful objects were accompanied b y


inten sely pleasurable feelings W hen Giotto wished t o
.

give Florence a remarkable tower he made it o f w o n ,

dro u s be auty . When the Parisians wished a striking


tower fo r their exposition they got M E i ffel to make it
, .

the tallest o n e.

To celeb rate the victory o fhis chorus in the theater o f


Bacchus Lysikrat e s erected in Athens his famous
,

choragic monument E xquisitely wrought gracef


. ul in ,

its proportions rich in decoration perfect in its material


, , ,

it is the wonder and admiration o f the world True it .


,

is only thirty -f our feet t all and to day in competition


,
-

with the Ferris wheel would not attract the slightest at


tention unless it could b e used as the ticket office
— - .

In fact o u r crude western civilization o u r puritani cal


, ,

love o f the ugly an d o u r color blind Quakerism have


,
-

deprived u s o f any feeling fo r beautiful objects I fan .


appeal is to be made fo r attention through feeling it must ,

b e done in some other way The other way is generally .

b y u se o f the comic the grote sque or the hideous fo r


, ,

example the so called j oke s that are interspersed all


.
-

through our newspapers the cartoons o f P u ck an d the


, ,

colored supplements o fthe New York Sunday papers .

Person al pride is accompan ied b y strong feeling which P lp


e rsona ride .
brings attention to anyth ing necessary fo r its proper
m aintenance Vanity is closely connected with attention
.

to dress . The person al pride may extend to our club ,

o u r town — nay even to our country ; fo r not all


,

patriots are scou n drels some are m e rely vain , .


It was this same e sp rit ae co rps that Bonaparte knew
ho w to arouse Bis marck and Moltke won the Franco
.

Prussian War by the atten tion o f every soldier to his


duty .

The culminating point in education is the power t o at


'

tend to t hings that are in themselves in difle re n t b y arous


ing an artificial feeling o finterest There is hardly any .

thing o f less intrinsic interest to the student than an alyt i


cal mathematics such as algebra ; the treatment is pur
,

p o se ly deprived o fevery concrete relation Y e t we kno w .

that the power o fattending to such a subject can b e cul


t iv at e d
. Indeed I have heard that there are some mathe
,

m at ician s who even take an intere st in that science .

The fourth law o fattention which I shall propose is the


la w of expectatio n I had almost said o fcuriosity

, .

A step at the front door arouses a memory o fa b ell


ring ; the ear is prepare d to hear it Whether the mat .

ter concerns us or not this condition o fexpectation forces


,

our attention .

The peacock who lived next door to D e Quincey al


most maddened him by the expectation o f the coming
Thi n king , Fee ling , D o ing .

scream The actual scream w as a relief thereaft er the


.

attention became steadily more and more intense till the


moment o fthe next scream The law o f expectation is
.

used in a masterly w ay in D ickens s Mutu al Friend


’ ”
.

It is a characteristic o f succ e ssful n ewspaper writing


that the opening paragraph shall arouse expectation and ,

therefore attention The same principle underlies the art


.

o fwriting headlines .

Curiosity is expectation where the mental picture is


very indefinite We all kno w the story o f P T B arn um
. . .

and the brick .We can also understand why The [Ve zo
Yo rk [Je rald put large glass windo ws in its publication
building .

Scientific men are famed fo r strict an d ardent at


tention to their investigations The fascin ation o f re
.

search an d discovery lies in the vague expectation o f


something new The essence o f all science is curiosity
.

— the s ame every da good


- old homely curiosity th at
y ,

impels Farmer B ’
s wi f e to learn just how m any eggs

are laid by her neighbors hens that m akes Robbie pull,

ap art his tin locomotive to see ho w it works or th at in ,

duces kitty to stick her p aw down a knot hole in -

the floor The next time a scientific m an quotes th at


.

scandalous but true proverb about curiosity and


wom an let my fair readers ask him if he is a zo ologist
, , ,

why he pri e s into the housekeeping habits o fthe squirrel


( F a rmer B — ’
s wi f
e ) if he is a botanist why he pulls ,

your prettiest flower to pieces ( Robbie ) if he is an


arch a e ologist why his f
, riends so attentively poke them
sel v es into the pyramids an d tombs o f E gypt kitty d
( an

the knot hole )


-
.

Unsatisfied curiosity arouses still more attention .

M any papers still maintain pu z z le columns well knowing ,


t h at unsatisfied curiosity is a more intense form o f u n
s atisfied expectation Possibly the strange complicated
.
,

design s o n our magazin e covers are meant to be puzz le s


t hat can never be solved The reason o f the great at
.


t ention p aid to Stockton s The Lady or the Tiger
is to be found here .

It is a principle o f serial stories that each installment


s h al l end wit h an unsatisfied expectation This con
.

t ribute s more th an the merit o f the story to arousing the


attention o fthe reader who because he keeps thinking
, ,

o fwh at m ay h appen is f orced to buy the next number


,

o f the periodical in order to be relieved o f the tension .

The fi fth law o f attention is the law of chang e or the ,


Law o f c h an g e.

l aw o f unexpectedness the deg re e of atten tio n defie n ds


up o n the am o u n t an d o n the rap idity of the chang e .

Things indifferent and even things unpleasing m ay


l eave their impre ss by the severity o f the shock they
g ive .A fla s h o f lightning or a lo w door -lintel com
m ands n otice There is an old saying th at wonder is
.

t h e beginni n g o f philosophy Various things m ay be


.

m eant by wonder but one thing is the shock o f mere


,

s urprise or astonishment ; at an y rate an impression is

m ade .

In our reading we expect only straight lines The .

a dverti ser arouses attention by tipp in g them sl antwise .

The advertiser m akes frequent use o f this law com


b in e d with the law o f curiosity by putting in his notice
upside down .

A prominent effect o f attention is to shorten reaction


t ime an d thought time an d m ake them more regular
-
.

Th e comm ands o f a military captain are really sign als fo r


re action The first p art o f a military comm and is ar
.

ranged to serve as a w arning sign al to insure good atten


Thin ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

tion Shoulder ARMS l


— Right FAC E l The
” — ”

acts o f the men are simple reactions They are not as .

so c iations ; therein lies the reason why a command is n o t

given as a single expression I f the command were.

Fo rward march
-
, delivered as one expression the ,

soldier would be obliged to d iscriminate associate an d , ,

choose among twenty or thirty possible comman ds We .

h ave already seen that these processes not only take a


very long time but are very irregular ; moreover no ,

warning would have b een given The company could .

not possibly step forward as one man Whereas the .

command Fo rward MARCH


— causes all the men
tal proce sses except simple reaction to b e performed
beforehand every m an in the company has b ut one
thing to do his attention has been properly prepared by
,

the warning and the whole compan y should start together .

I venture to sugge st that the splendid drilling o f the


Att e n t io n an d Seventh Regiment N G S N Y is due to the intense
, . . . . .
,

p n dc
attention paid to the commands Although the men are
.

under drill only once a week they compe te with and


,

often surpass the regular troops who drill several times a


,

day . I kn ow from pe rsonal experien ce that the regi


mental pride w as something stupendous and that wh ile
under drill the mind was tun e d to a high pitch o f excite
ment E very thought w as on the captain the eye and
.

the ear were strained to catch the n ext command every


muscle w as waiting its orders from the will In fact it .
,


o ften seemed as though the muscles obeyed the captain s

orders without waiting fo r the man s own .

The u se o f the preparatory signal fo r the purpose o f



fixing attention is familiar in the sailors cry Yo ,

Ho whereby they can pull together .

A nota ble effect o f attention to one idea is the lack o f


Atte n tion .

atten tion to other ideas Henry Clay w as o bliged to


.

speak on one occasion when in very delicate health .

He asked a friend who sat b e side him to stop him


after twenty minutes When the time had passed .
,


the friend pulled Clay s coat b ut he continued to ,

speak .H is friend pinched him several times and


finally ran a pin into his leg Clay paid no attention . .

He spoke fo r more than two hours and then sink ,

ing exhausted he upbraided his friend fo r not gi ving


,

him a signal to stop at the proper time The signals h ad .

been give n b ut his mind w as so inten sely attentive to h is


discussion that everything else w as n eglected It is a .

well kno w n fact that we can forget griefs p ains even the
-
, ,

toothache when reading a fascinat ing b ook or watching


,

a forcible drama .

E xcessive cases o f this ef fect o f attention are seen in M f en o o ne

the men o f one interest an d the m e n o f one idea We



a 1 e .

have men who will listen to nothing but discussions o f


Shakespeare others whose sole idea lies in pork
, .

Going still further we find abnormal cases : arit hm o D i a se se s o f


ti
mania where the p atient is continu ally asking why the
,
at t en on .

houses are so l arge why the trees are so tall or where he


, ,

is continually counting the n umber o f paving stones in -

the street or the number o f rivers in a country ; meta


physical man ia where the p atient cannot hear a word
,
” “ ”
like good ,
b eautiful being etc without
, , .
,

irresistibly speculating on the problems o fethics mst he t ,

ics and metaphysics These and similar cases are in


, .

“ ”
cluded under the term o f fixed ideas The acute .

stage o f excessi v e attention is found in ecstasy .

The methods o f rapidly fatiguing attention h ave l ately


been brought into notice by hypnotic exhibitions Pre .

paratory to influencing a person by suggestion he is often


Th in king , Fee ling , D o ing .

reduced to a halfdazed condition by steady gazing at a


-

bright obj ect b y repeated bright flashes by monotonou s


, ,

noises by regular strokes o f the hand etc


, This , .

process consists es
se n t ially o fa f atigu e

o f attention It is .

g e n e r al l y c a l l e d
H yp no t iz ing .
h ypnotizi ng .

The name s e e m s
j ustified as t he re ,

su lt in g condition re

sem b les the so m


n am b u lic f o r m of
sleep where the p a
tient is half awake .

The m e a ns e m
p l o y e d are c l o s e
copies o fwell know n -

methods o f avoid
ing s l e e p l e s s n e s s .

Steady gazing at t he
ceiling the tick o fa ,

Fig 56 F at ig i g At t e t ion P pa at ry t
. . u n n re watch under the pil
r o o
H yp ti m
no s
lo w the hum o f a
.

dynamo on shipboard the ro ar o fthe falls an d the grind


,


ing o fthe mill the stroking o f the inval id s b row— thes e
,

have banished man y an hour o f hopeless tossing .


CHA P T E R VI I I .

TO UC H .

H E RE is a row o ften little disks 3 in diameter cut mm


, , An e p e ime
x r nt

from elder pith -


E ach is suspended by fine cocoon fib e r
.
-

from a little handle Fo r portability the h andles are


.

stuck in holes in a support Fig 5 7 Now pl ace your , . .

hand com fortably on the table and clos e your eyes .

Tell me when and


where you feel any
thing touch your
h an d . Without
letting you kno w
what I am doing I
take the h andle
with the lightest
weight an d let the
weight softly down
till it rests on your
hand ( Fig .

You do not know


that I have done T h w ight f r Fi di g th e
o uc - e s o n n
T h h ld res o .

so,
an d you f eel
nothing Then I try the next heavier an d so on till
.
, ,

you feel the pressure The little di sks are graded in


.

weight thus 1 m
, etc up to m m
, .
,
.

Now if the fourth weight w as the first you felt then


, ,

w as the least noticeable weight or the weight just on ,


Thin king , Fe e ling , D o i ng .

the threshold o f intensity This fact o f the threshold is


.

one th at we shall meet everywhere in the study o f mind .

The threshold o f sensation fo r the se n se o f pressure


m
in an average su bject was 2 : fo r forehead temples and , ,

m
back o fforearm and hand ; 3 8 fo r inner side o fforearm
m8 f
5 o r nose hip chin , , ,

m
and abdomen ; 5 ! r to
on inner surface
o ffingers ; an d 1 000 g
m
,

o n heel an d n ails .

So me idea o fthe del


icacy fo r distinguish in g
di fferences in pre ssure
can be obtained by lay
Fig 58 F i di g t h T h
. . n n h l d f t h Palm ing a h air on a pl ate O f
e re s o or e
rh Ha do e n
glass an d putting over
it ten to fifteen sheets o f writing paper The position .

o f the hair can easily b e f elt by p as sing the finger back


an d f orth over the surface .

Touching with movement giv e s much more delicate


j udgm ents than mere contact A book cover feels much .
-

rougher when the finger is mo v ed over it th an when it is


merely touched .

Something v ery peculiar occurs when a light pressure


T i kl
c e
is varied rapidly in intensity I f the tip o fa tuning fork
.

-
.


in motion be slowly touched to the skin it tickles , .

A tuning fork when in motion shakes ( or vibrate s )


-
.

A tuning fork can b e m ade to record just what it does


-

w hen it sh akes Glue a h air to the end o f the fork


. .

Smoke a piece o f window glass in a candle flam e fo r a - -

moment mov ing it about to keep it from cracking It


, .

will soon be co v ered w ith a l ayer o f smoke Hold .

ing the fo rk by the stem se t it sh aking by striking ,


itsmartly across the knee or edge o f a flat iro n wrapped
in several layers o f cloth With a quick movement .
,

draw the fork so th at the hair traces a line in the smoke .

A curve will b e drawn like that in Fig 4 . .

N o w if the fork be held with the end touching the


,

skin as in Fig 5 9 it is plain that the h air must be pro Wa


, .
, vy p re ssu re .

du c in g a fluctuating pressure The result is an unb ear .


able tickle This peculiar form o f pressure can be
.

called a wavy pressure A light wav y pressure then .


, , ,

produces a tickle .

The tickling pressure need n o t b e a true wavy pres

Fig .
59 . An E xpe rime n t in Ti kl i g
c n .

sure that is it need not be perfectly regul ar I fany o b


,
.

j e c,t such a s a e
f ather or the finger be held ligh tly ,

against the face a tickle is felt due to t he tremblin g o f


, ,

the hand .

The tickling thing need n ot stay at one spot but may , o r a, t he m e

b e moved along continuously A feather drawn over .

t he temples makes a strong tickle A fly walking ov er .


the ski n produces an un bearable tickle in exactly the

same way Stories o fthe Thirty Years War relate h ow
.

the soldier-robb ers forced the peasant to reveal h is treas


ure by su bj ecting him to unbearable tickle .

When a pressure is already felt it can be made ,

s tronger o r weaker to a certai n degree before the change


is perceived .

Expe rimen t .
The exp erimen t can b e made wi th a pair o f beam
balances The hand supp o rted b y a blo ck or cushion
.
, ,

Fig 60 . . Finding t h e Le ast No ticeable C hang e in Pressu re .

is placed de un th e al
sc e pan so that when the scal e is
r -

at rest the pan holder just touche s the skin ( Fig


,
-
.

To avoid th e coldne ss o f the pan a piece o f cork or ,

le ather is placed b etween t he h and and the metal .

The subj ect o f experimen t closes his eyes A weight .


is placed in the pan above the han d A sensation o f .

pressure is felt . Sand is quietly poured into the same


pan until the subject feels the pressure t o b e increas in g .

By putting weights in the other pan the amount o f in


creas e can be measured N o w start with the same
.

weight as before and pour sand into the opposite pan


until the subject feels the pressure to be lighter The L ast t i . e no ce
ab l ha g e c n e
amount o f sand that h as been added represents the least
.

n oticeable chang e or the threshold o f change in the


, ,

ressure Thu s if the weight at the start w as 5 0 8 and


p .
,

t h e amount o f sand added was 3 5 8 the leas t noticeable


,

change w as 3 5 8 or i t o f the original pressure


, .

Several facts will b e n oticed by those who perform


this experiment In the first place the least n oticeable
.
,

change depends on the rate at which the change is m ade .

Several funnels should b e used with the ends o fdi fferent


,

sizes. When one o f these is filled with sand the rate ,

at which the sand flows out depends on the size o f the

opening some funnels will allow the sand to flo w rapidly ,

others slowly . When the same experiment is repeated


'

with difle re n t rat e s o f flow it wil l b e found th at the


,

slower the flo w the greater the least noticeable change .

W ith a very slow fl ow the w eight can o ften be increased


two or three times over before the change is noticed .

N 0 one has ever tried to see if a great pressure can be A xt mely n e re

applied to the human ski n wi thout its being n oticed l w at


,
s o r e.

p rov ided the rate b e extremely slow A f


rog with
.

t he sp in al cord cut o f f from the brain is quite sensitive


t o a touch yet when a pressure is applied b y screwing
m m in one m inute h is foot
a rod down at the rate o f 0 0 3 .

can b e cru shed in 5 % hours w ith o ut a siga t h at t he pres

sure was f elt


.

The n ext point to he rem arked is that the least notice


Thin king , Fee li ng , D o ing .

able change depends o n the weight from which the pres


sure is started Roughly speaking if fo r a weight o f
.
,

8 the least noticeable ch ange at a certain rate is 8


5 0 , 3 0 , ,

or 6 0 per cent then the least n oticeable chan ge at the


, ,

same rate o 5 f r 2
,
8 w ill be 1 5 8 or 6 0 per cent
, n o t 3 0 8
, .

These two classes o f facts can be summed up in o n e


Ge n e ral law .

general law The thre shold o f change increases in


v e rse ly as the rate o f change but proportionately as the

starting p ressure .

Strangely enough although change an d rate o fchange


,

enter into n early every experience o flife almost n othing ,

has b een done in the experimental study o f the subject .

Several years ago I called attention to the importance o f


this factor o f the rate o f change Here fo r the first
.
,

time I have taken the liberty o f proposing the law o f


,

the threshold o f change It is based o n various o h


.

se rvat io n s I have made at di f ferent times nevertheless ,

no extended investigations on the subject h ave b ee n


made an d until these are done the law cannot be re
,

garded as definitely establ ished .

'

Le ast n o t ice The least n oticeable difle re n ce is quite another matter


able diffe re nce
from the leas t n oticeable ch ange The usual method o f
.

experiment e mploys a series o f weights successively


growing slightly heavier o r lighter from the s tandard .

E xp e rimen t . Suppose we start with a weight o f 20 8 as a standard ,

and h ave a se t o f weights increas ing o r decreasing su c


ce ssively b y steps o f 1 8 The standard is first applied
.
,

say to the p alm o f the hand


,
— the hand being at rest o n
a cu shion It is then removed and after ab out two se c
.
,

o n ds the 2 1 8 weight is applied f


, o r an instant The su b .

j e c t tells whether he feels it lighter he avier or the s a me


, , .

After a short time the standard is again used then t he


2 28 weight is applied This is continued with 2 38 248
.
, ,
etc till the subject has several times in succession felt
.

the weights to be heavier The first weight o f the u n .

broken succession o fheav ier weights gives the least notice


able difference Fo r example suppose a se t o f e xp e ri
.
,

ments to give the following results 2 1 equ al 2 2 heavier , ,

2 3 lighter 24 equal 2 5 heavier 2 6 heavier 2 7 heavier


, , , , ,

2 8 he avier Then the threshold would b e at 5 8 all


.
,

differences less than 2 5 20 being uncertain .

In a similar m anner the threshold o f difference can be


found with successively lighter weights Fo r a general .

threshold the average o f the t wo can be taken Fo r .

example if t h e threshold fo r 20 8 toward lightness is


,

8 and the thr eshold toward heaviness is 8 the average


4 5 ,
'

threshold is When difle re n t weights are used as


standards it quickly becomes app arent that the thresh
,

ference does not remain at the same number o f


o ld o f di f

grams F o r.a st nd rd
a a o f 2 00 8 the di f
ference o f5 8 w ill
not be felt at all The threshold will be more nearly
.

20 3 .

The results o fsuch a series of experiments are given in Resu l ts


.

t he f
ollo w ing table
8 1 2 5 10 20 50 1 00 200
D 25 57 80 100

3 1 a sl a a. 1 a. a. a. a.
1
1 .

Th e figure s in S give the di fferent standards ; tho se in


D giv e the least noticeable dif ferences those in tell
the relation o fthe least noticeable di fference to the stand
ard Thus fo r a standard o f 1 8 the least noticeable dif
.
,

feren c e is 0 28 or i 20 per cent


. F o,r it is 57 8 .
,


or1 s per cent .

It is e v ident that the least noticeable di fference does We be ’


rs law .

not remain the same but increases as the standard in


creases The famous law o f Weber would say that the
.
Thin king , Fee ling , D oi ng .

'

least noticeable difle re n ce increases in the same ratio as


the standard ; in other words that the least noticeable ,

di fference is always a certain fraction o f the standard .

This is not true fo r pressure as is seen b y the line o f ,

fractions fo r g accord ing to Weber s law they sho u ld


-

all be the same .

This law o fproportionality o fdifferen ces is recogn ized


in m any tax laws Fo r example the income tax de
.
,

m ands that each person shall p ay an amount in direct


proportion to his income The Mosaic tithe demanded
.

a tenth This is presumably all in the b elief that a m an


.

with $ 1 00 feels a payment o f$ 1 0 as much as a man with


feels one o f
In saying th at like differences are not differences o f
'

the same amount b ut are difle re n ce s depending on the


,

amount f rom which you reckon the law is unquestion ,

ably true But the relation o f pro


.

r t i n alit y is much too simple to meet


p o o

the facts .

It is a curious and interesting fact


that much finer differences can b e de
t e c t e d when the two weights are ap

plied one to each han d at the same time .

Let u s find the threshold o f space fo r


Th resh o ld of
the skin An ordinary pair o fdrawing
.

sp ace .

dividers can be used but accurate work ,

requires a b etter apparatus The com .

Fig 6 S im p l E s pass in Fi 6 2 consists f a hori ontal


. 1.
th esi m e to
e
e r.
g o . z

bar on w h 1c h sl1de th e two p o mts These .

points are held o n springs so that the experiment can


b e made at a constant pre ssure .

Place the tw o points at 1 mm apart Take the ae sthesi


E xpe riment .
.

o me t e r by the handle and gen t ly press the poin ts again st


the forehead o f some one who has his eyes closed and
who has n o t seen the adjustment o fthe points He is to .

say whether he f eels two poin ts o r one A t this distance


.

he will feel only one .

Adj ust the points to


2 mm and try again .

Proceed in this w ay
till he feels the t w o
points d i s t i n c t l y
.

N ow s ta r t w i t h a
Fig 6 Th C o mp l t E t h i m t
some w hat g r e a t e r . 2 . e e e s es o e er
.

distance and proceed backward t ill only one point is felt .

The average o f the two re sults is the threshold o f skin


space at the p articular pressure fo r the p articular place
o fthe p articular person experimented upon .

Here is a specimen table o fresults from Weber Res lt u s .

Tongue 1
mm

Inner side o f first fin ge r j oint


- mm
2 .

Lips ( red portion ) m m


5
mm
Inner side o f second fin g e r j oint 7
-

Lips ( skin )
Cheek big toe 1 1
mm
,

Forehead
Back o f hand m m
3 1
Leg m m
.
4 0
Neck mm
54 .

Middle o fback upper arm thigh 6 8 mm


, ,

It is a remarkable fact that the skin can be educated E du c at io n of


t h e S k i“
by practice so that the threshold is much reduced This .


can be measured directly by W eber s compass any one
with a pair o f dividers can try the experiment o n him
self
.

The blind who pay constant attention to their hu ger


,

tips have very small thre sholds Cu riously enough


, .
,
Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

their thresholds are also smaller on the back and on


other places which they do not use m o re than other
people . The superiority o f the blind in this respect
would seem to be due to increased attention to the skin .

A further evidence o fthis explanation is the fact that cd


u cat io n o f one p art o f the body brings a special decreas e

o fthe threshold f o r the neigh b oring parts and f o r the s ame

portion o f the opposite side o f the body The e xp e ri .

ment can b e performed in this way : First find the thresh


old fo r the front
o fthe w rist o fthe

left arm trying it ,

five times then


fi n d i t fo r t h e
same pl ace on the

right arm trying ,

fo r ten minutes
then on t r y i n g
again on the lef t
arm the threshold

will be found to
be less .

The fi 11 e n e s s
o f distinction f or

space on the skin


can be sho wn in
a simpler b ut less

Fig 63 T t i g a Ch ild i d a fS k i pa
. . es n

s e- o n s
a c c u r
ce
a t.
e w a y .

The person ex
p e rim e n t e d upon clos e s h is e yes S ome one
. touches
him with a p e n cil po in t and he mov es another pencil to
f

t h e point where he w as touched The e rror is measured


. .

There is an interesti n g application o f this experiment


which I will propose to mothers Young children cannot
.
Ex ri m e m
b e made to understand either o f the l ast two e xp e ri w it a ch i ld.

ments . An intelligent an d patient mother however , ,

can teach her child even b e fore it can talk to put its
, ,

finger to the spot o n which it is touched D ip the end .


o f the child s finger into something b lack e g soot , . .
, ,

pencil filin gs powdered graphite o r blacking


-
, , Touch .

the child with a pencil an d let him point to the spot .

Measu re the distance between the pencil mark and the


finger m ark .

Our experience h as taught u s that the various po rtions


o f the ski n stand in certain space
relations Thus we know th at some
thing touching the middle finger is
fu rther f rom the thum b th an something
touching the index finger When the .

fingers are o u t o f their places we are


irresistibly d riven to j udge as if they
were in proper order This is illu s
.


t rat e d by what is known as A ri stotle s
e x p e ri m e n t The m iddle finger is
.

crossed over the index finger m such a mg 64 A t u , ns o e s


11“
way as to b ring the tip o f the middle o

fi n ger on the thumb side o f the other A p e a or other .

sm all object when inse rted between the two will appear
, ,

as two objects It is di fficult to re learn the arrangement


.
-

o f the skin in sp ace We thus see why a person whose


.

nose has b een re formed by a piece o fskin from the fore


-

head fo r a while feels all contact on the nose as ifit were


,

contact o n the forehead .

A similar illusion is produced by placing a pencil b e Th e lip i ll usion .


tween the lips an d moving the under lip to o n e side - .

There are apparently two pencils .


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

The distortion o f space under unusual conditions is



fam iliar to person s in the dentist s ch air .

The distance between two points on the skin seems

Fig . 65 . L1p Ill u sio n 1 . l


Th e Re a ity ; 2. Th e F li g
ee n .

greater when the skin between these points is also


touched I ffour pins are pounded in a straight line into
.

a stick at one fourth


o fan inch apart the ,

distan ce between the


end pins will appear
greater t h a n t h a t
betw een two sep a
ra t e p i n s th r e e
fourths o f an inch
apart .

S m o o t lm ess
Th e d i s t a n c e s
an d m u g h m s'
apart o f the v ar1o u s
points th at we feel
are what we know
under the n ames o f
Fig 66 S pace as E t imat d by a Too th unde r
s e
s m o o t h n e s s a n d
T reatme t n .

roughness A b il .

liard ball is smooth that is our sensation s o f touch


-
, ,
are evenly distrib uted Carpet is rough th at is it
.
, ,

produces uneven sensations Sandpaper is peculiarly


.


rough, because very intense an d limited sensations
from t he sh arp s and are mingled with smoother ones
and gaps Velvet when felt backward has a peculi ar
.
, ,

rough smoothness because the separate points o f the


,

individu al hairs produce separate sensations yet they ,

are so near together as to resem ble smoothness Short .

nap plush has a similar feeling The smoothness o f


.


baby s ch e c ks can be contrasted with the skin o f the
inhabitants o f Brobdingnag .

I f a little cardbo ard triangle circle or square be I deas


, ,
o rm .
o ff

laid on the hand an d pressed down by the point o f a


kni fe or a pencil in the center we get a combin ation o f
,

pressures from every point on the surface Certain .

combin ations are said to belong to triangular objects ,

certain others to circular objects The pressures thus .

not only represent a qu ality o fsu rface but also o fform .

As the judgment o f distances is limited to distances


larger th an the threshold very small cardboard forms
,

all appear as points .


CHAPT E R IX .

H O T AN D C OL D .

I N TH E old days it w as supposed that heat and cold


w e re two different things even to-day the uneducated
person cannot grasp the idea that coldness is simply t he
absence o f heat that a piece o fice is cold simply becaus e
,

it is not hot But the modern de velopment o f physics


.

has shown th at heat consists o f motion among the littl e


molecules o f which all bodies are supposed to be com
posed an d th at as this motion becomes less the bodies
,

are s aid to be cold Thus a glass o fw arm water difl e rs


.
,

from a glass o f cold water simply in the fact that t he


molecules o f the water in the former are moving rapidly ,

while in the latter they are comp aratively quiet .

Strange as it m ay seem it w as discovered a fe w


,

years ag o that the ordin ary common sense o f every


day people was right . Not th at the science o f physics
was wron g but th at the conclu sion drawn w as in
,

correct Hotness an d coldness are two enti rely di ffer


.

ent things from o u r point o f view A glass o f water is


.

warm because it gives us a feeling o r sensation o f , ,

warmth another glass is cool because it gives u s an e n


t ire ly difl e re n t sen sation o f coldness The complete dis
.

tinction o f our feelings o f hotness an d coldness from t he


physical condition o fthe molecules o f the object touched
is emph asiz ed by an experiment in which the same object
feels both hot an d cold at the same time .

1 16
H ot an d Co ld .

Our se n sations o f hot and cold come from little spots H ot p ot a d s s n


1d 9 m °° 8 “
c alled hot spots and cold spots To find the cold spots .

a pointed rod e g , a l athe center a pointed n ail or


. .
, , ,

e ven a lead pencil is cooled and then moved slowly and


,

l ightly over the skin At cert ain points .

d istinct sen sation s o f cold will fl ash out ,

w hile elsewhere nothing but contact o r


v ague coldness is f elt These points are .

t h e cold spots a specimen arrangement o f


t hem is shown in Fig 6 7 . .

To find the hot spots the metal point is C


h eated and applied in a simil ar manner F ld
pf
i
Mfi
ig 67 .
.
o

Th e hot spots are everywhere di fferent


from the cold spots A specimen case is shown in Fig 6 8
. . .

At the art store get a fe w pounds o f plaster fo r casts M ak i a a t n c s

the finely ground pl ter not the ordin ry pl ter f f th a d


(
o e n
as a as o ,
~

Paris ) Mix it with water in a bowl ; Pour out a por


.

t ion into a tin pie pl ate Now press the hand ( palm or
-
.

b ack ) down upon it being c areful to touch the plaster at


,

e very point When the plaster has h ardened sufficiently


.

to permit the removal o f the h and without


sticking carefully raise it A perfect cast ,
.

o fthe h and is obtained with every line ex

pressed .

N o w prepare yourselfwith a gl ass o f ice


water a glass o f hot water some red an d
, ,

Fig 68 A R W
. .
some blue in k a pointed metal pencil ( or ,

S P“ M 8 a sh arp lead pencil ) and a couple o ftooth


3
,

picks Cool the pencil in the ice water D ry it and


. .

p ass it over the skin Whenever a cold spot fl ashes out


.
,

m ark its position in blue ink with a toothpick on the


cast The fine creases in the skin will enable you to
.

l ocate it ex actly Repeat this a fe w times till you are


.
,
Th in king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

satisfied that you have a map o f all the cold spots .

Warm the pencil in the hot water and find the hot spots
in the same way Mark them on the cast in red ink
.
.

When you have fi nished you will have a complete


geography o f your temperature spots o n a relief m ap .

Separate the cast from the pie -plate make a plush frame
fo r it and hang it up in your art gallery
,
Those o fyou .

Fig . 69 . Fi
ndin g l
t he H o t an d Co d S po ts .

who are willing to do a trifle more work can u se the im


pressed cast as a mold from which to get a hand in actual
relief Very fe w o f us can afford a gallery o fstatues o f
.

ourselves to b e transmitted as remembrances to our de


sce n dan ts
. Why should n o t such collections o f hands ,

with their hot and cold spots b e found in future centuries


,

in the ancestral galleries o four posterity ? Mental p e cu l


iarit ie s are o f as much interest as oddities o f dress ia
H ot an d Co ld
.

deed to our descendants they are o f far greater interest


,

and importance Any one who is willing to give a little


.

more time to the m atter might find out the threshold o f


touch ( page 1 0 3 ) fo r various places on the hand and
m ark the number o f milligrams on the cast .

In very accurate work we are troubled by the im p o s


sib ilit y o f keeping the metal pencil at anyw here near the

same temperature and by the uncertainty in m arking the


spots To overcome these di fficulties I h ave invented an
.

instrument fo r mapping the hot and cold spots o n the


skin It consists o f a pointed copper box whose sides
.

are protected by felt Through this box there runs a


.

steady stream o f water from a reservoir The w ater in .

this reservoir is kept at j ust the same degree o f heat by


means o f an automatic regul ator o f the flame A ther .

m o m e t e r in the copper box tells wh at the temperature o f


the point is By adding cold water from another reser
.

voir we can use any temperature we desire The little


, .

copper box is m ade to travel over the hand as it does


so a pencil travels j ust above a piece o fpaper When .

ever a spot is felt the person presses a t elegraph key


,

with the other hand by means o f a m agnet this causes


the pencil to strike downward and make a dot on the
p aper By these means an accurate map is autom atically
.

m ade .

The hot spots are ordinarily not sensitive to coldness


or the cold spots to heat Yet a very hot point applied to
.

a cold spo t so as not to reach hot sp o ts also will feel cold


o f course to a hot spot it is intensely hot
, It is note .

worthy that when the h and is applied to a very ho t or a


very cold object there is often doubt fo r a fe w moments
whether it is hot or cold .

The temperature spots answer to tapping by sensations


Thin king ,
Fe e ling , D o i ng .

of hot or cold . Fo r example ch o ose a sensitive cold


,

spot and let some one tap it with a fine wooden point
it will feel cold Thrust a needle into it ; it w ill feel no
.

pain .

In studying the subject o f touch we had occasion to


notice a certain law o fchange ( p age D oes such a
law hold good f o r hot and cold ? By experiments wi t h

the spot apparatus mentioned above I was able to prove


that it did t he smallest noticeable change depends on the
rate o f change But that complicated apparatus is not
.

necessary to illustrate the law anyb o dy can do it by means


o fa l amp and a spoon Let some one else hold the spoo n
.

An e xp e rimen t .

b y the extreme end you you rsel f put your finger about
h al f w ay down the handle The bowl o f the spoo n is
.

n o w held over a l amp so th at it will slowly become hot .

I f the lamp shines too hotly on your hand you can put ,

a screen in front After a while the handle o f the spoon


.

under your finger begins to feel slightly warm Lift the .

finger and immediately place the same finger o fthe other


hand on the s ame place The spoon wi ll b e found to be
.

quite warm or even pain fully hot When the heat was .

radu al y increased it was scarcely noticed but when


g l ,

suddenly increased it w as clear at once ; in short the ,

sensitiveness to heat depen ds on the rate of chang e .

At l
a v e ry s o w Although a frog j umps readily when put in warm
rat e .
water yet a frog can be boiled without a movement if
, ,

the water is heated slowly enough I n one experiment .

F i
( g 7 ) . 0 the w ater w as he ated at the r ate o f 0 00 2 C .
°

’’
( Tziziw o f a degree Fa hrenheit ) per second the f
rog
never moved and at the end o f two and one h al f hours
w as f ound dead He had evidently been boiled without
.

noticing it .

It seems very strange that this law o fmental li fe should


H ot an d Co ld .

h ave remained unnoticed so long I n mech anics we I mp ta . or n ce o f


t h 1aw e .

study the velocity o fa point this wou ld correspond to the


rate o f change in se nS at io n Physiologists have proven
.

that in experimenting on nerves and muscles the e ffect


depends on the rate o f change From psychological .

writers we h ave heard it repeated


ad n au se am that there is no con

sc io u sn e ss without ch ange What .

a little step it is to the statement

that our appreciatio n o f a change


depends on the rate o fch ange .

After all every one o fmy read


, E xamp l e.

ers has discovered


the l a w a l r e a d y .

Why h o w t a l l
,

you h a v e g r o w n
s i n c e I l a s t s aw
you exclaims the
Fig 7 B ili g a F w it h t H i K w i g it
V l S l t O I Who h as not
o n ro ou s n
w itha E t m l y Sl w
' . 0. no .

N S at o ens to n n x re e o
Rat “ Ch a g
s e e n R o b b i e fo r e n e

“ ”
three months D o you really think so ? asks the
.


mother . I had n o t noticed it The visitor had kept .


in mind Robbie s picture as she last saw him an d the ,

change to the re al Robbie o f the present w as sudden .

To the mother the change had b een gradu al .

There is a curious connection between temperature an d


pressure Cold or hot b odies feel he avier th an bodies o f a d p T m p at e er u re
n ressu re .
.

equ al weight at the temperature o f the skin Fo r cold .


,

take two silver dollars keep o n e o f them closed in the


hand to give it the temperature o f the skin but cool the ,

other Apply them in succession to the palm o f some


.


o ne s hand The cold o n e w ill seem much heavier
.
,

which suggests a pleasant mean s o f illusion f o r the poor


1 22 Thin king ,
Fee li ng ,

m an .Heat does not make so much difle re n c e as cold


.

Fo r a successful experiment take two wooden cylinders


o f equal weight and heat one very hot in an oven.

Apply the cylinders on end to the back o f the hand.


CHAPT E R X .

S M E LL AN D TA S TE .

IN I of
the antiquity o f language we have n o
S P TE
No names f
or
names fo r smells Whe n we notice an odor we n ame it
.
,
l
sme l s .

by the source from whi ch it comes We speak o f the .

odor o fviolets o f n e w-mown hay o fonion s an d so on


, , , ,

b ut we have n o n ame fo r t h e odor itself .

The structure o f the smell organs in the nose h as


bee n studied most min utely and accurately their anat
o my ,as the science is called is well known The , .

chemist can tell us accurately concerning most o f the


bodies from which we o b tain smells Strange as it may .

seem t h e f, acts that interest us most o f all the smells ,

themselves have been neglected by science


, .

The lack o fnames fo r odors is very curious especially ,

b ecause such a lack is not present in sight hearing o r , ,

eve n taste W e m ight say that certain th ings taste like


.

sugar certain o thers like quinine and so o n b ut that


, ,

would b e only a roundabout way o f saying they were


” ”
sweet o r sour Instead o fclassifyi n g the colors
.
,

as grass color dandelion -color


-
, coal color etc we say ,
-
, .
,

green yellow black etc But in smell we can only


, , , .

speak o f cabbage -odor fishy odor violet -odor and the ,


-
, ,

like fo r the language lacks names entirely


, .

Not only do we have n o names fo r odors we do n o t


N o re aso n f
or
know any reaso n why different things smell alike Why . rese m blan ces
.

sh o u ld c o mpo u n ds o f arsenic smell like garlic ? I fwe


Thin ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

mix sulphuric acid with water we get an odor like musk , .

It is said that emeralds rubies and pearls ifground to, , ,

gether fo r a long time give out an odor like that o f ,

violets Again ringworm o f the scalp the body o f a


.
, ,

patient sick with typhus an d a mouse have sim ilar odors , .

Perfumes can o ften be placed in similar groups The .

rose type includes geranium eglantine and violet eb ony , ,


-

the jasmine type lily o fthe valley and ylang ylang the
,
-

orange type acacia syringa an d orange flo w e r the


,
-
, ,

vanilla type balsam o f Peru b enzoin storax tonka


, , , ,

bean ( usually sold fo r vanilla extract ) and heliotrope ,

the lavender type thyme and marjoram the mint type


, ,

peppermint b alsam and sage the musk type musk and


, , ,

amber seed the fruity type pear apple pine apple and , , ,
-
,

quince .

Wh at is the threshold o f smell ? There is a co n v e n


Th re sh o ld of
sme ll . i c h t but n o t highly accurate way o f answering the ques
tion by means o fwh at I sh all call the smeller ( o lfac
t o m e t e r or smell measurer )
,
-
.

The smeller includes a glass tub e ( Fig 7 1 ) fastene d


l
.

act o me t e r
O f .

on a narrow b oard Inside this tub e is a .

n arrow strip o f blotting paper moistened -

with the o bject to be smelled A solution .

Fig 71
. . Olfa t
c o m e t e r, o r S me ll m
- e asu re r .

of camphor in alcohol is convenient the solution dries ,

leaving the strip filled with small particles o f camphor .

Any other not too odorous liquid may take the place
o f th e camphor solution Inside this tube is a smaller .
one on the end o fwhich is a piece o frubber tubing A .

scale is marked on the b oard b elow th e tubes .

The end o fthe smaller tube is pushed to the end o f E xpe rim nt e .

the larger o n e The old air in it is blow n out The rub


. .

ber tube is put to the nose The smaller tube is now


.

slowly drawn backward while th e perso n b reathes in air


,

through it When he first perceives an odor th e dis


.
,

tance through which th e smaller tube h as been drawn


from the end o f the larger one is noted Now the fu r
, .
,

ther the tube is drawn b ack the greater the distance


,

over the b lotter traveled by the air breat hed ; co n se


quently there is more o f the camphor odor in the air .

The number thus noted down gives an idea though ,


not a very accurate one o f the person s threshold o f
,

smell .

The threshold o fsmell will often be found to be di ffer


ent fo r the two nostrils .

In the whole ra n ge o f psychology there is n owhere


to b e found a more striking method o f illustrating the
'

difle re n c e b etween the difle re n t thresholds o fknowledge .

As the smelling tube is pulled backward the ob server


-

at first notice s no odor the odor is said to b e b elow the



threshold After a while he says
. I smell something
, ,


but I can t tell what it is a sensation is there it is ,

known as an odor ; it h as passed the threshold o f se n


sation b ut has not reached the threshold o f recognition
( if I may use suc h an expression ) The odor .becomes
stronger and stronger ; finally the observer exclaims ,

N o w I know the odor let me think a moment and I

will tell you the n ame . Very frequently he recogni z es
the odor without being able to recollect the name The .

difle re n ce b etween the threshold o f sensation and the


threshold o f recognition is o ften considerable I f the .
Thi n ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

odor is still further increased the name fo r usual sub , ,

stances is readily recollected


, .

Our sense o f smell can be fatigued Holding a piece .

Fatig ue o f c amphor f o r some minutes be f ore the nose will raise


the threshold fo r camphor W ith an ol factometer .

charged with camphor the threshold as measured b efore


fatiguing the sense o f smell will b e found to b e much -

lower than the threshold afterwards Sometimes the .

fatigue is so great that the smell o f camphor is entirely


lost. The cook soon ceases to notice the b oiling
cabbage w hich appears so very odorous to a person
,

just e n tering the house The only way to live with


.

people w h o e at onions or garlic is to eat them your


sel f; in a double sense when in Rome do as the R 0
, ,

mans do .

Strangely enough the fatigue afle ct s some odors an d


not others I fthe sense b e afl e ct e d by camphor fatigue
.
-
,

the smell o f wax will be dimi n ished or lost but essence ,

o f cloves will appear undiminished in strength .

A whole laboratory can be found in the garden and


in the pantry — a
l aboratory that has hitherto been put
to little use fo r psychology I suggest to my readers
.

th at they try the e fle ct o f fatigue o f the odor o f one


flower say tuberose on the odors o f other flow ers
, , .

We h ave two senses o f smell the two halves o f the ,

nose As it is difficult to attend to two things at the


.

Tw o se nses o f
ll
sm e . same time it is but natural to expect that we cannot at
,

tend to both halves Such is the case When two dif


. .

fe re n t smells are received one from each organ we are


, ,

driven to notice first one then the other When


, .

roses and water lilies are both present we smell the


-

combination o f both but when a rose is placed in o n e


paper tube and a water lily in another and the tubes are
-
S m e ll an d Taste .

so arranged that the odors get to separate nostrils


without mixing we do not smell a combination b ut
, ,

alternately either rose or water lily We can smell either


- .

one in preference to the o t her b y simply thinking about


it. It is a very curious fact that w e are unable to think
o f the sam e odor
steadily our thoughts
irresistibly turn from
one to the other and
thus the smells alter
nate .

S 11 c h experimen ts E xp e rimen t .

are possible to every


one b y use o f paper
cones . A sheet o f
paper is rolled into
the shape O fa can dy Fig 7 Alt m at i
2 fO d ; o r th e
e on o o rs
S t if ft h Tw N t il
. .

horn the small end r e o e o os r s.

is trimmed o ff to fit the n ostril The fl ower is placed .

b efore the large end ( Fig . Odorous substances


( pe rfumes ) pl aced in b ottles under the large ends c an

b e compared in a similar manner .

The gre ater attentio n paid to sight and hearing has


apparently caused a neglect o f smell and a consequen t
deterioration The acuteness o f smell among animals is
.

well known Among certai n persons this sense also at


.

tains great development I have a case reported by a


.

perfectly compete n t witness who lived fo r years with t he


perso n mentio n ed o fa woman in charge o f a boarding
-

school who always sorted the boys linen after the wash , ,

b y the odors alone .

Fo r the tastes we are much better o ff than fo r the


smells ; we h ave n ames f o r them We say that some .
Th in king , Fee ling , D o ing .

thing is sour , that it is sweet et c an d do not , .


,

need to n ame the taste after the object .

Fl a
v o rs du e to
The great diversity o f fl avors o f objects is due m ainly
sm e ll .
to smell When a cold in the head inj ures the ability to
.

smell the flavors o fthe dinner table lose their value


,
-
.

E xperiments on t aste without smell can be m ade by


filling the nose cavity with w ater while the head is in an
inverted position simply holding the nose without
breathing is almost as good .

When the sen se o f smell is entirely lost the ordinary


Lo ss o f sme ll .

flavoring syrups such as vanilla currant orange straw


, , , ,

berry an d raspberry give merely a sweetish taste with no


, ,

distinction among them Lemon syrup tastes sweet and


.

sour. Candies flavored in this way taste alike Mustard .

and pepper produce sh arp sensations o n the tongue


there is no difle re n ce between them except that pepper
is sharper neither produces a real taste Te a does not .

difle r from w ater or c o fle e Rhine wine f


, rom diluted vin
egar Ginger an d cloves are alike Powdered cinnamon
. .
,

when pl aced on the tongue o f a person whose eyes are


closed and whose nose is held between the fingers is ,

considered to b e like me al .

Wines o w e their bouquet entirely to smell The most .

exquisite Schloss Joh annisberger does n o t di ffer from


diluted vinegar as far as taste goes The wines o f E ast .

ern Prussia are reputed to b e at present good fo r n ot hing


but to m ake vinegar whereas in olden times they were
,

considered good This has b een used as an argument t o


.

prove th at the clim ate has ch anged ; a much simpler ex


pl anation is th at the early Prussians owing to defective ,

development o fthe sense o f smell did not know the dif ,

fe re n c e s among good wine poor wine and vineg ar


, , .

Co fle e likewise owes its fl avor to smell Boiled coffee .


S me ll an d Taste .

has lost its aroma an d is merely a combination o f sour


and bitter Through unpardon able stupidity pepper is
.

always served ground and consequently odorless the ,

little Germ an pepper -mills being unknown in America


Cla i fi at i
.

ss c on
When all smells and touch and temperature sensa ft a t o s es .

tions are gotten rid o f the things we taste can be sorted


,

into six di fferent classes sour sweet salt bitter metal , , , ,

lic alkaline and their combinations Characteristic ex


, , .

amples o f these are found in lemon juice sugar salt , , ,

quinine zinc and washing soda


, , .

This does not mean that we experience only those six


C mbi at i o n on of
tastes . The elementary tastes can be combined in ta t s e s.

countless ways Thus sweet and sour when combined


.
,

produce a result that is neither sweet nor sour but dif ,

f rom either while resembling both Un fortunately


e re n t f .

psychologists have not attempted to unravel the com


pound tastes into their elements .

Probably no more convenient or striking illustration Th h ld re s o .

o fthe threshold can be presented than in experiments on

taste .

The threshold fo r sweetness can be found by using a Th h ld re s o of

solution o f sugar o f known strength A n ounce o f w t


.
s e e n e ss .

sugar dissol ved in twenty ounces o f water makes a five


per cent solution Fo r simple illustration it is suffi cient
.

to place a spoon ful o f sugar in a small wine gl ass o f -

water Some pure drinking water and two medicine


.

droppers are to be provided .

A small glass is used pre ferably a graduated med,

icin e glass containing one ounce o f pure water


,
With .

one o f the dropp ers a quantity o f the sugar solution is


taken up ; one drop is allowed to fall into the water .

The water is then stirred with the other dropper ; a


small quantity is taken up in it an d one drop o f this
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

homeopathic solution is allowed to fall o n the tongue o f


the person tested He w ill not taste anything o wing to
.
,

the extreme dilution The experiment is repeated add


.
,

ing one drop each time till a taste is noticed The num
, .

ber o f drops used will indicate the threshold o f taste .

I f the five pe r cent solution and a graduated glass have


been used it is an easy m atter to calculate j ust how
,

st rong this least noticeable taste is .

Similar experiments can b e made with salt quinine , ,

acid and alkali The most convenient solutions to use


,
.

are sugar 5 per cent ; quinine


, per cent tartaric
,

acid,
per cent salt 2 per cent ; sodium carbonate
, ,

per cent .

To avoid the c fle c t o f suggestion it is advisable to


have more than one solution ready and not to let the
person tested k n o w w hic h is being used .

How far the education o fthe sen se o fsmell can be car


ried is shown by the t e a tasters who can tell the locality
-
,

from which e ach chest o ft e a comes .

Our appreciation o f a taste depends on its quantity .

A single drop o f sugar solution on the tongue does not


seem so sweet as a mouth ful .

It is a ve ry curious fact that a weak sen sation o f taste


o fone kind can be m ade to strengthen a taste o fanother

kind. I f tw o glasses o f water be equally sweetened ,

one o f them can be made to appear sweeter by


adding a minute quantity o f quinine powder This is a .

fact which the cook mu st not make u se o f The only .

other similar case that I know o f occurs in hearing .

Some partially deaf persons can hear much better in the


midst o f a noise This is usually expl ained on purely
.

physiological grounds but there is a possibility o fan ex


,

planation on the ground that the mind would n aturally


S me ll an d Taste .

lump in a ve ry weak sensation o f an y kind w ith the


stronger one .

Some o f the peculiarities o f flavors are due to feelings Tast with e


t h
o f touch o n the tongue Soda water and champagn e ouc .

stimulate the tongue by the fine b ubbles that they give


off Pepper and mustard produce an agreeable irrita
.

tion Puckery substances such as raw quinces act as


.
, ,

the name implies All such touch sensations are not .

tastes although they and the smells enter into the flavors
,

o f things .

Sour tastes are accompan ied by touch This can be .

So a d u rn ess n
brought out clearly in a series o f experiments We b e t h . o uc .

gin with a ve ry weak solution o f the acid so weak that ,

it seems like water when tasted As it is m ade a trifle .

stronger first a slight pucke ry feeling appears even b e


, ,

fore the person experimented upon notices any sourness .

By a little increase in the strength the sour taste is made


to appear also When the sour taste b ecomes very
.

strong a burning sensation is felt at the same time


, .

When we begin with a weak solution o f salt an d S alt i a d ness n


t h o uc .

make it successively stronger the taste appears first , .

Later a weak burning sen sation is felt ; this steadily


,

increases but never overpowers the taste as in the case


o f sour things .

With a solution o f sugar made steadily stronger a S w t e a d e e n ss n


t one
tness appears before the taste Then the
feeling o f so f .

taste is most prominent With a very strong solution .

we get the feelings o f slipperiness an d stickiness as in ,

honey and syrup With saccharine ( an intensely sweet


.

substance ) the touch sensation s are present but not so


prominent .

With b itter solutions made successively stronger a B itt a d , e rn ess n


t o ne
fatty smooth sensation appears be f
,
ore the taste There .
Thin king ,
Fee ling , D o i ng .

after the bitterness is most prominent With pure .

quinine the bitterness overpowers ev erything no matter ,

how strong the solution W ith quinine sulphate or


.

chloride the ve ry strong solutions are more or less burn


ing .

Ta t
s e an d It is a curious but uninvestigated fact that tempera
t e m pe rat u re
ture likewise has an influence
.

Let equal quantities o f water be placed in tw o tin


cups and let one cup be heated Then if the same
, .

quantity o f lemon j uice or an y sour solution be


dropped into each the warmer solution will taste sourer
,

than the cooler one .

I f a sweet solution be tried in the same way the ,

cooler solution will be the sweeter .

Now we can understand w hy housewives do not


sweeten the rhubarb sauce till it is cool I f they .

sw eeten it to ta ste while cooking the acid taste will


,

be stronger an d much sugar w ill be required ; when


served cool on the table it w ill be too sweet .
CHAPT E R XI .

H E A R I NG .

AM O N G the many s ounds that we hear we generally


make a classification into tones an d noises Pleasant .

sounds like those o f a flute we call tones unpleasant


, ,

ones like those o f escap ing steam rumbling wagons or


, , ,

screech ing parrots we c all noises This is only a con


, .

v e n ie n t w ay o f sorting sounds Very many if not


— .


most sounds are either tones or noises according to the
point o f vie w A jumble o f piano tones is a noise
.
- .

The scraping o f a violin produces a n oise in the hands


o f a beginner an d passes gradu ally f rom noise to tone as
skill is acquired A block o f hard wood when struck
.

makes a noise yet we call the same sound a tone when


the block o f wood is one o f the notes o f a xylophone .

In a simple tone three properties are to be noticed : P p t i ro e r es o f


t o ne .

( )1 pitch, ( )
2 intensity ( 3) duration,
.

As the finger is slid up or dow n the violin string we P it h i t ,


c n en sit y.
d at i
,

hear changes in the pitch o f the tone As the bow is .


ur on .

drawn h arder or so fter against the string we hear ,

changes in the intensity or loudness As the tone is


, .

continued fo r a longer or a shorter time we hear changes ,

in duration .

We are so accustomed to saying that tones are


“ ”
high or low that there seems to be really some
,

thing high o r lo w about them We might however .


, ,

j ust as well call the bass to n es high This naming o f .

1 33
Th in king , Fee ling , D o ing .

the tones according to our notions o f space is derived


from the Middle Ages . The old San skrit terms meant
“ ” “ ” “ ”
loud and soft ; the Hebrew w as audible and
“ ” “
deep the Greek was low and high in ex
ac t ly the opposite meaning to ours The Latin was .

simply a translation o f t he Greek words fo r acute



an d grave and the modern Romance languages ,

like the French retain the Latin terms I n the Middle


, .

Ages it was customary to speak o f ascending an d de ‘

scending it is fio m this that German and E nglish prob


'

ably derive the highness an d lowness o ftones .

E x t e n di n g th e Starting from the middle o f


ran g e o fp it ch
the piano run the scale down
.

toward the left The low est tone .

is very deep and S haky Start .

ing again run the scale up to the


,

right The high tones sound shrill


.

and tinkling What would h appen


.

if the piano received lower and


lower tones o r higher an d higher
,

tones going on as long as we


,

pleased ?
Lo w e st t o n e .
To produce tones lower than the
tones o f the musical instruments
gigantic tuning forks over a yard -

long h ave been m ade The w ay .

tuning forks vibrate has been ex


-

plained on p age 1 0 4 The prongs .

are f urnished with weights As the .

weights are moved toward the ends


G ‘ f“
33“ éfigLfls

i3 e fgt t h e tone sinks lower and lower In
A g
.

u eib l Tm
e'
a short time weak puffs are heard in
addition to the tone each pu f
,
f corresponding to a single
movement o f the prongs Finally the tone disappears
.

entirely leaving n othing but p u fls The point at which


, .

the tone disappears is called the lower limit o f pitch o r ,

the threshold o f pitch .

This lower limit is di fferent fo r difle re n t persons I t .

is generally at about twelve com


p le t e vibrations per second Some .

persons however h a v e b e e n
, ,

found who cannot hear eve n the


lower tones o f the piano E ven .

the lowest tone o f a l arge organ


at thirty two vibrations p e r second
-

seems to some persons to be wavy .

Going upward in the scale we


can proceed far b eyond the piano Tes t fo r t h e
g
.

h i h e st t o n e .

The test can be m ade with a se t


o fsmall tuning f orks or small steel
-

b ars. It is most conveniently i

done with the Galton whistle ( Fig l .

This whistle can be altered


in length b y a screw cap As it - .

is m ade shorter the tone rises By .

means o f a scale marked on the


barrel the pitch o fthe tone can b e
calcul ated .

The highest audible tone has 1 9 S t in f n g 0 u


-
o; e ..

b een found to be very di fferent fo r £25


di fferent persons To some per
.

sons even the highest tones o f the piano are silent .

Others again can hear even up to vibrations or


more per second The position o f such a high tone
.

would be musically indicated by the notation given in


the margin .
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

Ro bert Franz the composer o f the music to


,

Bu rn s s

My Highland Lassie in 1 8 4 2 lost all the tones from
,

E upward in consequence o fthe whistle o fa locomotive


8
.

In the following years he lost two hal ftones more so -


,

that in 1 8 64 he heard nothing ab ove


The sound o f a cricket is not heard by some person s .

I cannot hear the squeak o fa bat b ut b elieve on author ,

ity that it does make a sound Many people cannot


,
.

hear the shrill squeak o f a mouse When singing mice .

are exhibited some people who go to hear them declare


,

that they can hear nothing others can hear barely some ,

thing and others again can hear much


, .

It has also b een noticed that as a person grows older


Ef
fe c t o f ag e .
he loses his power o f hearing high tones The persons .

themselves are quite unconscious o f their deficiency so


long as their ab ility to hear lo w tones remains unim
paired I t is an amusing experiment to test a p arty o f
.

persons o f various ages including some rather elderly ,

an d sel fsat isfie d person ages


-
They are indignant at .

being thought deficient in the power o f hearing yet the ,

experiment quickly shows that they are absolutely de af


to sh rill notes which the younger persons hear acutely ,

an d they commonly betray much di slike to the di scovery .

Such persons should be com forted by the fact that every


one has h is limit Sen siti v e flames have been found to
.

be powerfully affected by vibrations that are too rapid


fo r ordin ary ears .

Lim it e d ran e g In some person s the upper limit o f pitch is very low .

g
o f h i h t o n es .

It is related o f Mr Cowles an American journ ali st


.
, ,

!
Th e nde d that t he su cce ssive o c tav e s o f t he
re ade r is re m i
scal e are indic at e d b y sm all fig u re s Thu s C C C C C -2 -1 0 I 2
.
, , , ,

e tc indicat e t he su cc e ssiv e C s o f t h e scale
.
,
C is m iddl e C I
.

The o t h e r n o t e s are t re at e d l ik e w i se .
that it w as not until he w as twenty fiv e years o fag e that
-

he became perfectly cogni z ant o f his defect Up to this .

time he had treated all he read about the songs o fb irds as


nothing more or less than poetical fiction To him b irds .

were perfectly mute ; an d he w as perfectly deaf to the


shrillest an d highest notes o f the piano fife or other , ,

musical instruments At length after con siderable


.
,

pains he w as convinced th at he l abored under some de


,

fe c t o f hearing
. When put to the test in a room where
a l arge number o fcan ary birds were singing very loudly ,

he declared he could not hear the slightest sound e v en ,

when placed close to their cages Moreover it w as


.
,

found th at all the sibil ant sounds o f the hum an v oice


were equally inaudible In al l other respects h is hear
.

ing w as perfect .

It is an interesting m atter o f specul ation to consider


all the tones we might still he ar if our range o f pitch

extended higher As a consol ation we m ay remember


.

what shrill sounds we now escape .

The question arises : When the whistle is too high fo r


some person s to hear but not too high fo r others does it ,

p roduce tone s ? Thi s I w ill leave as a nut to crack ;


“ ”
much can be said on both sides .

Galton the inventor o fthe whistle relates that he has


, , H ig h est to n e f
or
ammals
gone through the whole o f the Z o Olo gical Gardens ,
.

using a cane with a whistle at one end and a b ulb at the


other . He held it near the ears o f the anim als and
when they were quite accustomed to the can e h e would
blow the whistle Then ifthey pricked their c ars it showed
.

th at they heard the whistle ; ifthey did not it w as probably


in audible to them O f all creatures he found none su
.

perior to cats in hearing sh rill sounds cats o f course , ,

have to deal with mice an d find them out by their squeal


Th i n ki ng , Fe e ling , D o i ng .

ing A cat that is at a ve ry con siderable distan ce can be


.

made to turn it s e ar around by sounding a note that is


in audible to almost any human e ar Small dogs also .

hear very shrill notes b ut large ones do not At Bern


,
.
,

where there appear to be more large dogs lying idly about


the streets than in an y other large town in E urop e ,

Galton tried his cane whistle on them fo r hours together


-

but could not find one that heard it Nearly all the lit .

tle dogs he met w ould turn around .

I fl
n u e n ce of Curiou sly enough the height to which we can hear
i n t e n su y
depe n ds o n t he
.

st r e n g t h o f the

sound The results .

o f speci ally m a d e

e x p e r i m e n t s are
shown in Fig 75 . .

The figures at t h e
bottom indicate the
r e l a t i v e inten sities
o f the bl ast o f the

whistle ; t h u s t h e
strongest tone used ,

2 50 w as fiv e times ,

as strong as 5 0 the ,

Fig 75 Th H igh t A dibl T


e es u a D eweakest one The
one s e
I t it y
. .
.

p d t
en en on n ens .

figures at the left


indicate the p itch o f the highest audible tone fo r six dif
fe re n t persons At 50 fo r the person ( F) the tone w as
.

lost at vibration s all above that being unheard


, .

At 1 00 he heard to about at 1 50 to etc .

P it ch is
Between the upper an d lower limits o f pitch the tones
i
c o n t n u o us .
do not advance by steps as in the piano but continu
o u sly as in tuning a violin string In other words there .
,
is an un b roken range o f tone except in a fe w defective ,

ears where portions o f this range are lacking .

What is the least di fference in pitch that can be


noticed ? Suppose that a violin is being tuned to an
other one o r to a pitch pipe ho w nearly can we get it
-
,

to an exact match ? The fact that some persons cannot


match tones as well as others is m ade plain by a fe w
trial s .

We wish however to get a measurement o f the ex


, ,

ac t n e ss to which we c an judge tones or in other words , , ,

the accuracy with which difle re n c e s b etween tones can b e


detected This can be done b y comparing a tuning fork
.
-

carrying an adjustable weight with one that remains al


ways the same As the weight is moved toward the
.

ends o fthe prongs the tone is lowered as it is moved


,

toward the stem it is raised , .

Such a pair o f forks is


shown in Fig 76 . .

The standard fork makes


the same sound as the
weighted fork when the
weights are in the middle
at 0 . The standard fork
is first sounded Then af .

ter about three seconds the


other is sounded Th e per .

so n hearing them says at

once whether he can detect


a difle re n c e in pitch or not “ ‘
g?
8 0‘
“ .

'

I fhe says No the weights


, ,
D fl ‘ e fe n c e

are moved a short distance toward the stem and the


experiment is repeated This is continued t ill he de .

t e cts a di fference whereby the weighted fork is higher


,
Th in king , Fe e ling , D o ing .

than the s tandard This di fference is called the least


.

noticeable difference or the threshold o f di fference , .

Instead o f a fork with adjustable weights a serie s o f


A t h r wa
no ey f slightly di f
o fering f orks can be used To prepare such a .

p im
ex er ti g en n
seri es a dozen or more common tun i ng forks all al i ke are
.

obtained The pitch o fa fork c an be raised b y slightly


.

filing the ends o fthe prongs it can b e lowered by filing


the prongs near the stem Select one o fthe forks as the .

standard Strike the standard and another fork at the


.

same time making them sound more loudly by resting


,

them on the table or holding them opposite the two cars .

I f they are in the proper condition a single smooth tone


w ill be heard N o w with a file slightly scrape the ends o f
.

the two prongs o fthe second fork and sound them again , .

I f the filing has been su fficient the sound n o w heard will ,

not b e smooth and e ven but will appear to wav e between ,

weak an d loud ; o ften the forks will appear to say wow “


,


u wow u w o w u
- etc This peculiar c fle c t is called a
- - -
, .

beat It is known that the number o f b eats in one se c


.

ond is the s ame as the di fference in the number o fvibra


tion s in one second By counting the beats fo r four or .

fiv e seconds the di f ference between the two forks c an


be readily determined I f the second fork is too .

high in pitch it is filed more at the ends ifit is too low


, ,

it is filed more at the stem In this m anner a whole se t .

o ff orks can b e obtained difle rin g by slight steps Fo r ,


.

example a convenient se t is th at o fA
, 4 35 as a st and I

ard with the other f,


orks 4 36 4 37 etc as far as one has , , .
,

a min d to go The preparation o fsuch a series is some


.

what l aborious an d to fulfil all requirements is some , ,

what expen sive owing to the l arge number o f forks


,

needed to pro vide fo r all ears from the finest to the coars
e st When the series is complete the standard is com
.
,
pared with each in succession in the same w ay as with
the adj ustable fork until the just noticeably di fferent fork
is fo u nd
.

Just as the threshold o f difference is determined fo r E xt ensio n o f


t h e e xp e ri me n t
a rise in pitch so there is a threshold fo r a fal l in pitch
.

, .

The weights are started at the points where the two forks
give the same tone I n successive experiments the
.

w eights are moved toward the pron gs so that the tone


o fthe weighted f ork is repeate dly lowered Finally the .

di fference becomes noticeable This is the poi n t at the


.

threshold o fdifle re n ce downward in pitch .

AS there is some difli cu lt y in finding out j ust what the Th e to n e -t este r.

pitch o f the fork is fo r each position o fthe weights and ,

Th e T o n e-t e st e r
.

as the performance o f these experiments takes a great


deal o f time a more convenient instrument called a
, ,

tone tester has been devised It consists o f an adjust


-
, .

able pitch pipe B fastened to a plate A To the regu


- .
Thin king , Feeling , D oi ng .

lating rod C a long arm D is fastened which is moved ,

b y the handle E As C is moved inward the tone o fthe


.
,

pitch pipe rises As it is moved ou tward the tone falls


-
.
, .

E ach movement makes a change in the po sition o f the


pointer The tone tester is compared b eforehand w ith
.
-

a care fully tuned piano to determine the position o f the


pointer when the pipe gives A o f concert pitch This .

position is marked at A 4 35 in the illustration The .

figures mean th at at this po int the whistle makes a ton e o f


4 35 vibrations per second In the same manner the. su c

ce e din g notes are settled Th e spaces are then su b di


.

e i
v id d b y the eye into th rty seconds o fa tone
- .

I ts u se .
To make the experiment the po inter is placed at A ,

and the pipe is blown fo r an instant Th e pointer is t hen .

moved upward o n e mark and after ab out tw o seconds ,

the pipe is aga in sounded Th e person experimented .

upon tells if he hears a difference Th e experiment is .

repeated starting ,

with A every time ,

till a difle re n ce is
heard In a similar .

manner the difle r


ence b e l o w A i s
found .

I n exper i m e n t s
E x pe rimen t s o n made on a num b er o f
l l
sch o o c h i dre n .

N e w Haven school
children t he accu
r a c y in detecting
d l fl e re n c e s w as
Fig 78 E in H e arin
rro r D e c rease s w ith Ag e
fi fO 11 n d
to I n cre ase
. .

fro m 6 yea rs ( at t h e eft) t o 1 9 years


( at t h e
with age The re .

su lts are S hown in Fig .


78 . The distance along the b ot
tom indicates the age beginning at six and ending at
,

n ineteen The distance upward indicates the number o f


.

thirty seconds o f a tone that co u ld be detected The


-
.

smaller the number the lower the irregular line and the
,


more acute the child s car .

There is another and perhaps more important threshold T h h ld f res o o


ha g c n e
to be found than the threshold o fdi fference namely the
.

, ,

threshold o f change Almost all the experiments o f


.

psychologists have been confined to the threshold o fdif


ference I have lately called att ention to this threshold
o fch ange and to the f act that it is an entirely di fferent
thing from the other .

The threshold o fchange can be illustrated by starting


the tone at A and raising o r lowering it continuously
till a di fference is noticed I have succeeded in proving
.

that the least perceptible change varies with the rate as ,

in temperature ( p . but have not been ab le to accu


rately determine the relation .

These experiments give the thresholds only fo r A


4 35. F o r the neigh b oring tones the pointer is started
in the positions marked on the scale Fo r more distant .

tones other pitch pipes wo u ld be needed


- .

There is another mental fact closely related to the A a f cc u r c o


y
tone threshold but not quite identical with it n amely
- t j
- dg m t
, ,
o ne u en .

the accuracy o f tone judgment Suppose we have two


-
.

forks almost b ut not quite alike in pitch I f we sound .

them in succession we sometimes detect the di fference


, ,

sometimes not It is evident that fo r the same pair o f


.

forks the sharper car will detect the di f ference more f re

quently than the duller ear .

The experiment is performed in the following way .

Three forks are provided two o f them are exactly


alike the third is slightly di fferent The person tested
, .
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

is seated with his back to the experimenter Th e ex .

p e rim e n t e r strikes two forks in succession the person


tested says at once whether they are the same or di ffer
ent Suppose he says D i fferent ifthey were really dif
.
,

fe re n t the experimenter records one right answer Sup .

pose he says Same ; ifthey were really di fferent the ex


,

p e rim e n t e r records one wrong answer N 0 record. is made


o f the experiments with the two f orks that are really the
same as they are introduced merely to avoid prejudice
,

o n the part o f the person experimented upon The ex .

p e rim e n t e r fin a lly counts up the total number o f e x p e ri


ments with the two really di fferent forks and the number
o f correct answers to these f orks Fo r example if
.
,

there were twenty five expe riments in which the di fferent


-

forks were used and fi f teen correct answers the accuracy ,

o fjudging this particular tone di f ference can b e stated


-

fo r this particular person as it or 60 per cent


, W ith a .

greater di fference between the two tones the percentage


o f correct answers will o fcourse be greater
, , By using .

the same di fference the relative accuracy fo r difle re n t


persons can be ascertained .

Th e threshold di f fers greatly fo r di fferent persons


Resu l ts .

Fine ears h ave been found that will detect a di fference


.

o f less than hal f a vibration in tones between B


°
1 20

an d B
2
Such observers can distinguish over

di fferent tones within the octave B to B ‘
.

E xt re me cases.
On the other hand it is not uncommon to meet per
,

sons who can hardly distinguish two neighboring tones .

In fact one case is reported o fa well educated man who


,
-

ha d been unable to learn music in any w ay It was .

found th at he could not tell the di f ference between any


two neighboring tones o f the piano Between the low .

est tone and the highest he found a very great di fference ,


b ut when the scale was run fro m one end to the other
the change o f tone appeared continuous and not by
steps In the middle regions o f the scale he could not
.

tell apart tones forming an interval less than a third ; in


the upper and lower regions the interval had t o b e a
septime an octave or sometimes something still greater
, , .

I f a low tone b e sounded then a medium o n e and Fi di g t h


, , n n e
m iddl t e o ne .
then a high o n e we can tell whether the middle one is
,

hal f way b etwee n the t wo extremes o r n o t Musical in .

Fig 79
. . Apparatu s fo r Finding the M iddle T o ne .

stru m e n ts cannot well b e used fo r this experiment as


their tones are n o t simple b ut very complex ; they intro
duce great errors in to the res ult By u s in g tuni n g forks
- .

perfectly p u re tones are ob ta inable .

The arrangement fo r this experiment is shown in Fig Apparat .


us.

T hree tuning -forks 1 2 3 are placed b ef ore ad


79 .
, , , ,

j u stable b oxes o r re sonators


,
I I I I II Fro,
m e ach .

resonator a rubb er tube leads to a general tub e s which


runs through doub le walls a to a dista n t room where the
person experimented upon puts the end 0 to his car .

In front o f each box there is a movable cover which


can b e pulle d aside b y a string Suppose the forks are.
Th in king , Feeling , D o i ng .

so unding the observer in the d istant room hears nothing


,

till one o f these covers is pulled aside .

Fork 1 is selected as a lo w fork fork 3 is selected as ,

a h igher o n e and fork 2 is adjustab le b y weights


, The .

forks are sounded in succession 1 2 3 or 3 2 1 The , , , , , .

observer tells whether fork 2 is properly adj usted to be


in the middle o r not .

Th e results indicate that our estim ates do not follow


Resu lt s
Fo r example if the extreme tones
.

the musi cal scale .


,


be C 2 5 6 vi b rations and C vibrations the
1
5 1 2 ,

middle chosen will o n the average be G 8


3 4 vi b ra ‘

tions This is counting b y vibrations j ust half way


.
, , ,

b ut according t o o u r musical scale it is nearer the upper


, ,

tone Likewise if the extremes b e C


.
, 2 5 6 and
l

’ ’
C the middle will b e about C 8 4 0 and n o t

C 5 1 2 .

W e have seen t hat everybody is deaf to very high


tones an d t o very low tones What about very weak .

tones ?
The first requirement is a tone whose intensity can b e
Ap parat us .

varied This can b e provided in m an y ways


. The .

simplest plan is t o u se an e lectri c tuning fork in t he -

manner shown in Fig 8 0 A magnet b etw e en the prongs


. .

o f the f ork keeps it in motio n electrically Th e electri c .

cu rrent is b roke n at every vi b ratio n o f t he f ork As it .

p asses through the wire coil it sets up electrical currents ,

in the other wire coil n ear it W he n a teleph o ne is c o n .

n e ct e d t o t his secon d co il a tone can b e heard b y plac ,

ing the telephone to the c ar This t on e can b e weakened .

b y moving the secon d coil away from the fi rst o n e .

Th e perso n t o b e tested puts the telephone to his e ar .

E xp e riment .

The second coil is placed far from the first n o sound is


heard It is gradually moved nearer till the ton e is
.
h eard . Then it is placed close to the first coil ,

a lou d tone bei ng heard an d is gradually moved away


,

till the tone is lost The average o f t h e t w o results


.

g ives a fi gure f
o r the dea f
ness o f the person .

Fo r rough tests a watch is oft en used The watch is C d . ru e


xp im e er e nt s.
s teadily b rought nearer to o n e c ar ( the O pposite o n e

b eing closed ) till the tone is heard The distance o f


.

Fig . 80
. E ve rybo dy is S o mew h at D eaf . Fin din g
the T l I
h re sh o d o f n t ensity.

t he watch from the ear indicates the threshold fo r sound ,

o r the degree o f de af ness This method is very u n re


.

l iab le the chie f di f


,
fi culty b eing the disturbance b y out

s ide noises .

Prob ab ly no better ill u stration o f this method o f fin d Ill ust rat io n .

in g the threshold could b e found than distant footsteps


h eard in a still n ight All is silence
. Th e assassin in
.

h is hiding -place feels secure f rom pursuit Suddenly he .

n otices a f aint sound is it pursuit or imagin ation ? It


Th i n king , Fee ling , D o ing .

becomes louder an d distinct enough to be clearly though ,

faintly heard ; avenging j ustice is at hand The in .

tensity o f the sound at the first hearing represents t he


threshold The pursuers come nearer and nearer b ut
.
,

never think o fsearching the b ushes b y the wayside Their .

footsteps die away in the distance ; the last f aint soun d

disappears at the threshold Silence escape at last . .

Th e bl e ssin g of
We are fortunately all deaf E very mo v ing or
, , .

de afii ess V i brat i ng ob ect i n th i s world would produce a sound t o


j
an e ar sensitive enough to hear it W hat should we do .

if our ears were so sen sitive that the f ootsteps o f every


person between New York an d California could be heard
by a pe rso n in Chicago ?
We are un fortun ately not deaf enough to meet t he
, ,

demands o f modern civiliz ation The incessant battery .

o f noise and racket from rumbling wagons factory ,

whistles car gongs college clocks clanging bells hous e


, , , ,

pianos crow ing roosters whistling b oys and other


, , ,

diabolical inventions h ave b een potent factors in produc


ing what is know n abroad as t he American disease ,

neurasthenia or nervous b reak down Until asphal t


,
-
.

p av ements rubber tires and law s against noise are in


, ,

t ro du c e d on this side o fthe Atlantic there is no remed y ,

but artificial deafness by stopping up the ears .

A special notation has been invented to indicate tones .

The first complete notation fo r pitch is attributed to Guid o


Aret ino in the eleventh century Three centuries later .

the notation fo r duration w as introduced by Jan de


Meurs Naturally the presence o f exact means o f ex
.

pression fo r these tw o quantities afforded opportunity fo r


progress in the artistic execution on the one hand
an d f o r scientific research on the other The subject o f .

pitch has reached a high degree o f development The .


duration tones is also a matter o f technique that has
of

been carried to a great degree o f precision in practice ,

although it has b een scarcely investigated scientifically .

We are all fam iliar with the sta ff notation fo r pitch Th e s t af


f
i
n o tat o n
and duration Fo r example
.

.
,

indicates a certain tone o f a definite character lasting


through a definite time it is the tone A with the length
o f one f ourth o f a whole note By internation al agree
.

m ent this tone has b een fixed definitely so th at it is


t h e same in pitch throughout E urope an d America ;
b y a remark at the beginning o f a piece o f music the
e xact f raction o f a minute occupied by a quarter note is -

readily given .

Imagine the condition o f music when the composer C o m po se r an d


o rm e r
e rf
indicated the pitch but left the duration and time to the p .

likings o f the performer Im agine the condition when


the composer could indicate the pitch and the length o f
t h e tones but could not indicate their loudness o r their
“ ”
form I said imagine fo r the latter case I meant to

say notice — fo r th at is the condition to day
-
.

The intensity o f tones has been neglected it must be


remem b ered th at we are not speaking o f the semi con -

scious use o f the di f ferent degrees o f intensity in the


execution o f a piece o f music but to a deliberate use o f
,

t he sh ades o f inten sity


. In music the con sideration is
'

confined to the five vagu e expression s fi f m p pp


, , , , , .

When a group o f tones is to be m ade rather loud put ,

a n f over it . H o w loud ?just as the per former feels .

All o f the same loudness ?ju st as the performer is in


Thin king ,
Fee ling , D o ing .

clin e d Are all the tones without these letters to be o f


.

the same strength ?j ust as the performer is disposed .

These five vague grades cover only a fe w tones out o f


the thousands in a piece o f music The composer is .

powerless to give an y indication o f the wo n derfully del


icat e sh adings in the intensity o f the di f
ferent members
o f a group o f tones the performer is le ft without help .

Two good performers o n the organ will execute the sam e


music with utterly di fferent e ffects because they do as
they please with the intensities o f the tones Which .

'

e fle c t did the composer intend ? Nobody knows .

It is to overcome this difli cu lt y that I propose a sys


tem o fnotes to include shades o f intensity Suppose .
,

fo r the present that we agree upon nine grades o f in


,

Fig 81 Meth od fI di
o n cat in
I
I nt
IN
n sit y i; n o t es
I
Lo u dest b y
D
Bl kac
i fiy ‘vht it
. .
, ,

‘v est e.

tensity be twe en the weakest and the strongest the in st ru


ment is successfully capable o f Then we can introduc e .

a system o f shading to indicate grades o f intensity j ust


as the heraldist uses shading to indicate colors S uch a .

system is show n in Fig 8 1 . .

This would cover the case in instruments like t he


° f the
533? piano where there is no control over the form o f the
,

note Most instru ments however can produce tones o f


.
, ,

difle re n t form s Fo r example suppose we are producing


'

.
,

the tone

on the violin We can make it steady in intensity from


.

beginning to end ; we can b egin softly an d go louder ,

or the reverse ; or we could rise and sink in succession .


To indicate these di fferences we might use note -heads
o f the forms E] <l l> c where the fi rst means a steady
tone the second means an increase from soft to loud the
, ,

third a decrease from loud to so ft and the fourth a rise ,

and a fall in succession o r a crescendo , .

The head o fthe note ought not to b e u sed to indicate


duration In the p resen t system duration is shown b y
.

the hooks o n the stems o fthe notes except in the case N tati , o on fo r
d mm u '

o f the whole and hal fnotes where a di f


- fer ,

ence is made in the head o f the note This .

change in the head o fthe note is unnecessary


-

fo r the indication o fduration and can b e em

ployed to indicate intensity A v ery slight .

change is thus necessary in the present no


tat io n we can re tain the usu al method o f
indicating pitch and the usu al S igns fo r
duration with the exception o f the two fo r
the whole note and the halfnote These can - .

b e indicated by two lines across the stem o f


the ordinary quarter note fo r the whole n ote
-

and one fo r the hal fnote- Consequently Fi .

the series o f notes as regards d u ratio n will


D mm
b e that shown in Fig 8 2 representing the
.
,
u ‘

whole h al f quarter eighth sixt ee nth and thirty


, , , , ,

second notes respectively .

Whenever it is desired to write m u si c without regard


to intensity it can b e done in the same way as at pres
,

ent wi t h the su bstitution o f the two n e w signs fo r the


whole and hal note or it can b e done as u sual withou t
f
-
,

any danger o f there b eing a mistake in the playing o f


it Moreover the comprehension an d the e xecution o f
.
,

pieces in the usual style will not be in the least inter


fe re d with .
Thin king , Fee ling , D oi ng .

Suppose we wish to indicate a hal fnote o fmedium


- in

tensity and even duration we have Or an eighth


note of loud intensity and staccato form , Or a
whole note weak b ut
, of crescendo form ,

Whe re are the tones we hear ? With one closed e ar


Lo cat io n of
so u n ds.
the sounds we hear have no definite position We kno w .

th at a certain rattling must be down on the street b e


cause wagons cannot be u p in the air the song o fa bird
cannot b e under o u r feet But a plain tone is nowhere
.
,

or rather anywhere Take a seat in this high backed


, .

.
-

chair let some one hold your head firmly so that you
cannot turn it P ut your finger tightly in one ear and
.

close your eyes Now I m ake clicks with a snapper


.

sounder or I strike a glass with a spoon Point to where .

the sound is I f I vary the intensity o f the sound so


.

that you cannot reason the matter out your an swers are ,

generally wrong .

By turning the head you can get an idea o f the place


because you kno w that sounds straight out sidewise are
stronger than in any other direction .

Open b oth ears but keep the eyes closed Now you .

u dg m e n t w it h
t h e ars . c an tell me j ust where the so u nd is You d raw u n c o n .
,

sc io u sly an in f
, erence from the relative intensity o f the
two sounds from the two c ars But whenever I snap the .

sounder equally distant from the two cars you are al ,

w ays wrong Imagine a sheet o f glass passed through


.

the body div iding it into two h alves symmetrically Fo r .

all sounds in this plane you are utterly at a loss I sn ap .

my sounder under your chin you declare that it is b e


hind your back I snap it at your feet you say it is in
.

front o f your nose .


CHAPT E R XII .

C OLO R .

C O NS I D E R the lilies o f the field Solomon in all his C l i a fa t o or s c


” f mi d o n
glory w as not arrayed like one o f these ! And yet
.

flowers have no color the rain b ow has no color all


, ,

nature has no color apart from the mind o f the person


,

seeing it The flowers are b eautifully colored to us b e


.

cause we se e them Those poor un fortunates who are


.

totally color blind se e nothing but light and shade ;


-

those who are red blind or green blind see the world in
- -

mixtures o f green an d violet or red and violet ; every


one o f u s di ffers from every one else in his color visio n -

and sees the world in colors that di ffer fo r each person .

'

The flowers have no colors ; they send o fl physical


vib rations called vib rations o f ether but colors exist
, ,

only where there are the eye and the mind to transform
th ese vibrations .

With the physics o f light we have nothing whatever


to do except to provide apparatus fo r experiment ; our
problem is the study o f color sensations In the first .

place we shall treat the color sensations o f the great


majority o f mankind Those o f my readers who are
.

color blind will o f course soon find it impossible to


-
, ,

understand what the rest o f us are do ing ; they must


wait fo r special attention .

A large amount o f experimenting on the subject o f


Th l -t p e co o r o .

color c an be done b y means o f a properly selected

1 53
Th in king ,
Fe e ling , D o ing .

package o f colored papers ( such as are used in the


kindergarten ) and a color top or a color wheel The
- -
.

color top w as the invention o f the great physicist Max


-

well it was used b y Helmholtz fo r his investigations on


color There are numerous .

forms o f the color top ; the -

miniature one shown in Fig .

8 3 has b een prepared at my


suggestion The cost o fthese .

t ops is so trifling th at they


can be gi v en to school childre n

b y the thousa nd like le ad


Fig 83 The Co l -top
,
. . or .

pencils or b lank books while ,

at the same time the indi v idual instruction thus o b


tain e d by every child makes the top more e fli c ie n t th an
the color wheel
- .

More convenient and accurate is the color wheel -


,

which has developed from the color top The best - .

equipment o f wheel and disks is that used by the

Fig . 84 . Th e Co l o r-w h e e l .

physiologist Hering Fig 8 4 shows how the high


. .

speed o f the disk is obtained by successive wheels .

The di sks fo r top an d wheel di f


fer only in si z e E ach .
disk has a hole exactly in the center to go on the axle
a slit runs straight from the edge to the hole .

To put two disks o f the same size together they are C l -di k , o or s s .

slid over each other by means o f the slits as shown in ,

Fig 8 5 . In Fig 8 6 the two disks are shown ready to


. .

place on the axle Th e proportions o f the two colors .

can be chan ged at will by slidin g one disk around on


the other .

When the top is spun or the wheel is rotated the dif ,


M th d f e o o use .
fe re n t colors combine I f fo r ex ample the red disk .
, ,

Fig 85 P tti Tw D is k Fig 86 Tw o D isks w ith S c a e l


To g ge
. . u n o s . . .

e r .

and the violet disk are placed together the whole space ,

will seem purple when the top is spun rapidly I f the .

disks when still show hal fred and h alfviolet the com
, , ,

b in e d color wi ll be a rich purple if there is more red


than violet the purple will b e reddish and l ikewise the
,

reverse .

The first experiment to be m ade begins with spreading S o rt in g l


co o r
s .

the colored papers on the table It is desirable to have .

a gray table cloth Choose any single color ; place it


- .

on a clear space Then place the paper next like it .

close b eside it Continue till all have b een used


. .
Th i n king , Fee ling , D o ing .

Necessity o fa I f the package o f papers is complete you will soon ,

syst e m .

get into trouble unless you proceed methodically .

Adopt as a principle that when two papers di ffer b y b e


in g lighter or darker you will arrange them in a straight
line with the darker end toward you .

Suppose you have started with red then you will find ,
H u e , sh ade ,
t i nt . say five reds alike except f
,
o r their whitenes s or dark

ness . Call them red light red very light red dark , , ,

red very dark red The bright red itsel f we will call a
, .

hue o f red The dark colors we can call shades o f red


.
,

the lighter ones tints o f red .

Very similar to this red yo u will find a red th at is


slightly like orange with all its shades and tints This
,
.

we will call orange red Likewise you will find in .

succession reddish orange orange yellowish orange , , ,

orange yellow yellow greenish yellow yellowish , , ,

green green bluish green greenish blue blue vio


, , , , ,

let blue bluish violet violet purplish violet violet


, , , ,

purple purple reddish purple and purplish red Fo r


, , ,
.

each o fthese there are the appropriate shades an d tints .

Suppose you write the main colors in a horiz ontal


A l
c o o r syste m .

line as indicated in heavy type in Fig 8 7 N o w write .


, .

all the tints above in smaller letters and all the shades
below Suppose that you find two tints passing o ff
.

tow ard white ; fo r example fo r red you have light red ,

and very light red You indicate them by LR an d .

For the sh ades you have dark red and very dark
'

LLR .

red D R and D D R You will put O R beside R LO R


, .
,

beside LR D O R beside D R etc , Continuing fo r all , .

the colors you get the complete plan in Fig 8 7 Fo r


, . .

black we use D instead o fB which would be confused with


blue black is D ark n e ss -
.

But w ith purplish red you are only one step from red ,
and the only way to b ring it next to red is to cut the
scheme o u t and bend it around into a cylinder .

But all the light colors o r tints pass o ff toward I ts final fo rm ,


, ,
t h e co l o r-
co ne .
white an d all the dark colors or shades co n v e rge
, , ,

Fig . 87
. g ammat i A
D ia r c rran g e me n t o f th e Co lo rs .

toward black they ought to be closer together than the


other colors By cutting out the fi gure along the zig
.

zag lines you can b ring all the points together at the top
and at the b ottom You will then have a double
.

pointed cone like th at in Fig 8 8 . .

We are only finite limited human b eings and cannot Th i fi ity


, e n n of
l c o o rs.
even grasp the idea o fthe infinity the unlimited num b er ,

o ff ull colors in the spectrum series Red fo r example .


, ,

includes a large number o f di fferent reds passing grad


u ally toward orange We h ave divided them into red
.
,

orange red reddi sh orange an d orange but we might


, ,

j u st as well have made ten twenty or any number o f , ,

subdi v isions .

The fact that tints are w hitish colors is known to those T i t a n s re

who use paints It can be proven by use o f the color w h it i h l s co o rs.


.
Thi n king , Fee li ng , D o i ng .

top. Place together the red disk an d the white one


with almost no white showing ; the resulting color is

red. Add more white the resulting color is a red tint .

Add more an d more white the red p asses th rough su c


c e ssiv e ly lighter tints til l pu re white is reached The .

s ame is true o f the other hues Tints are mixtures o f


.

colo rs with white .

The s h a d e s a r e
we aker colo rs Hold .

S hades are
k l
w e a e r co o rs . red and a shade O f
red squarely to the
light Keeping the
.

s h a d e i n fu l l light ,

gradually tu rn the red


away so th at it grows
d arker At a certain .

degree o f darkness it
will match the sh ade .

P l a c e a red and a
b l a c k disk on the
color top and grad -

u ally ch ange t h e i r
proportions The red .

p a s s e s th rough all
s h a d e s into black .

Since bl ack is absence


o f light t h e re d i s ,

s i m p l y decreased in
Th C l -
e o o r c o ne .
inten sity .

With the top you


can illustrate the fact th at between a bright red and
black or betwee n a bright red and white there are
, ,

countless intermediate shades and tints .


In our scheme o fcolors we have white and black but
R lat ion f
,
e o
no grays I fyou take the color cone in Fig 8 8 an d grad
. l t b la k -
. co o rs o c .

f the light the whole collection o f colors b e


u ally cut o f ,

comes dimmer an d dimmer till all even the white pass , ,

into black In a dense night all colors are black


. .

Hold a piece o fwhite p aper squarely to the light then What i g ay s r

gradually turn it away It becomes darker and darker .


,

grayer an d grayer Gray is therefore only d arker


.
, ,

white .

Take the same piece o f paper into the su n light It is What is w hit ? .
e

much whiter th an before Wh at we thought w as white .

w as only a gray af ter all Lay the paper on new fallen .


-

snow Alas ! our whitest p aper is a sorry gray when


.

comp red with snow white


a - .

The brightest an d purest white is the light o f the su n Ab ol t w h it s u e e .

at noon on a clear day All other whites are grays We . .

Whit e . g
Li h t G ray . M e diu m G ray . D ark G ray . Bl kac .

FI G . 89 . Th e G rays .

c an therefo re stretch a line from the whitest white to the


blackest black and h ang all the grays in between Since .

the se t is continuous an d unbroken we will call it the se t


O fg rays h aving white as the whitest gray an d black as
,

the blackest gray .

I f we put a bl ack an d a white disk together on the


color top we can imitate most o f the grays by ch anging
-
,

the proportion s o fthe two O fcourse we cannot come .


,

anywhere near true white or true bl ackness .


Wh at is known as the absolute white is the light

S t an dard w h it e .

o f the su n at midd ay in a perf ectly clear sky The .

st an dar white fo r practical u se is the color o f m ag


n e siu m oxide held in such sunlight it is whiter th an sno w .
Thin king , Fe e ling , D o ing .

To produce the standard white take a piece o f glass or


mica and hold it over burning magnesium tape Your .

frien d the photographer is famili ar with this process .

His flash light is almost as go od as the m agnesium tape


-
.

It is a good thing to keep such a standard o f white ;


by comp ari son you will find that m any white objects are
tinged with red yellow blue etc , , , .

The line o f grays passes through the middle o f the


color cone from W to D
-
.

Co l o re d g
rays .
I f we mix the colors with gray we get colored grays .

Thi s is readily done by using


three disks on the color top -
,

a color black an d white Thus , , .


,

red mixed with difle re n t pro


portions o f black an d white
gives reddish grays or as our , ,

bric a brac friends would say - -


,

shades o fterra cotta By using -


.

orange we get the orange grays , ,

or b rowns .

Th e b igh te st
r
Th e brightest hues to be
l
c o o rs i n n at u re .

found in nature are produced


by allowing a ray o f sunlight
to fall on a spectru m grating -
.

This grating consists o fa num


ber o ffine lines or more ,

to the inch carefully ruled on ,

glass or metal When a ray .

Fig 9 S p t m f m a G at i g
0 e c ru ro r n
o f sunlight fall s on this grat
. . .

ing it is spread out as a band o f color By looking


, .

at the grating directly the colors are seen without an y


,

contamin ation by reflection from objects The b and b e .

gin s with violet an d passes through all the colors o f the


rain b ow to red After the red comes the violet again
.
,

followed b y the whole succession up to orange After the .

orange comes purple followed by blue an d so on The


, , .

band o fcolor really consists o f a series o f rainbows the


second an d third overlap so th at violet an d red make
purple the third and fourth overlap still more and so on , .

The standards o f color are found in the seri e s from


red to violet an d in the purple The standard colors S ta da d f
.
n r s o

from red to violet are al so produced when a prism o f


l c o o r.

glass is placed in a ray o fsunlight The colors from red .

to violet are called the spectrum colors Fo r the sake .

o fconvenience we sometimes add purple .

Nature uses the raindrops like prisms to form the rain


bo w . We may call the spectrum colors rainbow colors ,

b ut must remember that the great amount o f white light


in the sk y mixes some white with them .

A moderately fair idea o f some o f the rainbow colors A t ifi ial l r c co o rs.

can be gotten from colore d obj ects .

There is no pure red pigment in common use The .

common idea o fred is an orange red like vermilion A .

very fair red may be obtained by mixing the pigments


crimson lake and vermilion The deep ruby o fthe photog
-
.


raph e r s l antern is a very pure red The red browns .

represent the shades o f red The common poppy is a


.

b eautiful red .

Orange peel is a very fair representative o f orange O a g


-
. r n e.

R e d lead is o range with a slight mixture o fred Saffron .

is also a very f air orange The sh ades o f orange form


.

the orange browns The glo w o f a coal fire exhibits


.

very fairly all the tints an d shades o f orange The n as .

t u rt iu m is a ch aracteristic orange .

An excellent example o fyellow is found in pale chrome Y ll w .


e o .

S u lphur is a whitish yellow Tan is a case o f the yel


.
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

low browns The dandelion furnishes a good yellow ;


.

the buttercup is a whitish yellow .

G re e n .
Green is represented by the emerald green among
paints The greens o fplants hardly approach the pure
.

green Apple leaves are nearly o fthe same hue but they
.
,

are much darker Some o fthe green s in the plumage o f


.

tropical birds especially o fthe parakeets are a near ap


, ,

proach to the standard green .

Blue is represented by cyan blue ( Berlin blue ) and -


ultramarine A peacock s neck toward sunset is a very
.

pure blue As its flower we m ay choose the centaurea


. .

Vi l
o et .
One o fthe b est examples o f a pure violet is the color
o fthe flower o fsome varietie s o flobeli a The best time .

to see a pure violet is toward sunset At this time the .

light from the sun is mostly violet the red and other ,

rays being weak .

In the spectrum thrown by the sunlight we find a


great number o f fine lines The most prominent lines
.

h ave received letter names ; thus the two heavy lines


-
,

close together in the yellow are c alled the D lines -


.

These lines are u seful in defining the limits o f groups o f


colors Orange passes continuou sly through in t e rm e
.

di ate hues o f orange an d yellow into yellow ; where


sh all we draw the line b etw een orange an d yellow ?
Helmholtz proposes the following system red all colors ,

from the end to line C ; orange C to D ; yellow first , ,

qu arter o f the distance D to E ; greenish yellow from ,

yellow to E green E to b bluish green b to F blue


, , ,

F to G violet G to end, .

Some o fmy fair readers may like to h ave a spectrum


in the garden or on the fl o w e r stand Fo r their speci al
-
.

benefit I give a list o f flowers fo r colors not too widely


distant from the spectrum series .
TH E F LOW E R SP E CT RU M .

Re d . Ye llo w .

Pp y Nast u rt iu m D an de io n , l
Ca p
o
i al F l l
, ,

r n o w e r, C h rysan t h e m u m , Le m o n Li y,
T l ip
u T u ll T l
u ip ,
,
Ce lo sm , Az a e a, P
ri m ro se ,
G e ran iu m , M arigo ld M ari o d, gl
l
,

S a v ia . E sc h o lt z l a . N
ast u rt iu m .

Vi o le t .

Lar kp s u r, H e li
o t ro p e ,
C fl w
o rno e r, Pa n sy ,
F g tM
or e - e -N o t , H yacin t h ,
L b li
o e a, Cro c u s ,
Fla V b
x, e r e n a,
C ta a en St k u re . oc s .

I t is to be hoped that no interference with the rational M nst - it i o ros es


l am i n co o r n es .

system o f naming colors will be allowed In order to .

sell new wares the manu facturers are accustomed to in


vent n e w names fo r the colors changing several o fthem ,

every year Some o fthe monstrosities thus perpetrated


.

” “ ” “ ”
are cadet blue crushed strawb erry bab y blue
, , ,

“ ” ” ’
zulu ashes o f roses
, elephant s b reath , ,

’ ” ” ”
calves liver cerise gluten torea dor
, , , ,


ei ffel etc I leave it to my readers to guess what
, .

the names mean .

There is probably no more fascinating departmen t o f C mb i at i o n on o f


l c o o rs .

mental science th an the study o f the combination o f


colo rs Newton w as o n e o f t he fi rst to sho w that the
.

colors we se e and their comb inations have no counterpart


in the physical world As M axwell states it the science .
,

o fcolor is a mental science The little color top puts into .


-

the hands o f every one the power to m ake experiments


o n the most important laws o f color combination .

The fi rst experiment is th at o f matching colo rs M atchi g n


l .

c o o rs .

S pread a piece o f colored cambric on the table Put a .

couple o f the colore d disks o n your top an d spi n it on


the cambric Ch ange the proportions till the top
.

matches the camb ric .

N o w note the num b er o f hundredths o f each color


,
Thin king ,
Fee ling , D o i ng .

shown on the top Let x denote the color o f the cam


.

bric an d R O D and W the colors o fthe disk you have


, , ,

used D denoting black Suppose you have 30 R 4 5 O


,
.
, ,

5 D ,
20 W ; then since the cloth covers
, a whole circle ,

I oox = 3o R + 4 s O + 5 D 20 W .

How convenient fo r the forgetful business m an


P rac t ica l
ap p l i at i
c o n s. Madam wants a certain kind o fbrown trimming just like
her piano cover She could pick out the right one by
-
.

going to the store hersel f; she kno ws her husband will


be sure to select wrongly yet she cannot sen d a sample ,
.

S o she spins the little top on the goods and adjusts the
disks till she gets the proper brown Now the man c an .

put the top in his pocket an d spin it on the store -counter


till the salesgirl h ands down the righ t color .

Or suppose a house painter must order a new supply


-

o f color immed iately He matches it b y his color top


.
-

an d telegraphs the result The dealer can at once ad


.

j u st his own top and se e the color wanted .

The nec essity o fsuch a method can be seen from t he


f act that t he paints sold under the same name o ften di ffer
widely An E nglish factory will produce a color that
.

corresponds t o 29 O 7 1 Y while a German factory


will make it 35 O 45 Y 2 0 D an d yet both colors
w ill b e called chrom e yello w .

A color equation can be found fo r an y color in terms


F u n da me n ta l o f red green violet white and black Pick up an y
l
c o o r e q u at l o n s. , , , , .

piece o f colored p aper you fin d and cut a circle from it


equal to the smaller disks o f your top cut out the
c enter and slit it like the others Fo r the sake o fbrevity .

we will speak o f this disk as x ; all other small disks


will be indicated by the small letters r g o w d an d , , , , ,

the large ones by the capitals R G V W D Put , , , , .

together the disk x an d the black and white disks d an d


w . Likewise put together the large D W R G and , , , ,

V Place the larger se t on the top an d then the


.

smaller se t over them By repeatedly changing the .

proportions o f the two sets o f d isks you can fin ally get


them to m atch almost exactly By help o f the gradu .

ated circle on the top you c an estim ate the proportions

o f each color Fo r example suppose a whole circle to


.
,

be counted as 1 00 an d the various colo rs to b e in the


proportion 1 7 R 45 G 1 0 V 2 8 W ==
54x

4 6 d There fore
.
5 4 x 1 7 R 45 G, I O V
+ 28 W i H
--
W
i fd which gives
, a definite color equation f
o r th e color
o f the
p aper .

The facts learned from the colored papers and the


c olor top will enable us to unde rstand the laws o f com
-

bination o f colo rs In considering this subject we have


.

nothing to do with the physics o f light or with the


physiology o f the eye we must confine ou rselves to ,

mental facts just as we find them .

I n the first place between the two extremes white


, ,

an d black we h ave an unbroken line o f neutral grays


,
.

Then we have a continuous line o f colo rs according to


hue passing from say green through the b lues violets
, , , , ,

purples reds oranges yellows back to green Then


, , , , .

b y decreas ing the intensity o f these hues we can m ake


e ach pass continuously into black and by mixing each ,

with an y desired degree o f gray or white we c an make


it p ass continuously into gray or white All o f these .

c an be produced by combin ations o f a f e w colors .

This infinite number o f colors o f which we are cap a


ble can be produced from three fundamental colors red , ,

green an d violet The fundamental red is nearly the


, .

same as a red that c an be found in nature ; the funda


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

mental green is a purer green than nature can exhibit ;


the fundamental violet is a n atural color I f a beam o f .

sunlight is reflected from a grating it is broken ,

up into a band o f color like the rain bow At one .

end is a pure red


region at the other ,

is a pure violet re
gion these are two
fundamental colors .

The gree n o f the


spectrum is whitish .

Since all n ature re


c e iv e s its light f
rom
w ” the su n the colors . ,

o fnature are limited


Fig 9 The C l -t ria gl
1. o or n e
b y the cha racter o f
. .

sunlight .With the su n we have at present an d are


likely to have fo r the future nature with all her colo rs ,

does not give us all the greens we are capable o f ex


p e rie n c in g .

I f wesuppose our three fundamental colors placed at


three corners o f an equal sided triangle with white in -

the center the colors o fnature would b e enclosed within


,

'
the curve dra wn within it .

This curve has sev eral remarkable properties I fwe .

take any two colors all the colors that can b e produced
,

by them will lie along the line connecting them I f we .

take spectral violet and spectral red all the purples will ,

lie along the line BG the position being determined by


,

the proportion o f the two colors I f we take spectral .

yellow and spectral blue the colors produced by mixing


,

in various proportions will lie along the line D F passing ,

almost through white I f we wish to find wh at colors


.
will produce white we draw a straight line through wh ite
,

in every direction Pairs o f colors that produce white C mpl


. o e m en tary
l co o rs
Fo r three color per
.

are c alled complementary colors .


-

sons some o f the simpler combinations are given in the


table annexed The table is taken from Helmholtz
. .

It holds good only approximately because the color ,

names are very inde finite thus blue includ e s a group ,

o f blues which when combined with v arious me mbers o f

the orange group give results varying more or l e ss from


white .

T A BL E O F C OLO R S RE SU LTI N G F R O M C O M B I NA TIO N S .

B lu e Gre e n .

W h ite
g ll
.

Li h t ye o w
g g
.

Li h t ree n .

Gre en .

O ran g e .

re e n .

B lu e g r e e n .

B lu e .

The combination o f pigments e g paints often , . .


, ,

b
Co m in at io n
gives a very di fferent result from the combination o f the p l gm e n ts .

colors directly I n fact if the dyes with which two


.
,

paper disks have been colored be mixed a paper colored ,

by the mixture will never be o f the same color as the


resultant from a direct mixture o f the colors o f the two
disks by means o f the color top -
.

This can b e prettily illustrated by a disk prepared as


in Fig 9 2 The shaded portions are to be painted with
. .

blue the light portions with yellow and the central por
, ,

tion with a green formed by a mixture o f hal f blue an d


half yellow W hen the disk is rotated the blue an d
.
,
Thin king ,
Fee ling , D o ing .

yellow d irectly mixed never produce green b ut a gray


ish color with a b lue or yellow cast .

W hen increasing qu antities o f yellow pain t are mixed


with b lue paint the color passes ,

through various shades o f bluish


green green an d yellow ish green , , .

When yellow an d blue co lo rs are


mixed the re sulting color passes ,

through grayish blue gray an d gray , ,

ish yellow W ith some b lues the .

”3 ga l\ll e ll w
an( l j3ii
ln
° . 1 ii
gray h as a very slight greenish tinge
o
.

The reason why b lue and yellow


pigme n ts give green can be illustrated by using blue an d
yellow glass W hen two such pieces o f glass are placed
.

together all light passing through both o fthem is green


, .

Blue glass is b lue b ecause the glass absorbs the red o r ,

ange an d yellow light and al lo w s the blue an d violet light


,

to pass Yellow glass absorb s the b lue an d violet and


.

allows the red orange and yellow to pass


, , E ach o fthem .

allows a portion o f the green to pass When b oth o f .

them are together the b lue keeps out the red orange
, , ,

an d yellow while the yellow keeps out the blue an d


,

violet Consequently only the green gets through


. .

Blue paints are b lue b ecause the minute particl e s o f


I n p aints
which they are composed send back to the eye mainly
.

colors from the blue end o f the rainbow series Yellow .

paints send back mainly those from the red end Both .

send b ack some green W hen they are mixed the blue
.
,

paint absorb s all the red end and the yellow ab sorbs all
the blue end leaving only green to be sent back
, .

Similar results are obtained from the other paints ;


their mixtures are matt ers depending o n their particular
composition an d not on their colors Violet fo r ex .
,
a mple is one o f the rainbow colors and cannot be pro
,

du c e d by mixture o f other colors Yet red paint and


.

blue paint can be m ade to produce a violet paint .

These accidents o f the action o f paints formerly led Co lo rs .

people to suppose that colors followed the same laws .

Thus red yellow an d blue were formerly called the fu n


, ,

dam e n tal colors . The artist o ften speaks o f his paints



as his

colors an d his laws o fcombin ation o fthe fu n
,
” “
dam e n tal colors are quite correct ifby colors we
,

understand paints To avoid con fusion with the other


.

use o f the word color it is pre ferab le not to use it to


,

mean paint or pigment Red yellow and blue are the


.
, ,

fu nd amental pigments an d red


, green an d violet are
, ,

the f u ndamental colors .


CHAPT E R XI I I .

C OLO R SE N S ITI V E N E S S .

WE AR E f
requently
called upon to distinguish small
difle re n c e s in color ho w accurately c an we do it ?
The color top furnishes one method o f answering the
-

question Suppose we take as a definite question How


.

accurately can we j udge the mixture o f sm all portion s o f

blue with a large mass o fred ? The little red d isk is placed
in the center o f the top it rem ains unchange d during
the experiment The l arge red and blue disks are placed
.

together so that a minute portio n o f the blue appears .

The top is spun no difference is detected A little .

more blue is added and the top is again spun This is .

repeated till the di fference is noticed The amount o f .

blue can be measured by the graduated disk Suppose .

it covers one h al fa space that is 1 06 o fthe whole circle


19
, , .

99
The red mu st cover 1 1315 or nine times as much as the
,

blue There fore we can add one p art o f blue to nine o f


.

red be fore the difference is detected .

The result depends upon the sensitiveness o f the per


so n. A dyer will detect minute di fferences that escape
ordinary individuals ; person s who h ave paid little atten :

tion to art are often incapable o f detecting large di ffer


e n ce s .

A c co rdin gt o It has
been proven that the sensitiveness to color dif
ag e
fe re n c e s increases with the age o f school c h ildren The
.

results are given in Fig 93 The figures at the bottom


. .

indicate the ages those at the side the relative amounts


1 70
Co lo r S e n siti ve ne ss

o ference
f di f that could b e j ust detected The greater .

the di fference the less the sensitiveness an d the higher


,

the curve The steady descent o f the curve shows the


.

gain In general the girls were more sensitive than the


.
,

boys .

The sensitiveness depends upon the strength o f the D epen den ce o n


i
t h e nt e n sit y
.

light I n very strong or very weak light it is much less


.

than in moderate light .

The color o f an object dep e n ds on the color o f the

Fig .
93 . l
Ch i dren h ave Fi n er E yes fo r C o lo r as th e y G ro w Olde r .

n eighboring objects I ftwo designs are executed in the .

same gray they will appear difle re n t if the grounds are


,

o f difle re n t colors I f the grounds are red and yellow


.

respectively o n e ornament will appear somewh at green


,

an d light the other somewh at blue an d d ark


, The e f .

fe c t is increased by placing tissue paper over them Yet .

both grays are exactly alike The color o f the sur .

rounding ground afle cts the gray .

Bits o fgray paper laid on colored paper show the same


result I fthe colored p aper be tipped so that the small
.

piece slowly slides o ff the colored tinge o f the gray can ,

b e seen to slip o ff as the paper goes over the edge .

This influence o fone color over another is called con C o n t rast .


Thin king , Fee ling ,
D o ing .

trast
. The effect o fthe influence o fa color is to spread
E f
fe ct o f con the complementary color in its neighborhood We h ave .

t rast .

al ready defined as complementary those colors th at give

gray when mixed White is complementary to black


. .

Place a small piece o f gray paper on a piece o f colored


p aper When a piece o f tissue pap er is laid over the
.

whole the gray paper appears distinctly colored The


, .

tissue p aper is used to whiten the


colors the contrast c fle c t being
,

greatest with whitish c olors D isks .

to illustrate contrast can be pre


p ared as in Fig 95 where the .
,

lined portion is to be colored .

When such a disk is S pun the ,

ring formed by the mixture o fthe


black an d white should be gray ;
H m fc m t m "
D i k t Ill t at
s o us r e
th
e ec
it is however the color comple
, ,

mentary to color on the other portion .

Plain red violet an d blue woven cloths were o n


, ,

o n e occasion given to m anu f acturers fo r ornamentatio n

with black patterns When the goods were returned


.
,

the complaint was made that the pattern s were not black
those on the red cloth were pl ainly greenish those on ,

the violet were d ark greenish yellow an d those on the ,

blue were Copper colored By covering the cloth in such


-
.

a way as to expose only the patterns without the colors ,

they were seen to be truly black It was an e ffect o f .

contrast .

e c t ive co
De f l or
When we started the subject o f color we agreed t o ,

i g
se e n .
talk fo r the m ajority an d to attend to persons de fective
in color seeing a fterwards Some o f you m ay hav e al
- .

ready been puz z led by the apparent blunders the rest o f


us have been making Let us see h o w we agree
. .
To measure the color sense in different persons the -

'
tw o smaller disks w and a , ,

should b e pl aced over the


larger disks R G an d V The
, , , .

white an d black m ake a gray ,

and the larger disks should b e


adjusted t o make a gray also .

A finer adjustment is o b tained


b y m aking b oth grays alike .

The relative proportions o f Fig 95 G tt i g t h Gray . . e n e

w an d d may b e disregarded E q uatio n .

and gray in general may be indicated by m Suppose .

one person gets


m 60 w +4o d] =3 5 R + 3O G+ 35 V
and another
m 5 R + 45 G + :
5 0 V .

It is evident that the second one is much less sensitive


to red in fact such a person would b e called red blind
,
- .

Roughly speaking hum anity falls into four great


,

classes ( I ) the three -color ; ( 2 ) the two color red -blind ; -

( 3) the two color green


- b lind ( 4) the o n-e color persons - .

The three -color persons form ab out ninety fiv e per -

cent o f the males and almost all the females They are .

so c alled
- beca use
the colors they se e
can be produced b y
c o m b i n at i o n s o f
t h r e e fundamental
colors red green , , ,

i 9 Th - l P P po fl i ft h and V
ro I O I Ct s o e
Fl g gam tal c p m t lp sp t m g l
n
. . re e co
o o rs
r e rso s.
e e c ru
o
0 01 8 .
T e t w o CO I O I
un en
h - '

persons form about five per cent o f the males The .

colors they se e can b e formed from two fundamental


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

colors I f th ese t wo fu n damental colors are gré e n an d


.

violet the person is Sai d to b e re d b lind I f they are


,
- .

red and violet he is called green blind The violet


,
- .

blin d pe rsons are so rare as n o t to n eed n otice .

To the re d blind person re d objects appear in general


-

the same as dark green o r greenish yellow ; yellow an d


orange appear as
d irty green green
i s g r e e n b u t is ,

b r i g h t e r than the
f alse greens .

T h e green -bl in d

assassi nate m as h? ggfgfi $ ;
s

d ;
1
110
is called yellow bu t is lighter than the other and gree
n

is called pale yellow .

Co mpariso n The red blin d person is supposed to lack the fu n da


-

w ith t h ree-
co l or
men tal re d color The colors he sees are all composed o f
.

green an d v iolet ; his color triangle ( Fig 9 1 ) shrinks up .

into a line CV and his curve o fspectral colo rs b ecomes


,

a portion o ft his line .

All colors o f n ature


are to him mixtures

o fgree n and violet ,

gray ( or white ) b e
in g ab out the middle
o fthe line . All the Fi 98 G -bl i d P P op o t i
re e n ft h
g
. . n e rso ns r r o ns o e
dam tal C l i t h S pe t m C l
.

un en o o rs
c o l o r s toward red n e c ru o o rs .

are merely variations o fgreen all the purples are violets

an d blues . The green blind perso n lacks the green ; his


-

ran ge o f colors is f ound alo n g the line RV wi t h gray in ,

the middle The greens and yellows are reddish grays


.

the purples are also grays shading o ff into red or vi o le t .


Co lo r S e n sitivene ss .

The color persons se e everything in light and


one -

S hade presuma bly gray


,
Their world is to the world o f .

most people what a photo graph or an engraving is to the


radiance o fn ature These pe rsons are quite rare
. .


One case is related o f an architect s assistan t who did
n o t understand in the least w hat w as meant b y color ; he

said that the colo rs appeared to him simply shades o f

white and black H e had to u se colo rs in preparing


.
'

t he p lans o f b uild
in gs b ut w as gu ided
b y the n ame o n the
p ai n
. t One o f the
c l e r k s o n c e p ur

p o se ly scraped o f
f
t h e n ames and he Fi 99 O l P P op o t i ft h ne c o o r
g; dam tal C l i t h S p t m C l
. er
so n s. r r on o e
un en o or n e e c ru o o rs
u s e d th e c o lo rs
.

wrongly A friend o fhis had a house with dark oake n


.

t im b ers and light oran ge plaster He asked when look .


,

in g at the house why the plaster w as so much darker


,

than the wood H is frien d told him that the plaster was
.

v ery much lighter than the wood b ut he refused to ,

b elieve it In a photograph which w as afte rwards taken


.

the plaster came out much darker than the oaken tim b ers .

f
The phenomena o color bli n dness are best studied Th w
-
e o e
w d
““
with the color top b ut as the use o f the top requires a
-
,
3

great expense o ftime a num b er o fquicker methods have


b een invented One o fthe b est is by use o fthe Holmgren
.

wools This consists o f three skeins o f worsted dyed


.

with three standard test colors namely light green p ale , , ,

purple an d bright red Other skeins o f reds oranges


,
.
, ,

yellows yellowish greens pure greens blue greens


, , , ,

violets purples pinks b rowns and grays are used as


, , , ,

con fusion colors .


Tkin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

R esults . The light green skein is laid be fore the person tested
and he is told to pick o u t o fthe heap all colors that are li k e
it Nothing more is to b e said names o f colors must
.

not be used I fhe pick s out grays b rownish grays yel


.
, ,

lows orange or faint pink as the same he is color blind


, , , ,
- .

Now the purple skein is laid before him I fhe picks o u t .

blue or violet as the same he is red b lind ifhe selects -

only gray o r green he is green blind As a clincher the


- .
,

red skein is used A red blind person will match this


.
-

with dark greens or dark b rowns while the green blind ,


-

person will choose light greens or light b rowns Are we .

to suppose that the many E nglishmen are color blind -

who can se e in the Irish flag only a symb ol o f anarchy ?


Numerous modifications o f this method o f testing
have been used The method is not always successful
.

when the person tested is not color b lind b ut color


-

weak He may b e able to p ass the tests in a bright


.

light and yet he cannot distinguish red and green in a


,

fo g or he may have perfect color -vision near by and be


,

color blind fo r objects at a distance


- .

Lan t e rn t e st .
A lantern with colored glasses is sometim e s employed .

A color is shown to the person tested ; he names it .

Other colors and white are shown in succession Then .

gray glasses to simulate fo g are used over the colors in ,

order to detect the color weak


- .

Re d an d g ree n
The matter o f color blindness has b een b rought into
-

g l
si n a s .
notice b y the use o f red an d green lights as signals o n
“ ”
railways and b oats Red means . danger ; green

means all right on the railway On the water red is .

the port side o f the boat green is starboard side ; a ,

pilot knows which w ay a vessel is sailing by seeing red


or green It is evident that any inab ility to distinguish
.

them is a source o f danger .


' '

Co lo r S e nsztzven e ss .

The steamship [mo o B e ll collided with the tugboat


Lu mbe rme m near Norfolk Virginia ten lives were lost
, .

The pilot o f the Lu mbe rman w as afterwards examined


and ound to be color blind ; there w as a rumor that the
f -

other pilot was also color -blind .

The pilot o f the steamer Czly of Austn a which was


’ '

lost in the harbor o fFernandina Florida was proved to , ,

b e color blind He mistook the b uoys and his mistake


-
.
,

cost the owne rs


Captain Cobu rn reports The steamer M o m was A case l
o f co o r
lin dn ess
o n a voyage f rom Liverpool to Alexandria One night
.

shortly a fter passing Gibraltar at about p m I


,
. .
,

went o n the b ridge which w as then in charge o f the


,

third o fficer and competent in every way I walked up


, .

and down the b ridge u ntil ab o u t I I p m when the . .


,

third o fficer an d I almost simultaneo u sly saw a light


ab out two points o n the starb oard b o w I at once saw .

it w as a gree n l ight and knew that n o act ion was called


,

fo r
. To my surprise the th ird o fli ce r called o u t to the

m an at the wheel Port which he w as about t o do
,

, ,

when I countermanded the order and told him to steady ,

h is helm which he did an d we passed the other steamer


, ,

saf ely ab out h alf a mil e apart I at once asked t he .

third officer why he had ported h is helm to a green


light on the starb oard b ow but he ins isted it w as a red
light which he had fi rst seen I tried him repeatedly
.

after this and alt hough he sometimes gave a correct de


,

scription o f the color o f the light he was as often incor ,

rect and it was eviden t ly all guesswork O n my return


, .

I applied to have him removed f rom the ship as he was , ,

in my opinion quite unfit to have charge o f the dec k at


,

n ight and this applicatio n w as granted After this


, .

o ccurrence I always, when takin g a stra n ge of


, ficer to
TI t in king , Feeling , D o ing .

se a, remain ed on the b ridge with him at night until


I had tested his ab ility to distingu ish colors I cannot .

imagine anything more dangerous o r more li k ely t o


lead to fatal accidents than a color -blind man o n a

steamer s b ridge .

An o th e r case .
A similar account is given by Capt Heasley o fLiver .
,


pool : After passing through the Straits o f Gibraltar ,

the second officer who had charge o f the deck gave


, ,

the order to port much to my aston ishment fo r the



,

lights to b e seen ab out a point o n the starb oard b ow


were a masthead an d green light ; b ut he maintained
that it was a masthead and red and n o t u n til b oth ships
,

were n early ab reast would he acknowledge his mistake .

I may add that during the rest o f the voyage I never


saw him making the same m istake As a practical se a .

man I consider that a great man y acciden ts at se a arise



from color b lindness
-
.

The follow i n g is an ext ract f


rom a letter b y a thirty

years railway man . I have b een o n the railway

fo r thirty years and I can tell you the card tests an d


wool tests are n o t a b it o f good W hy sir I had a .
, ,

mate that passed them all b ut we had to pitch into ,



another trai n over it He couldn t tell a red from a
.

green light at n ight in a b it o f a fo g .

Colo r blindness is hereditary A mon g the Quake rs


- .
,

fo r example ,the proportion o f color-bl in d persons is


ab out o n e half greater than among other people .

Nearly every Quaker is descen ded o n b oth sides solely


from a group o f men and women who separated them
selves from the rest o f the w orld five or six generations
ag o .One o f their stron gest Opinions is that the fin e
arts are worldly snares their most conspicuous practic e
is to dress in d rabs A b orn artist would never hav e
.
c onsented to separate himselffrom the soul stirring ar -

i
t ts ic f f
productions o his ellow men he would h ave felt
-

that such an action would b e treason to the instincts that


Go d planted in him . It is quite prob able that Q u aker
ism would b e very likely to attract to itsel f n o t only
t hose who were lacking in instinct f o r the b e au t ifii l but
,

also those actually c olor blind


- .The productions o f
m any o f o u r artists must appear actu ally hideous to
c olor blind pe rsons who cannot tell the di f
- ference in
color b etween a strawb erry and its leaves Again the.
,

desertions from Quakerism would n atu rally b e o f per


s ons in whom these instincts and ab ilities were stronger .

D alton the discoverer o fcolor blindness w as a Quaker


,
-
, .

It is related o f a prominent Quaker that he returned


from town o n e day with a b right red tie a perfect abom
,

in at io n to his f
amily In S pite o f the trouble aroused it
.
,

w as not a case o f heresy b ut merely o f c o l o r -b lindn e ss .


CHAPT E R XIV .

SE E I N G W IT H ON E E YE .

Th e w o r d l see n LE T us look at the world with only one eye What .

w it h o n e e ye .
we se e consists o f patches o f color arrang ed in wonder
fully complicated form s It is our duty to determin e
.

some o f the laws o f thi s arrangement in sp ace .

P o in t o fre ga d
r .
The first fact that strikes us is th at we are loo k ing at
“ ”
some p articular point This is the point o f regard
. .

In looking at this dot your point o f regard is the


dot As you read onward your point o fregard changes
.
,

from one letter to another I f yo u look at a person o n


.

the street the point o f regard is that person


, .

K eeping the eye steadily looking at the dot notic e ,

that you can read the words close around it al


though they are somewhat blurred and that although , ,

you can se e over a whole region including the page and


,

part o fthe room all this region is quite indistinct The


, .

f airly clear p art around the point o f regard is the regio n


o f distinct vision the blurred part is the region o f in
distinct vision . The whole region seen is called t he
field o f vision.

The b oundaries o f the field o f vision are determined


b y moving objects from outside the field toward it until
they are seen and b y moving them from the center
,

outward till they disappear The subject o f experimen t


.

is seated in a chair ; one eye is closed the other looks , ,

without moving straight ahead at a spot


, The e xpe r .

1 80
im e n t e rplaces a small piece o f white paper on the end
o f a knitting needle or a stick and starting b ehind the
-
,

subject slowly pushes it forward at ab out one foot from


,

his head till he catches sight o f it The paper is then


.

s tarted where it is seen and is drawn back till it disap

p e ars . This marks the limit o f vision in that direction .

The limits o f the fi eld o f vision are determined an d P e ri me t e r


.

recorded rapidly b y

means o f perime
t ers. One form is
t hat shown in Fig .

1 00. The s m a l l
p iece o f paper is
m o v e d out along
t h e curved arm in
o n e direction till the

l imit is found The


.

a rm is p l a c e d i n

v arious p ositions
a n d the experiment

is repeated . The
number o f degrees
is read o f feach time Fig P im t f M a i g th Fi ld
1 00 er e e r, or e su r n e e
f Vi i
. .

o s on .

an d is m arked o n a
c hart . A line drawn through these points indicates the
b oundary o f the field o f vision An average eye will
.

h ave a field extending outw ard ( i e away from the


.

n o se ) about inward upward downward

If the experiments on perimetry are made with C l -limit o or s


.

c olored objects it will b e f


, ound that in a narrow region
a long the edge o f the field o f vision the person can see

t h e object without seeing its color In fact in this.


.
TI zin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

region we are all totally color blind we se e everyt hing -

in an indefinite gray color .

It was formerly supposed that j u st inside the o n e


colored region there w as a red blind region and the rest -

o f the field was e v enly three colored Recent e xp e ri -


.

ments indicate that the case is not so simple .

Inside this one colored b order the object tak es on a


-

color but the color is seldom the same as that which it


,

has when seen directly The limits at which objects o f


.

m ao

Fig 1 01 . Pe rime t e r Ch art Lim its be yo n d w hich t h e c o l o rs disappe ar


Vi l Ye llo w ; O g Bl
. .

1 , o et ; 2, 3, G ree n ; 4 , Re d ; 5 , ran e ; ,
ue .

various colors lose their true colors i e the colors , . .


,

when directly seen are indicated fo r a specimen perso n


,

in Fig 1 0 1 . .

Fi lde o f v isio n
Curiou sly enough the field o f vision with children is
,

in c hild re n .

apparently not so great as with adults They cannot se e .

over so much fo r any position o f the eye The reaso n .


S ee ing w ill: One Ey e .

probably is that they are incapable o f attending to the


oute r regions they confine themselves to the region near ‘

the point o f regard .

In the field o f vision there is one place at which Bl i


n d-
spo t .

n othing is seen this is called the b lind -spot .


W ith the left eye shut hold the b ook at arm s length
,

and look with the right eye at the cross in Fig 1 0 2 . .

The letters are also seen indirectly Bring the book slowly.

H o w t o fin d i t
toward you keeping the e ye fixed o n the cross Sud
, .
.

de n ly the B will disappear entirely I f the book is.

Fig . 1 02
.

brought still closer the B will reappear b ut the O will ,

disappear leaving a blank space b etween A and B


, .

There is one portion o f the field o fvision on which you


are ab solutely blind .

To try the left eye hold the book upside down


, .

Although man an d his animal ancestors have always


I ts disco ve ry
had b lind -spots as long as they have had eyes these ,
.

spots were not discovered till about two hundred years


ago when Mariotte caused a great sensation b y showing
,

people at the E nglish court how to make royalty e h


t ire ly disappear.

The blind spot can b e draw n directly on paper by


-
H o w t o draw it .

keeping the eye fixed on the cross while a pencil is


moved from the circle outward till its point is just seen .
In this way a dotted b oundary line fo r the spot is ob

t ain e d .

1 13 s iz e . The blind spot ordi n arily cove rs a region equal to the


-

face o f a man seven feet distant or eleven times the size ,

o f the f ull moon .

What is see n at What do you se e at the blind -spot ? E verything dis


t h e b l in d-
spo t
appears that is put in the region co v ered by it Yet
.

there must b e something there ; fo r if the O in Fig , .

1 0 2 b e made to disappear the lette rs are no nearer to ,

gether than when the circle is seen .

The blind spot must be seen as white fo r the whole


-
,

region appears unbroken Yet if this experiment is .

made on colored paper the whole region is o f the same


color Papers or cards o f various colors can be readily
.

prepared to illustrate this W e are thus forced to the .

conclusion th at although we are blind o v er this region ,

we fill o u t the lacking space b y an unconscious act o f


imagination an d that it is filled out in accordance with
the surrounding region .

P zzl-i g t h
u n e Let us however try to puzzle the blind -spot A
bl i d p t
n s o
, , .

card is prepared with colors as shown in Fig 1 0 3 Let


.

. .

Fig 1 03 P u tt in g a Wh it C ircl
e e on Fig . 1 04 . Th e C ircl e is R e p lace d by
Bl i t h e Co lo rs
. .

the n d-
S po t . .

the white circle fall on the blind spot The card will ap - .

pear as in Fig 1 0 4 . .

Try a card colored as in Fig 1 0 5 I fthe circle falls on . .

the b lind -spot it will be filled out as in Fig 1 0 6 . .


N o w try
. rd lik e Fig 1 0 7 with the circle b rought
a ca .
,

into the bli n d region .A t last the spot is puzzled O n e .

moment the blue band will ru n across the red one at an


other t he re d will run across th e blue S ometimes after .

many trials the spot seems t o


despair and th e person own ing it
declares that he really se es noth
ing there .

I n lookin g at a printed page


f
the portion that alls o n the Fis m s W h at w ill happ en .

blind spot appears to b e printed


- D ec t io n by
t heb in d-spo t .

with i n distinct letters as thou gh


,

it were pretendi n g t o read .

It is n otew orthy that t he space N o in fl u en ce on

around the b lind spot is not con


- space .

tracted I fthe circle in Fig 1 0 2


. .

falls o n the b lind spot t he letters


- F‘S 05 T h R esu lt 1 e
,

A and B are n o n earer together ,

although quite a space has ap

p a r e n tl
y b een remov ed .

Up to t h is point n othing has


b een said o f m o t i o n i n c o n
n e c t io n with vision W e can Pi 3 07 A p l f t he
'

.
1 . uzz er or
i
move o u r point o fregard at will .
n

I ndeed the point o f regard cannot b e kept steadily o n


,

any object Try to look steadily at the white dot in Fig


. .

1 09 . You will soon se e the edges o f the white circle


blurred over by the black edges The point o f regard .

trembles and sways like the pointer described on page


74 . Some pe rsons o f nervous temperament cannot
approach even a moderate degree o fsteadiness .

We have already noticed th at the point o f regard can


be moved around in any direction It is mainly by our .
Tkin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

knowledge o fsuch movements that we judge t he siz e o f


objects .

It is readily noticed that when the head is held


upright and the point o f regard is taken directly in
Alth o u gh t he blin d-spo t p re te n ds that it
can re ad an d l
w il att e mp t t o de ce ive
b y ma in k g th i s sp ace app e ar c o v e red

w it h l e tt e rs . ye t , if yo u l k
oo st e adi l y at
t h e c ro ss ( w ith the l e ft e ye

c l o se d) an d l
p ace t h e bo o k
at s u c h a distan ce t hat th e black do t
disapp e ars, i . e falls o n th e b li n d-sp o t ,

yo u w i ll fi n d t hat l
t h e e tt e rs ima in e d b y g
blin d-spo t are o n n de fin ite marks
t he ly i .

Fig . 1 08 . Th e Bl in d-S po t P re te ds t o Re ad n .

front the upward movement is more di ffi cult than the


,

side mo v ements or the downward moveme n ts Let u s .

measure these movements on e ach other .

Put a bl ank sheet o f paper o n a board and place a


dot in the middle Holding it directly .

in front o f the eye so that the dot is at


the point o fregard looking straight fo r i

ward draw four equal lines as in dicat e d


, ,

in Fig 1 1 0 On measuring these lines


. .

the vertical one abo v e the dot will b e


sw a m " ?
found shorter than the vertical one b e
low Both will be shorter than the horizontal lines ;
.

the hori z ontal lines will generally be equal We can .

thus conclude that space abo v e the point o f regard in


the usual position is o v erestimated as compared with
space b elow that space in a vertical direction is o v er
estim ated as compared with hori z ontal space and that
hori z ontal space inward or outward is about the same .
This explains why e and not 6 seems the continuation
ofa in Fig . 1 1 1 .

Placing a dot on the paper in the same way dra w a , App a re nt and
square around it By turning the square sidewise you
.
W e sq u a re ;

will se e that you


have really made it
too short Tu r n
.

this b ook u p s i d e
dow n W hat do
.

you notice in regard


to the letter 3 an d
the figure 8 ? Why
are they made so ?
When the point
O f regard mo v e s
Fig W hat t h E y Co nsid rs t b E q al
. 1 1 0. e e e o e u

upward 1t has a “ t a w S n

tendency to move outward whe n it moves downward , £ 56 ,

it moves also inward .

Loo k ing at the edge o fthe room you will notice that ,

as you look rapidly along it toward the ceiling the whole


edge seems to tip inward W ith the right eye it tips
.

e toward the left with the left eye ,

toward the right As you look .

rapidly downward toward the


floor the edge appears to tip in ,

the opposite direction .

Th is tipping is very disagree


able in the cities o f tall b uild
Fig W hi h is t
111 h o t i ings I f
c nyo u happen
nu to lo o k
“a” “ a ? W
. . c e °

hy ?
at them from one side o f the
eye they seem to be leaning dangerously over the
,

street ; if from the other they seem to slant back as if ,

disdaining the streets below them .


Tlzin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

The amount o f th is tipping in the eye can b e meas


u re d .Rule a horizontal line on a sheet o f paper then
lay the edge o f the ruler across it at what you j udge
with one eye to b e a right angle and d raw the line On .

another sheet o f paper do th e same fo r the other eye .

Your t w o right angles will disagree to a small extent .

ll
i u sio ns of D istances are j udged b y the di fficulty in traversing
dist an ce .

B
Fig . 1 1 2. i ll usio n o f t h e i n t e rru p ted D istan ce .

t hem road is hard or ifyou make many stops b y


ifth e ,

t h e way it is much longer than otherw ise


, .

i n te rru pt e d The distance b etw een th e t w o dots A and B in Fig 1 1 2 .

distan ce .

is apparently greater than t hat b etw een B and C The .

inte rvening dots are like tempting seats b y the wayside .

Fig . 1 13 . i ll us io n o f F ill ed S pace .

The journey is really made harder and apparently


longer b ecause your attention is caught at each one .

Co nst raint in The open distance in Fig 1 1 3 is apparently less .

mo v e m e n t .

4 than the line distance It


- .

is harder to walk on a
straight and narrow p ath
than to go as you please ;
I! you may go p e r fe c t l y
o
straight anyway b ut with ,
Fig 411W h i h i t h t
c at s e co n 1n u 1o n
f a ? Wh y ? no d i rect i ng l i ne you are
. .

free from constraint This explains why the continua .

tion o fa in Figs 1 1 4 and 1 1 5 appears to b e at e


. .

W e have learned to estimate distances b y movements


of the point o f regard and the whole visual field is
,
mo ve me n t .

regulated accordingly E ven without movements we


.

make the same errors o f estimation .

The illusion in Fig 1 1 6 is on the same prin ciple as that


.

in Fig 1 1 3 The effect depends on the


. .

I nfl unc e eof
f
relation o f the numb er o cross lines to
- li
c ross- n es

the distance ; with t o o man y or too fe w


it is n o t so p o w e rfii l .

The square A in Fig 1 1 7 appe ars .

Fig . 1 1 6. Th e i n te rru pted D istan ce .

5 356, fax
2
17 5 too long an d B appears too tall f
o r the

3

t beo Wh y ?
e.
same reason .

Fig 1 1 9 shows the same illusion fo r angles


. .

It is evident from these facts why women like to have

0 “ g l
a

B C
Fig . 1 1 7. Th e D isto rt e d S q uares .

as many b ows ribb ons b uttons etc as possible on the


, , , .

dress The more the surface o f the dress is b roken up


.

the taller the person The 3


.

illusion is heightened b y the


diversity o fcolors employed .

I n viewing two lines meet


°f
in g at an
F“ ‘ ‘ i h 1 t h m ti
fim figj Vifhy r
e n
angle 18 overesti mated as
Tkin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

compared with the larger The e ffect is to press the .

sides o f the smaller angle outw ard .

S mall th i n
gs It is a general law o f mental life that small things are
an d b ig t h ig
n s.

Fig . 1 19
. Th e E n la g d A gl
r e n e . Fig . 1 20 . l
D isp ace m e n t b y I li
nc n ed Lin es .

thought greater than they are in com


parison with large ones It requires a .

special e ffo rt to reali z e that a dime is


only rte part o f one o f six
pieces o fpie seems to be greater th an 1
o f a whole pie .

The two horizontal lines in Fig 1 20 .

do not seem to be parts o f the same


3 straight line because the acute angles
Fig " Wh y ? are overestimated and the lines are a
1
p
p are n t ly bent f
rom the hori z ontal A striking method o f .

showing this illusion is to draw a horizontal line on a

Fig . 1 22. k g Pa all l


Bre a in r e Lin es
.
S ee i ng w ill: On e Ey e . 1 9 1

slate an d then after drawing t w o inclined lines as in the ,

figure to erase the middle portion In spite o f the fact


, .

that the two horizontal lines are known to b elong to the

Fig . 1 23 . T ipp i g Pa all l


n r e Lin es .

Fig . 1 24. B en din g S t aight


r Lin e s .

same straight line the illusion is irresistible This tipping .

o f a line in the direction in which an acute angle points

is intensified when a number o f angles are m ade as in ,

Fig 1 2 2 The top line fo r example h as acute angles


. .
, ,

above it w hich tip it downward toward the right an d


1 9 2 Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

Fig . 1 27 . E l
x p an a
t 1o n of Fig 1 25
We
. .

e st imat e by
areas .
Frg . 1 26 . i ll u sio n o ft h e C rin o l in e .
S ee i ng w ith On e Ey e .

acute angles b elow it which tip it


upward at the le ft The second line.

is a ffected in the opposite way The .

horiz on tal lines are really parallel See .

also Fig 1 23
. .

A continually increasing change o f


direction is shown in Fig 1 24 The . .

two horizon tal lines appear curved .

There is still another class o fillusions


resting on a mistake o fattention The .

vertical lines in Fig 1 25 are all o f the


.

same length although apparently quite


,

differen t.

Fig 1 26 shows how the crinoline


.

makes people appear short er .

The reason fo r this illusion is this


whereas we suppose ourselves to b e com l
E xp an at io n .

paring the vertical lines we are really ,

paying attention to and comparing the


areas between the cross-lines The areas .

b etween the cross lines in Fig 1 27 are


- .

about equal and we j udge both parts o f


,

the line to b e equal whereas measure ,

ment shows them to be unequal .

In Fig 1 2 8 the judgm ent o f height


.

is influenced by the total space o ccu



pied by the p e rso n s clo t hin g '
.

Why do tall men dress in sober colors


and wear frock coats while short men ,

pre fer dark cutaway co ats with silk vest


and light trousers ? Both kinds o f il
lu sio n th at o finterruption and th at o f
, Fig Wh y t he Bi
28 .
cyc1
.

G irl Ap pe ars
mistaken attentio n co m e in t o play
, .
50
e
8 h 0 rt .
Thin ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

Mistaken attention ra ises the dots in Fig . 1 29 above


their true place at the lev el o f the lower line .

Fig . 1 29. Th e Att racted Do ts .

The appea rance o f Fig 1 30 depends entirely upon .

attention .

Still another source o f illusion is contrast between


length an d breadth Broad things seem shorter
. .

The vast jetting coat and


small bonnet which was the ,

habit in H arry the Seventh s
time is kept on in the yeomen ,

o fthe Guard ; not without good

an d politic view bec ause they ,

look a foot taller an d a foot and


a halfbroader besides that the ,

cap leaves the face expanded


an d consequently more terrible

and fitter to stand at the e n



trance o fpalaces This is Sir .


Roger de Co v e rle y s o bse r
v ation ; h O W WO ll ld yo u ex "
Fig 3 A O
. 1 0. ha gi g C
n i ve r n n o rn ce ,
S tai way ? 3
plain his mistake ? See Fig 1 3 1
r
. .

Up to this point not hing has b een said about the depth
or distance o f objects Is the world o f one eye a flat .

surface
On entering into a strange house with one eye band
aged it is di fficult to obtain an accurate idea o f the dis
tance o f objects The whole place seems almost flat
. .

Looking out o fa window with one eye the view appears ,

almost as ifpainted directly on the window pane -


.
S ee ing w ith On e Ey e .

We know from experience that


o bjects decrease in size as they

r ecede . From the rear platform


o fa rail w ay train the houses sig , ,

n als
,
persons tracks etc c an
, ,
.
,

a ctually be seen to shrink to


g ether. I f we know the actual
siz e o f an object we can esti
m ate the distance ; if we know
the distance we can estim ate the
s iz e
.

In estimating the distance o f


F g
o re ro u n d
u nknown objects we are guided
.

reatly b y the view o fthe ground


g
in front o fthem Thus a tree seen .

dow n the road can b e roughly


estimated in h e ight b ecau se the
o bj ects along the road af ford an
i ndication o fthe distance .

Since o u r opinion o f the si z e o f


a n object depends on the app arent

d ist ance an y illusions o f distance


,

will produce illusions o fsi z e .

The fact that subdivided dis


t ance appears greater th an undi H o ri z on is f
ar
aw ay
v ide d distance was illu strated in
.

Fig 1 1 2 In looking toward the


. .

h ori z on , the glance meets in


numerable objects that break up
t he space whereas in looking
,

d irectly upward we find a perfectly


clear space Consequently o b Fig
.
. ll
i u sio n o f t h e Ye o
1 31 .
m e n o ft h e G u ard Th e m e n
j e ct s in a horizontal direction ap a q l
re o fe u a h e i ht g
.

.
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

pear more distant than objects in a vertical direction .

S h ape o f th e Fo r this reas on th e sky does not appear like the inner
sk y.

surface o fa ball but like the under side o fa watch glass


,
-
.

The amount o f this flattening is readily determined .

S tars lying 2 3 ab ove the horizon are apparently half


°

way toward th e top I n Fig 1 3 2 you are s tanding at A


. . .

Lines are draw n from A at an angle o f 2 3 to the flat °

Fig . 1 32. S h ape o fth e S ky.

ground H H on which you stand The sky must there .

fore appear o f such a shape that a line d rawn from B


to H is hal f the distance from H to Z S uch a surface .

is indicated b y the curved line .

O w ing to the objects seen o n t he e arth the moon ap ,

Fig . 1 33 . Th e Moo n Ill u sio n .

pears to be much further away when it rises than it does


when it is overhead with nothing b etween The moon is .

seen b y the eye as the same in both cases but the moo n ,

near the horizon is apparently larger because it seem s


further a w ay .

S h ades an d
Another means o fj udging distance is found in shades
s h ado w s .
and shadows With one eye closed and with the back
.

to the light hold a mask pre ferably painted inside so


, , ,

that the seeing eye looks directly into the inside I f n o .

shadows are cast the eye is unable to tell whether


,
it is looking at the inside or the outside Fo r example .
,

the nose will at one moment appear to b e a hollo w nose


p ointing away from the o b server and at the next a solid
nose pointing toward him But the moment a shadow is
.

allowed to f all b y a change o f light the eye knows at ,

o nce that the hollow side is turned to w ard it .

Another influence regulating our estimate o f d istance U lea nc rn ess

a n d there f ore o f size is the unclearnesso f the air The t h ai


.
e r
.

a ir n early always contains a quantity o fmist which makes

o bjects b luer and more indefinite as the d istance increases .

I n the pe rfectly clear air such as is common in the


,

dry regions o f the Rocky Mountains o r in portions o f


Maine and Canada the distance o f objects is o ften quite
,

a puzzle A canoeist on a l ake in such an atmosphere


.

c annot tell whether an island in f ront o f him is o n e mile


o r t e n miles away .

W hen a dweller from a dry or moderate region visits


t he se a coast he is subj ect to great deceptions
-
, The .

Hudso n River at Tappan Z e e is wider than at Twenty


t hird Street in New York City yet the latter distance
u sually appears the greater owing to the haziness ,

o f the coast atmosphere The illusion disappears o f


.
,


c ourse, o n a clear winter s day .

The coast dweller is subject to the opposite illusion in


-

the moun tains and innumerable tales are told o f trav


,

e le rs who start f o r a b efore breakfast walk to a neighbor


-

i n g hill which is really twenty miles away .

Those who have come into a cloud while ascending a


mountain will remember that a small wood pile looks -

like a b arn a cow appears larger than an elephant men


, ,

are giants etc , Pai n ters use atmosphere to show


.

t h e distance o f objects in a l andscape .

There are al so ill u sions o f both si z e and distance due A iat i sso c on .
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

to association .Clocks and flags on towers appea r


much smaller than they really are because we are accus ,

t o m e d to house clocks and moderately sized fl ags The .

clock o fthe Bat t e ll Chapel as seen from the Yale campus


at a distance o f 200 f eet appears about two feet in diam
eter its actual size is ten fe et .

S had o ws .
A tall object casts a longer shadow than a shorte r
one D uring the greater part o f the day the shadows
.

cast by the su n are o f moderate si z e but early in the ,

morning or l ate in the evening they become enormously


l arge This exaggeration we cannot resist and so at
.
,

those times trees and houses appear much taller tha n


u su a L
E m o t io n .
There is another influence to which I think no one has
ever called attention namely the emotion produced b y
, ,

the obj ect In dim light as at night most persons feel


.
, ,

an indefinite une asiness which in nervous persons an d


,

children o ften actu ally amounts to fear an d terror Thi s .

uneas ine ss or fear exaggerates the si z e o f the object .

On a dark night the mountains around an inclosed l ake ,

e g
. the L ake o f Como assume an o v erwhelming as
.
, ,

pe e t an d appear far higher th an by b road daylight or in


pleasant moonlight In approaching a w h arf the build
.

ings and posts are imposing in si z e The stories o f .

frightened children are not exaggerations but true com ,

parisons o f the apparent si z es o f terri fying and non


terri fying objects A similar reason may explain t he
.


sn ake stories .
CHAPT E R XV .

SE E I N G W IT H T W O E YE S .

W H E N the eyes in succession are O pened an d closed


rapidly objects seem to form di fferent pictures fo r the
,

t w o eyes When b oth eyes are opened a third view is


.
,

obtained The world as seen w ith the le ft eye di ffers


.

from the world as seen with the right eye the world as
seen with both eyes is again a di fferent matter .

I n our usual experience we see the world as a single


world although we have two eyes that se e di fferently
, .

When we lose control over our vision as in a state o f ,

1n t o x1cat io n the t w o eyes are li able to ac t independently


,

and things are seen double .

The view with the right eye is wh at would be seen Tw o di f


fe re n t
with the le ft eye if it w ere moved a i
o n e -e ye V e w s .

short di stance to the right an d like ,

wise the le ft eye sees wh at the right


eye would se e if moved toward the
left The pictures di ffer only in the
.

point o fview .

The view with both eyes has a re


lie f a rotu n dity that is w holly lack
, ,

ing in the one eye vie w s -


.

In looking at a b ook with the right


F’ Fi
eye we get the flat view as in Fig g 35
1 1
g 34
‘ ‘ . .

1 34 with the left eye we get the flat view as in


Fig 1 35
. But with both eyes the book appears in
.
Thi n king ,
Fee ling , D o ing .

relief W e imagine we se e the b ook as in Fig 1 36


. . .

W hat we really se e is shown in Fig 1 37 . .

This union o f two di fferent flat views into a single


solid view is the fundamental fact o f two eyed seeing -
,

o r b inocul ar v is ion The union is uncon sciously per


.

formed and is irresistible W hy ? Let u s trace the


.

process step b y step .

Holding the head directly above these t wo dots let ,

the eyes stare as in reverie i e looking far b ehind the


, . .
,

paper Four dots w ill b e seen each eye seeing t w o dots


.
, .

I f however you look at some imaginary o bject n o t f


, , ar

behind the p aper the two middle dots will come together
, .

There will then b e three dots the middle o n e b eing a,

combination o f one dot from each


eye This can b e very plai nly seen
.

by sticking the two dots o n a


window pane or a piece o f glass
-

when you look at some object at a


proper distance b eyond the glass ,

the t w o middle dots fuse together .

After the union o f the t w o middle


l g th
E im in at in e
e xt ra i mag es .
pictures into one the two outer ones
are still faintly seen To be rid o f
.

Fig - 3a “a 37 1
1
these outside pictures all that is
needed is to place a strip o f paper from the nose to the
middle point betw een the two dots This makes it e v i .

dent that the single dot seen is a compound o f the dot


fro m the right eye with the dot from the le f t .

E xactly the same f act is illustrated in Fig 1 38 where .


,

the problem is to put the b ird in the cage tA visiting .

card is pl aced from the line AB to t h e nose the eyes are ,


S e e i ng w ith Two Ey es .

relaxed and the bird goes into the cage without di ffi culty .

Most persons find it tiresome o r di ffi cult to o bserve Th e st e re o


p sco e .

v iews in the way just described The presentation o f .

B
Fig . 1 38. Pu t t h e Bird in t h e Cage b y B in oc u lar V isio n .

p ictures to the eyes sep arately is most conveniently done


b y the stereoscope o fwhich o n e kind is shown in Fig
,
.

1 39. A card containing the two pictures is placed on the


bottom The left eye sees only the
. I
left hand picture the right eye only
-
,

the right .

The principle o f the stereoscope it s p rin c ip l e.

co n sists in b ringing togethe r the mid

dle pictures fo r each eye and in avoid


ing the outer ones This is most com .

m o n ly done by means o f prismatic


lenses .

The pr ism stereoscope contains two


A c t io n o ft h e
glass prisms n p with a partition b e Fig 39 Th P i m p
, ,
. 1 . e rs
n sm st e re o
sc o p e
tween an d in front o f them It is a
.
S t p .
e reo sc o e .
.

property o f prisms that an object which is at m w hen


Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

directly viewed apparently changes its position to some


,

such place as e whe n see n through the prism The .

amount and direction o f the change depend on the


character o f the prism Two prisms can b e so chosen
.

that fo r the left eye a picture at m is transferred to e and


fo r the right eye a picture at o is transferred to the same
place The two impressions from di fferent eyes will
.

then b e united The prisms are usually so adjusted that


.

the distance from m to o is z i inches .

T h e p risms are It is desirable that the prisms should at the same time
l l
a so e nse s
b e lenses fo r t h e follo w ing reason In experimenting
.

.
,

with the two dots it will have b een noticed that when t he
gaze was directed to a point b eyond th e m they were
see n b lurre d around the edges There are very fe w .

people who can make each eye look straight forward and
yet see near objects distinctly W h en looking at dis .

tant obj ects their eyes are far sighted fo r n ear objects
-
.

As it is n e cessary
t o have the st e reo
s c o p i c p i c t u r es
near at hand and
yet have the lines
o f regard parallel ,

the far sightedness -

is c o r r e c t e d by
lenses The tw o .

prisms must thus


a lso b e magnif yin g
Fi
g . Th B k S te eos
1 40 . e oo H wt rs it
co p e ; o o U e .

e n se s.

In order to present st e re o sc0 p ic views to my readers


I have had them printed ( fo r the first time ) ready fo r
the application o f the stereoscope directly to the b ook .

The simplest m e thod is to unscrew the back portion o f


S ee ing w i th Tw o Ey e s .

any stereoscope and hold it to the eyes directly be fore


the picture in the b ook as show n in Fig 1 40 Three , . .

v iews will b e seen ( Fig 1 4 1 ) the one in the middle C


.
, ,

is the v iew produced b y t h e combination o f views


from the right and left 4
pictures and the others
, ,

A B are extra views


, , .

A nother method is to
cut o ff the e n d o f the .

stick o f the stereoscope


t i l l t h e b o o k when,

placed against the end ,

is at j ust the proper dis


tance . There are no
extra pictures in this
case .

W hen two like pic


F ig 4 A t i ft h B k S te p . 1 1 . c on o e oo reo sco e.
tures are placed so that C mbi i g t w o n n o

the prisms cause them to fall exactly on the same spot l ik p 'm e c e s'
,

the images are seen as one The two heads in Fig . .

1 4 2 appear as one head .

W hen the two pictures are not alike t hey make a com mb m g a
fi i g pi t
, n n .

e c u re s.

Fig . 1 42 . Tw o Li k Pi t e c u res.

pound figure as in Figs 1 4 3 1 44 When two pictures


, .
, .

are farther apart th an the distance o f the middle points


o fthe pri sms they f all b eside each other In Fig 1 4 5 the
, . .

vertical bars are at the proper distance fo r union whereas ,


Thin ki ng , Fee li ng , D o i ng .

the horizontal projections are too far apart The result is .

a cross The outline o fthe v ertical bar is darker because


.

the black line o f one picture falls on the black line o f

Fig . 1 43 . U l ike P i
n ct u re s t o b e Co m in e d b .

the other whereas the black line o f the horizontal bar


,

in one picture falls on the white space o f the other .

Up to this point the results o f two eyed vision h ave -

Fig . 1 44 . P ro m e t h e u s .

been flat pictures The production o f the e ffect o f o b


.

j e c ts in relie f is not quite so simple .

Let two pencils b e held upright b e fore the eyes in a


lin e directly in front o fthe nose an d at about four inches

Fig . 1 45 . Th e C ro ss .
S e e ing w ith Tw o Ey es .

apart W hen looking at the farther pencil yo u se e tw o


.

nearer pencils as in Fig 1 4 6 The image L b elongs to


, . .

the left eye because it disappears when that eye is closed ;


R belongs to the right eye .

This conditio n o f the ext ra


images is called crossed dis
parity ; it is to b e remembered
that objects nearer than the
point o f regard are seen with
crossed disparity .

On look i ng at the nearer _


U n o
cr sse d dis
penc i l the fa r t h e r a p p e a r s
, parit y .

double ( Fig . By closing


one eye it is ev ident that the
farther pencil is seen with u n
crossed disparity .

Fig 47 . 1 .

Thus when we look at any gg git fi l


fi g
s
s

point the objects nearer than


,

that point are seen with crossed disparity those farther ,

than it with uncrossed disparity .

Now hold a single pencil with one end poi n ting to the Pro du ct ion of

nose about tw o feet away and the other straight in front .


fe lie fl

Looking at the farther end you would expect the nearer


,

end to be seen as tw o ends in crossed disparity ( Fig 1 4 8 ) .

looking at the nearer end you would expect to se e two


farther ends in uncrossed disparity ( Fig looking
.

at the middle you would expect to see both ends double


in opposite ways ( Fig . Si n ce the pencils are con
t in u o u s to the ends you would expect the double v ision
,

to extend down to the point o f regard W hat you


.

actually see is one pencil i n re lief ( Fig . The con


t in u it y o f the o bject trans forms the double image into a
single one with a new property By practice it is pos
.
Thi n king , Feeling , D o ing .

sible to overcome this union a pencil will then b e seen


as a double one .

Fu nda me ntal
The fu ndamen tal law o f b inocular relief is t h is Tw o
law O f re li f
e
'

difiere n t fl at p ictu res of the same o bj e ct w ill be co mbi n e d

Fig 1 48 What we wo u ld E x Fig . x49 Wh at we w o u ld E x


k
. .

p ec t k
w h e n Lo o in at t h e pee t Wh en Lo o in at th e
F
art h e r E n N
e are r E n

Fig . W hat w e w o u ld E xpect


1 50 . Fig 1 51 . What we Ac tually S ee
w h en Loo kin g at th e M iddle
.

i n to ;
f if
a re lie p ic tu re is su ch
e ach
as w ou ld be seen by
the correspondi ng ey e si ng ly .

I fthe two pictures in Fig 1 5 2 are seen with the stereo.

scope the result is a union o f the t w o lines into one


,
S e e ing w ith Tw o Ey es .

line slanting away b ecau se the t wo views are drawn as


,

such a line would appear to the eyes used singly .

I ftwo appropriate vie ws b e presented as in Fig 1 5 3 ,


.
,

t h e result is a fi gure in reliefindicati n g a pyramidal bo x .

Fig . 1 5 2. Th e S lant Lin e .

It is possible to tell b eforehand whether the b ox is E o r t e lln


gj
th
m 0 re 3fgy
seen f rom the i ns i de o r from the outsi de As the sm all t h la
e s of
pa gy
.

18 fl
squ ares are at the regular d i stance apart the p o mt o f re

g ard is f
ound in t h e sma ll end o f the b o x T h e large .

Fig . 1 53. Th e Py amidal B


r o x.

q ares are too far apart and are not crossed this end
s u

o f the b ox must b e seen in uncrossed disparity But .

objects seen in uncrossed disparity are farther away


th an the point o f regard consequently the large end o f
the box is farther away We are therefore looking at
.

th e outside o f the bo x .
Thin ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

I f the
outer squ ares are drawn so as to be seen in
crossed disparity the larger end o f the square is
,

nearer than the smaller end and we are apparently


looking at the inside o f a box .

These relations are shown in Fig 1 54 The outer


f di"
. .

lam“ °
circles fo r each pair are at the proper distance apart and
unite to form the base at the point o f regard The .
S e e i ng w ith Tw o Ey e s
. 20 9

smaller circles are seen in di fferent relations o fdisparity ,

with the e ffect th at the pictures form a series o f funnels ,

the b ottom o n e b eing long an d pointed toward the o h


server the next being shorter but likewise pointed the
, ,

middle one being a flat disk the fourth b eing short and
,

pointed away an d the topmo st one b eing long an d like


,

wi se pointed.

From these principles it will be easy to explain the


Thin ki ng , Fee ling , D o i ng .

crystals shown in Figs .

1 55 ,
1 56 1 57 The dia
, .

gram in Fig 1 5 8 is b uilt .

upon the same laws .

Finally the stereoscopic


,

views o f b uildings per ,

sons an d landscapes such


, ,

as can b e obtained every

where are resolvab le into


,

the same principles aided


by the shading shadows , ,

and perspective .

.
In add ition to the e f
u fe ct o frelie fwhich we gai n
g
i

by stereoscopic v i s i o n
there are several other
important results o f two
eyed s e e i n g A m o n g
them are ( 1 ) binocular
stri fe 2 ) binocular luster
, ,

and 3 ) binocular con


trast .

Bi l
n o c u ar st rif
e .
Binocul ar strife is pro
du ce d when the two dif
fe re n t views are separately
presented to the two eyes .

In Fig 1 5 9 the various


.

rings are filled w ith lines

in di f ferent directions
wh at happens when they
are combined with the
stereoscope ? One o fthe
rings is filled with shading
S e e ing w ith Tw o Ey es . 21 1

which slants in one direction fo r the left eye and in the


other direction fo r the right eye The resu l t is peculiar . .

Fig . 1 59 . l
Bin oc u ar S t rif
e .

Very rarely do the two sets


o f lines com b ine to form
crosse d shading S ometimes
.

the left hand shading alon e


-

appears sometimes the right


,

h and shading wins gener


ally the t wo alternate fre
quently an d irregularly I f .

you happen to think o f o n e


kind o f shading that ap ,

pears But you cannot keep


.

either kind fo r more than an


in stant ; the other w ill replace
it It seems to b e largely a
.

m atter o fatten tion Yet the .


,

most frequent aspect o fall is


that the shading is in patches ;
the left hand picture predom
-

in at e s in p arts while the right


hand one occupies the rest .

A nd the queer thing ab out


it is th at these parts are con
t in u ally changing Th e inner
.

circle behaves in the same


way It is in truth a stri fe
.

b etween the two eyes .


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

O rdinary l u st e r
. Binocular luster or polish is so called fro m the re
, ,

semblance o f the e ffect to actual polish A pol ishe d .

object co n tai n s a contradiction in itself I ts little marks .


,

irregularities and corners ,

remai n the same although ,

changes in the positio n o f


t h e light and in the o h

j e ct s n ear it are f
ollowe d
V
k by changes in the re fle c
o
o
B tion A polished door
,
.

o kno s
b di ffers from an u n
L
polished o n e b y partially
i
e
s

fe fle ct ing the lights from


d
a
r
a
P
s u r r o u n d i n g obj ects ;
3

there is a strife between


l
n
o
t
i

M the color and general ap


o

p e
t

na ran c e the knob would


o

a have ifunpolished an d the


i
t

r
t

appearance o f e ffects o f
s
u

a
i

su rrrounding objects .

In Fig 1 60 the left eye


l
u
c .

f
n
B
receives
i
an impressio n o
A a white crystal and the

right eye o n e o f a black


crystal ; when v iewed with
a stereoscope the s a m e ,

space is covered by a
di fferen t color fo r the tw o
eyes Th e result is a
.

b e au t ifii l lustrous translucent crystal showing changes


, , ,

o flight and dark as the b inocul ar stri f e enters into e ffect .

Bi no c la
u r can
Binocular contrast is so called b ecause the resul t o f a
“as“
b inocular stri fe depe n ds somewhat o n the surroundings .
S e e i ng w ith Tw o Ey e s
. 21 3

In Fig 1 6 1 we would expect an e ffect o fb in o cular luster


.

an d b inocular stri f
e We do get them b ut in the
.
, ,

n eighborhood o f the most prominent points o f each

figure the corresponding color o ve rpowers the other


,
.

Thus in the neigh b orhood o f the angel Mich ael the


,

white is strongest while around Luci fer the black o v er


,

p owers the light


.
CHAPT E R XVI .

F E E LI N G .

TH E word feeling is employed in many meanings .

We speak o f feeling hunger and thirst and o f feeling ,

p ain W e also say that lov e an d h ate joy and sorrow


.
, ,

care an d hope are feelings We tell o f feelings o f the


, .

beauti ful an d the ugly o f feelings o f truth honor an d


, , ,

v irtue .Wh at is the common property that brings all


these into relation ? There is one connecting link among
them they express like or di slike .

The mental fact which we express by liking or dislik


Li k e an d dis ”
l ik e . ing is what we shall term feeling It is true th at we
.

sometime s say a thing f eels hot feels rough etc but we


, , .
,

need not fear an y confusion with feelings o f liking and


disli k ing .

We h av e thus tw o simple feelings liking and dislik ,

ing There is no objection to calling them t w o quali


.


ties o ffeeling just as the many rainbow colors can be
,

“ ”
called qualities o fcolor but there is no necessity fo r
,

doing so .

i n dif
fe re n t ex
Some o four experience s arouse no feeling they are
p e ri e n c e s .
indi fferent We do not care whether our neighbor wears
.

a fresh looking coat or a ru sty one The people o fChi


- .

cago do not care whether their streets show a clear stone


pavement or reek wi th mud Mo st sensations howe v er
.
, ,

arou se some f eeling there are very fe w things fo r which


w e ha v e neither a liking nor a di slike .

The state o f our feelings depends on the strength


of the impression that arouses them Fo r example a .
,

moderately sweet taste as o f sugar is agreeable an in


, ,

ten sely sweet taste as o f saccharine is disagreeable A


, ,
.

moderate degree o fsaltiness is pleasant b ut a strong de ,

gree is distaste ful E ven a faint b ittern ess as in b eer


.
, ,

is liked b y some persons while the intense b itterness o f


,

quinine is revolting .

Feelings are connected with all sorts o f experiences .

Muscular exertion or action o f an y kind may arouse


, ,

feelings . Moderate activity is generally pleasurab le


b ut tiredness over exertion an d unhealthiness may
,
-
, ,

b ring about inten se unpleasantness .

The extreme pleasure o f muscular exercise can be felt


only b y persons who like the children in m any schools
, ,

are f orced to remain in one seat fo r hours In some .

class rooms during a whole morning the children are not


-

allowed to lea v e their seats I h av e b een a pupil


in classes where posi t ive terror kept us from making any
unnecessary movement Oh the j oy o fj umping down
.
,

whole flights o f stairs after school w as over


From nearly every organ in the b ody we receive some
sensation The stomach makes itsel f known b y hunger
.

or repletion ; the throat is heard from whe n thirsty .

E ach o f thes e sensations m ay arouse f eelings Thus .


,

hunger and thirst are d isagreeable repletion an d quench


ing o f thirst are agreeable Other sen sations such as .
,

o f the liver were origin ally very strong b u t with ad


, ,

v an c in
g culture an d age they ha v e to a l arge extent dis

appeared The feelings however still remai n strong


.
, , .

An overloaded stomach or a disordered liver is liable to


m ake us look upon the world in a v ery dism al light ; the
disagreeable feeling from such a source has overpowered
all the others .
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

E st h e t ics o f
There are some person s known as gou rmets who
, ,

t ast e .
devote themselves to a study o f pleasing combinations
o f tastes an d smells . The fine feeling o f the French in .

this matter has led to the development o f the race o f


French cooks The puritanical austerity o f New E n g
.

land has brought about an almost total decay o f the


feeling o f the b eauti f
ul which exhibits itsel f not only in
,

its ugly wooden houses and hideously somber garb but ,

also in its u n a st he t ical pies doughnuts and baked


, ,

beans .

The influence o ftouch an d temperature on our likings


fo r tastes is so entirely overlooked th at scientists have
been deceived into supposing that there was some actual
chemical di fference corresponding to the difference in
agreeableness o f taste between things which were really
mixed with various touch and temperature sensations .

A draught direct from the old oaken b ucket has a


taste quite different from the same water drunk from a
glass Water from a t in cup is intolerable yet co ffee
.
,

from a tin cup is far superior to co ffee in any other way .

The reason is a purely psychological one the di fferent


sensations o f touch an d temperature mingle with the
sensations o f taste to produce agreeable combinations .

Various objects are liked or disliked according to


their ch aracters Strong b right colors are always liked
. .

Any one looking at the rainbow colors would b e t empted


“ ”
to exclaim All colo rs are beautiful !
, This e ffect is
v ery pronounced when the eye looks directly at the

light thrown back by a spectrum grating ( page 1 60 )-

all the colors f rom red to violet and purple are o f an


indescribable beauty .

White itsel f when not too strong is j ust as beautiful


, , .

Since we cannot look directly at the sun the light must ,


b e we akened by reflection This is don e by the method
.

described on p age 1 60 White as seen from such a


.
,

surface po ssesses a beauty as great if not greater than


, , ,

the rainbow colors .

When the colors are mixed with white less beautiful ,

colors are obtained No pink can be produced that is


.

equal to pure re d no pale green that is as beauti ful as


pure green The whiti sh skies o f our colder climates
.

cannot be comp ared with the deep blue sk y o f Italy .

W hen a color or white is darkened i e made less , . .


,

strong its beauty is lessened Grays an d sh ad e s are


,
.

not comparable with full colors It is when both the se .

changes are made th at indi fferent or disagreeable colors


are obtai ned Grayish pinks or grayish browns or drab
.

b lues are somber and unpleasant .

Colored tablets are sometimes given to ch ildren with t he


command to pick o u t the prettiest one They generally .

pick out the yellow not because ( as the teacher supposes )


,

it has anything to do with sunlight but simply because it ,

is the brightest color in the p articular se t With some .


sets o f spectrum tablets inflicte d o n A merican school
children the dull gray red is such a disagreeab le color
that the children persistently avoid it until the teacher
succeeds in producing the desired de formity in the color
feelings .

In general we can say pure white sunlight when not ,

too strong is beautiful the rainbow colors are beauti


,

fu l these all become less p leasing when less strong ;


the colors become less pleasing when mixed with white
the most disagreeable e ffects are produced by mixtures
o fgray ( w e aker white ) with shades ( weaker colors ) .

Among all the good things o f li fe nature is the most


beauti ful art s second an d science w hy should not
i ,

,
Thin king , Feeling ,
D o i ng .

science b e third ? The most b eauti ful colors and comb i


n ations we se e are the colors o f the spec trum series

science s colors They lack form n ature m akes fl o we r
.


forms out o f science s colors and we h ave all the glories

o f the fields the flowers are n ature s colors Art takes .

’ ’
nature s flowers and puts poetry s meaning into them .


Flowers as sym b ols o fli fe light and love are art s colors
, ,
.

We h ave thus far spoke n only o fsingle colors Whe n .

colors are combined the com b inatio n may produce an


,

agreeab le o r a disagreeable e ffect depending o n the ,

relatio n o fthe two colors .

I n the first place any combinatio n o f the rain b ow


,

colors is agreeable In the rainbow or the spectrum they


.

are all there together I n fact when colors approac h


.
,

the brilliancy o f the rainb ow colors as in stained glass, ,

almost any combin atio n appears f airly good This is .

one reason why the patterns in a kaleidoscope have b ee n


o fso little value in decorative art fo r whe n the colo rs

are most care fully imitated in coarser materials they are


apt to lose their b rilliancy and to produce disagreeable
e ffects To a lesser degree this applies also t o silk
.

many color combinations worked o u t in this m aterial are


tolerable o n accou n t o f their b rightness while the same ,

designs if made in wool o r cotto n appear very poor .

M o st l g Nevertheless eve n with the brightest spectrum colors


, ,
p easin
b
c o m in at io n s
.
some p airs are more pleasing tha n others I fthe colors .

o f the spectrum b e arranged in a circle so that comple

mentary colors ( page 1 6 7 ) are opposite each other it can ,

b e laid down as a rule established b y experiment that a


combination o f tw o colors is more agreeable the more
nearly they are complementary .

W he n two grays are combined together the e ffect is ,

more pleasing the more they di ffer W hite and black .


are the most pleasing o fall When a color is combined .

with gray or when two colors o f di fferent shade or tint


,

are comb ined the most pleasing effect is obtained when


,

the di fference is greatest A light red and a dark


.

green will b e better than a moderately light red and a


moderately dark green Yet even this l ast may be bet
.

ter than a light green and a dark blue because red and ,

gree n as colors give b etter e ffects th an gree n and blue .

To get the full ef fect we should use double contrast


( )
1 o fcomplement a ry colors and ( )
2 o flight and dark
, .

Fo r example we should combine bright red with dark


,

bluish green or dark red with light bluish green bright o r ,

ange with dark blue or d ark orange with b right b lue etc , .

It must b e con fessed th at these statements are rank


heresies in decorative art Still they are the com b in a
.

tions preferred by unprejudiced individuals The bright .

colors and strong contrasts are preferred by children by ,

savage trib es b y the peas antry and als o in former


,
.

periods o fart .

W hy should we not b e allow ed to enjoy the combina


tions o f color as nature shows the m to us ? Nature dec
orates her fields hills and skies with the most gorgeous
, ,

colors ; we northern nations decorate our towns our ,

homes and o u r persons with the dullest combin ations


,

we can find Any o n e who attempts to put a little li fe


.

into o u r colors is decried as an uncultured b eing As .


Ruskin s ays : The modern color enthusiasts who i n sist
that all colors must b e dull and dirty are just like people
who eat slate -pencil and chalk and assure everyb ody that
they are nicer an d purer than strawberries and plums .

The worst general character that decorative coloring can


possibly have is a prevalent tendency to a dirty yellow
ish green like that o fa decaying heap o fvegetab les
, It .
Thin king , Feeling , D o ing .

isdistinctively a sign o f a decay o f color appreciation .

In these remarks o n modern taste I have referred to


the tastes o f the general public I must except from .

Fig . 1 62 . Sin gl e S ymme t ry , Fig 1 63 S i gl S ym m


n e e t ry,
i l V t i al
. .

H o r z o n ta . er c .

them the newer schools o f design and also the pretty


girls o f N e w York who have lately taken to the use o f
,

harmonious comb inations o f b right colors .

The products o f art please o r displease us not only o n


account o f their color b ut also on accou n t o f their form .

The elements o f space as exciting pleasure can b e

Fig . 1 64. Do u ble S ymme t ry . Fig . 1 65 . T h ee f ld S ymm


r o e t ry
.

classed into the division o f forms and the direction o f


bounding lines .

In regard to the di v ision o f forms we notice first that ,

regular forms are preferable to irregular ones The .


simplest kind o f regu larity is symmetry i e the like , . .
,

ness o f the tw o halves Horizontal sym metry i e


.
, . .
,

likeness o f parts o n each side o f a vertical l in e is the ,

most preferred D o u b l e s y m
.

metry is better tha n single The .

more complicated the symmetry


becomes the b etter we like the re
,

sult The degree o f symmetry is


.

denoted b y the number o f lines


that can b e draw n through the cen
ter whereb y th e half o f the figure
o n one side o f the line is just the
Fig 66 S ymm et y 1 r

opposite o f the half o n the other side A plai n circle .

is in perfect symmetry in every direction b ut it b ecomes ,

much more pleasing whe n made into a rosette .

Fig . 1 67. E i htf g l


o d S ymme t ry .

A nothe r ki n d o f regularity is foun d in a defin ite re Th e p l e asin g


sq uare”
latio n o fheight to b readth The perfect .

square is very displeasing b ecause ,

owing to the overesti mation o f the ver


tical directio n ( page 1 8 7) the figure ap
pears t o b e slightly t o o tall ; it seems
t o impel us t o mak e it correct As the .

Pi 68 P f t b t
e r ec ’ u
gim ie S ym m t y actual square is shorten ed we dislike it
1
e r
b ti m
o

i
n l re c o '

less and fi nally when it appears to b e


, , ,

a perfect square we consider it a very pleasing figure


,
.
Thin king , Fee ling , Do ing .

O f cou rse , b y actual measurement it is no longer a


square b ut it is a square as far as we are concerned
, .

I fa square b e changed to a rectangle it is less pleas


Th e p l ai g
e s n
,

rec ta gl
n e .
ing than b efore unless there is a certai n relation b etween
,

lengt h and height Suppose in Fig 1 70 the square at


. .

X to b e successively lengthened in
'
the directio n X Care ful e xp e ri .

ments have proven that the degree


o fpleasure follows some such course
as indicated b y the line S G W hen .

the relation o f the two sides is actu


Fig 69 C mbi ati
. 1 . fally 1 times 1 the fi gu re is very dis
o n o ns o
symm t m e
pleasing W hen it is equal to an .

app arent square the pleasure is considerable S As it , .

grows in length the pleasure at first decreases then ,

increases till at a relatio n it is at a m aximum G , .

E st h e t ics of
W e h ave now reached the b order land betwee n psy -

fo rm .

Fig . 1 70 . Th e Law o Pl
f e asin g R lat i
e o n s o ft h e D ime nsio n s o fa Rec tan gl e .

cho lo g yand the ae sthetics o f form and at the same time ,

we have come to the end o f our definite experimental


knowledge The writers on architecture p ainting draw
.
, ,

ing and decoration have produced numberless specula


,

tions o n the psychological principles underlying the


beauti ful an d the ugly How far each is right we can .

not say as psychologists we have no call to meddle till


experimental evidence can be produced .
I fI were not Alexander I would b e D iogenes Pl ,
. e asu re in
t ones
Probably no artist ( i e form artist o r color artist ) ever
.

. .
,

lived who would not choose in the second place to b e a


musician a tone artist W hat are the laws o f feeling in
, .

regard to musical tones ?


Perfectly pure tones like those from good tuning
,

forks seem hollow and less agreeable tha n tones from


,

the musical instrume n ts which are really compound ,

tones The tone o f a violi n fo r example is composed


.
, ,

o f a mai n tone and a great n umber o f weaker tones ,

such as the octave above etc whereas the tone o f a , .


,

flute is n early simple .

Further th an this there is very little t hat can be said in


regard to tone feeling - .

I f we look closely at the f eelings especially in their ,

more i n tense stages we can h ardly doubt that they are


,

invariably accompanied by
actual sensations from parts o f
the b ody These sensations
.

ofte n attai n an intensity equal


to th at o fthe sensations aroused
by direct external o r i n tern al
stimulatio n Sometimes they
.

may be even locali z ed with


some degree o f de fin it e n e ss
F ig Cha g f P l a a
.

u se s
They also sho w a determ i nate R it fPl a
. 1 1 . n e o
( Th d esu o e su re . e rec o r

quality which varies with the


general condition o ffeelings and which is reflected in the ,

expressions which we employ to describe this All ex .

eeling is attended by physical pain whether dif


c e ssiv e f ,

fused over the b ody generally or restricted to a part ic u


lar organ Moderate excitations also affect the sensa
.

tions though less strongly and are more definitely local


, ,
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

iz e d
References to this locali zation o f the se n sations
.

in particular states o f feeling are found in ancient litera


ture E very passion w as supposed to b e seated in a
.

particular organ and it must b e admitted that where


observatio n was wanting imaginatio n took its place .

Anger was placed in the liver en vy in the spleen the


, ,

higher emotions in the organs o f the breast E ven to .

day the heart is the seat o f the most various a ffective


states Care and disappointed h ope b ring o n heart
.

ache despair dies o f a b roken heart love through all


its changes and chances has its source and cen ter in the

heart courage has a lio heart and fain t heart n ever
n -
,

won fair lady .


There is really good re aso n fo r thi s rela t io n o f the
Th e h a t
e r s re

lat i
on t f
o ee l i g
n .
heart s activity to the state
of f eeling ; fo r the heart
nerves are those most easily
excited b y changes in our
feelings E very excitation
.

o ffeeling manifests itselfin a


weaker o r stronger quicker ,

o r slower heart b eat Jo y


-
, .

and h 0 pe make the pulse


“ T
5 55 52555 5 5 553 : quick an d S t r o n g h e
“ W‘
pulse line as traced o n a
-
,

smoked drum rises as the intensity o f the b eat is


,

stronger and the b eats come more rapidly when the


,

person experiences a very pleasant feeling Care and .

anxiety render it weak and slow ; terror a rrests it


altogether An d there are many indications that other
.

organs react to such changes o ffeelin g It has often .

b ee n noticed that violent anger results in a return o f the


bile to the blood which means a deran gemen t o f the
,
function o f the liver The tear glands are very easily
.
-

excited by the feeling o f sorrow And we should n u


.

doubtedly discov er other similar connections were it not


that they have no external symptoms Besides the par
.

t icu lar organ which is especially concerned in a p arti e n


lar state o f feeling there are always other organs more
,

or less a ffected and it is the complex o f sensations re


rom the su m total o f
su lt in g f

these separate sensations that


constitutes the mass o f internal
feelings and sensations The .

muscles fo r example are almost


, ,

always involved in this second

ary excitation W e have di


.
Th e m u sc les
.

rect experience o f the energy


and tension or o fthe exhaustion
,

and relaxation o f o u r muscles fifl §egg3


ff
° s
r
m thi W ) ”
and o u r general states o ffeel “ s s

ing are altogether different according as the limbs are


movable and elastic or are heavy loads to weigh the
body down . A feeling o fj oy and excitation m akes
movement easy an d prompt ; a depressing feeling ren
ders it slow and hea vy .
CHAPT E R XVI I .

E M O TIO N .

TH E preceding chapter treated the simple cases o f


of

liking and disliking But when we like anything our


.
,

course o f thought generally becomes di fferent from what


it would h ave been if we had disliked it ; and likewise
the reverse .

The complex processes o f thought and feeling com


b in e d are generally called emotions They are among
.

the most important mental phenomena exerting a ,

m arked influence b oth upo n thought and voluntary


action They are reflected in certain expressive move
.

ments These are further connected with reactions o f


.

the heart the blood vessels the respiratory muscles and


,
-
, ,

certain secretory organs which take on a special char


,

act e rist ic f
orm in eac h particular emotion .

The general subject o f the emotions has b een so


clearly stated b y Wundt that at the present stage o f
,

psychological investigation I cannot do better than fo l


,

low his treatment fo r the rest o f this chapter .

The typical emotion has three stages an initial feel


ing ; a subsequent change in the train o f ideas intensi ,

f i
y gn and qu alitatively modi ying
f the initi al eeling
f
and ( always supposing that the emotion is distinct and
well defined ) a fin al feeling o f greater o r less duration
, ,

which m ay possibly give rise to a new emotion o f which


it forms the initial feeling The principal di fference b e
.

226
E mo ti o n .

t wee n f
eeling and emotion con sists in the second stage
— the '

alterat ion in the train o f ideas The presence Tw la . o c sses


f m ti o e o o n s.
o f this alteratio n enables us to divide e motions into two

classes excitant an d inhib itory I nstan ces o fthe former


, .

are j oy and anger ; o f the latter terror and fear At , .

the same time all very intensive emotions are inhibitory


,

in character and it is only whe n they have run some


,

part o f their course that their excitant side comes to


consciousness On the physi cal side the e ffect o f emo P hy i al
.
, s c ef
fec ts
f m ti o e o on
tio n upo n the train o f ideas is accurately reflected in
.

external movement The excitant emotion quicke n s


.

thought and involves heightened movement o f face an d


lim b s increase o f heart activity and dilati n g o f the
, ,

blood vessels ; the inhibitory emotion paral yzes or at


-
,

least relaxes the muscles slows the heart beat and con
, ,
-
,

tracts the vessels All these physiological e ffects have


.

their accompaniment o f sensations which intensi fy the ,

feelings in the emotion .

Less intensive degrees o f emotion are called moods M d .


oo s .

I t is a general rule that the duration o f emotion varies


inversely with its in te nsity so that moods are more per
manent states o f mind tha n emotions proper Violent .


emotions are sometimes termed passions The n ame Pa i .
ss o n s .

indicates that strongly emotional states which oscillate ,

b etween liking and disliking tend invariably toward the


,

side o fthe latter Passion also implies that a parti e


.

u l ar emotion has b een habitu al H ence the word is .

of t e n used to denote a perm anent condition which finds


its expression in frequent outbursts o f emotion .

The most indefinite emotions arej o y and sorrow W hen S w .


o rro .

sorrow is directed upon the external object which excites


it we call it care We can only be care ful about others
,
.
,

and if we wish to express the fact that an object arouses


Care .
no interest in us we say that we do not care about i t .

The personal opposite o f care is melancholy; Th e


M e lanc ho l y .

melancholiac is centered in himself; he withdraws from


the world to brood in solitude over his o w n pain Care .

and melancholy b ecome anxiet y and dejectio n when they


pass from emotions
to p erm a n en t
moods Intermedi .

ate b et ween thes e


obj ective an d per
Gl o o m .
so n al forms o f so r
row stand gloom and
d e p r e s s i o n We .

may b e gloomy as t o
o ur f ate in the world
and depressed ab out
a loss we have su f
fe re d o r we m ay b e
,

gl o om y o r de
pressed wi thout an y
e x t e r n a l reason ,

simpl y b ecause o u r
Fig 74 S 1 w o rro
mood will have it so
. . .

Joy like
, sorro w assumes , di f
ferent forms according t o

the directio n which it tak e s But we have not nearly so


.

many words to express j o yous emotion as we have to ex


press sorrow A joyous mood we call cheerfulness or
.
, ,

in its higher stages hilarity But we cannot tabulate


, .

the j oyous emotions as obj ective and personal as we ,

could their opposites It may b e that our poverty o f


.

words poi n ts to a distinctio n in the facts o four emotional


life The joyous emotions appear to b e more uniform ,
.

less variously colored than the sorrowful


, .
E mo tio n .

The emotions o fj oy and sorrow whether their refer P


,
a, h a e rso n c r
fj y a d
0 0

e nce i s ma i nly exter nal or to the person h i msel f are


a t C ero o n
o ow,
s rr .

always perso n al in character ; the emotional excitation

o f our own minds is always the principal thing A .

mood on the other hand may be o bj e ct ifie d by o u r


, ,

p utting our own feelings into the external o bj ects which


e xcite them .I fj oy an d sorrow are the expressions o f
a n internal harmon y and dish armony these objective
,

e motions are the result o f some external h armonious o r

inharmonious i m
p ression . Like and
dislike are the most
general forms o fo b
j e c t iv e emotion cor
responding to j o y
and sorrow on the
p ersonal side They
.

fu r t h e r imply a
m o v e m e n t to o r
;
from the o bj e c t
what we like attracts
us ; what we dislike
repels us .And this
movement finds its
Fig ”5 J Y
e xpression in the ' ° °

v arious particular f orms in which the general emotions


o ccur .

The attraction which a pleasing object has fo r us all



w e call charm ; a thing is charming which b oth
pleases and attracts us The opposite o fcharm is re pu l
.

s ion a violent dislike which makes us turn away f


, , rom
a n object in displeasure Repulsion b ecomes aversion
.
,

an d at a still higher stage anger when it is turned


, , ,
Thi n ki ng , Fee li ng , D o i ng .

directly upon the repellent obj ect ; it becomes chagrin


an d m o rt ificat io n if the unpleasant mood can fin d no

outlet The extreme degree o f anger is rage ; the ex


.

treme o f m o rt ificat io n is exasperation The O pposite o f .

chagrin is contentment when pleasantly concern ed


with external objects it becomes de
light when quietly occupied with its
own a ffairs happiness , .

i n dif
fe re n ce .
The two opposite processes o f
charm and repulsio n find a meeting
point in indi fference Indi fference .

has a tendency in the direction o fn u


pleasantness ; when sense or thought
is sated with t he in di fferent or per
haps origin ally attractive obj ect it ,

passes over at once into repugnance .

Fig 76 A g 1 n er
Repugn ance is as much sensation as
. . .

emotion In the latter shape it has an objective form


.
,

antipathy an d a person al one discontentedness I f the


, , .

emotio n b ecomes a permanent m ood we have weariness ,

and dissat isfaction .

In all these cases emotion and mood are at once dis


,

t in gu ishab le f
rom sensation by their connection with a
train o f strongly emotion al ideas W hen we feel j oy or .

sorrow our mood is the result o f some pleasant or pain


,

fu l experience which m a
y be re solved into a number o f
ideas I f we are mourning the death o f a friend our
.
,

consciousness is filled by a ffectionate memories more or ,

less clear or distinct which c o Op e rat e to produce the


,

emotion I f we are made angry by some insolent re


.

mark our first feeling is one o fviolent displeasure then


,

our mind is flooded by a torrent o f ideas connected with


ourselves the personality o f our assailant and the more
, ,
E mo tion .

immediate c ircumstances o f the insult Most o f them .

will not attain to an y degree o fclearn ess but all are held ,

together b y the feeling o f d ispleasure which in its turn


,

is intensified b y the sensations accompanying o u r ex


pressive movements .

A simple sensation which has no special relation to


our past mental history will therefore hardly b e a ble to
, ,

excite an emotion though it m ay call up quite intensive


,

sensations Where an emotion appears we may assume


.

the presence o f memory i deas o f experiences in which


-
,

a similar sensation w as somehow concerned The full .

and harmonious tone o f a peal o f b ells sounds holiday


like to us because we have b een accustomed from child
,

hood to interp ret t he chimes as harb ingers o f holidays


and religious festivals th e b lare o f the trumpet reminds
us o f war an d arm s the blast o f the horn brings up the
greenwood and the tumult o f the chase the chirping o f
the b irds tells us that spring has come the chords o fthe
organ suggest a congregation assem bled fo r devotion .

xam p l fro m
It is prob ably memory again which determines th e l E
co o rs .
e

way we feel in regard to color impressions although in ,

their case the ideas aroused are not so clear or distinct .

Why is white the color o f innocence and festivity b lack ,

the color o fmourning and severity ? Why do we choose


blood red to express energy an d spirit or purple to ex
-
,

press dignity and solemnity ? Why do we call green


the color o f hope ? It would be difli cu lt to trace the
mood to its original source in each particul ar case In .

many cases it probably arises from an Ob scure association


o f the color with the occasions when cu stom prescribes
'

its use Purple has b een the royal color since time b e
.

a an d bl ack is almost everywhere among the west


g n

ern n ations the color o f the mourner s garments .
Thin king ,
Fe e ling ,
D o i ng .

It is true that this associ ation does not fully explain


the connection between the sensations and the mood
which it arouses There must be some original reason
.

fo r the choice o f one p articul ar color and no other as , ,

the expression o fa state o ffeeling It is perhaps j u st ifi .

able to look fo r this reason in the rel ationship between


the sensation an d the e motion al character o f particular
colors .

E motions exhibit pec u li ar modifications when the ir


E m o t io n s of
t h e fu t u re .
character is not determined as in the cases hitherto c o n
,

side re d by impression s and ideas belonging to the pres


,

ent and considered as present but by ideas which refer to


,

the future .

E x p ec t at io n .
The most general o f these emotions o f the future
is expectation In it we outrun in impressions o f
.

the present and anticip ate those which the future will
.

bring We look forward to its realization and if this


.

realization is postponed it becomes what we call strained


,

expectation the bodily feeling o fstrain accompanies the


emotion In expectation the muscles are tense l ike
.
,

those o f a runner awaiting the signal fo r the race al ,

though very possibly the expected impression deman ds


no motor response whatsoever E xpectation becomes .

watching if the expected event m ay happen at any


moment and o u r sensory attention is wide awake to pre
,

vent its passing unnoticed The tension is relaxed with


.

the appearance o f the expected impression I f the .

occurring event fulfils our expectation we have the ,

emotion o f satisfaction ; if not th at o f disappointment


, .

Satisfaction and disappointment constitute sudden re


laxations o f expectant attention I f expectation is pro .

longed its ten sion will gradually disappear o f itsel f fo r


, ,

every emotion we akens with time .


The opposite of
disappointment is surprise Surprise S .
u rp rise .

is the result o f an unexpected event In it we have .

ideas sudde n ly aroused by external impressions and in ,

t e rru pt in g the current train o f thought in a way which


we did not anticipate and which at the same time
, , ,

strongly attracts our attention Surprise may be in .

quality pleasurable painful or altogether indifferent A


, , .

special f orm o f it is astonishment Here the event is .

n o t only unexpected at the moment b ut uni ntelligi b le ,

fo r some time afterwards Astonishment is therefore a


.
, ,

kind o fcontinued surprise I f it passes into a still more


.

permanent mood it b ecomes wonder


, .

The feeling o f rhythm which is the single psycho lo g


,

ical motive in dancing and ranks with harmony and dis


harmony as a psychological motive in musical compo
sit io n contains the elements b oth o f expectation and
,

satisfaction The regular repetition in rhythmical se n


.

sat io n s makes us expect every succeeding stimulation ,

and the expectation is immediately followed b y sat isfac


tion Rhythm therefore never involves strain or if it
.
, ,

does it is simply b ad rhythm


, I n pleasant rhythms
.

satisf action f ollows expectation as quickly as possible .

E ve ry impression arouses the expectation o f another ,

and at the same time sat isfies the expectation aroused b y


its predecessor whose relations o f time it reproduces
, .

Rhythm is an emotion compounded o f the emotions o f


expectation and satisfact ion A b roken rhythm is
.

emotion ally identical wi t h disappointment .

Hope and fear may b e regarded as special forms o f H o pe an d f


e ar.

expectation E xpectation is indefinite It may refer to


. .

an event desirable or u n desirabl e o r perhaps relatively ,

indi fferent Hope and fear decide expectation ; hope


.

is the expectation o f a desirab le result fear the ex ,


Thin king , Feeling , D o ing .

p e c t at io n ofsomething undesirable It is hardly cor .

rect to call hope a future j oy or fear a future sorrow , .

The feelings can as little penetrate into the future as the


senses Hope and fear are the expectation o ffuture joy
.

and future sorrow b ut not joy and sorrow themselves


, .

E ither o f them may b e realized just as expectation ,

may lead to satisfaction or disappointment .

Fear o f some immediate disagreeableness is called


alarm Fright b ears the same relation to alarm as does
.

expectation to surprise .

Fright is the surprise o c


c asio n e d b y some sudden ,

terrifying occurrence It .

b e c o m e s consternation
when the o c c u r r e n c e
physically paralyzes the
individual ex pe riencing it ;
and it is called t e r r o r
when he stands amazed
before the event Con .

Fig 77 F igh t
1 r
st e rn at io n is therefore
. . .

, ,

the more subj ective side o ffright and terror its objective ,

side I f fear is continued it b ecomes uneasiness The


.
, .

uneasy mind is always afraid ev ery occurrence alarms


it In other words the emotion has b ecome permanent
.
, ,

b ut at the same time somewhat less intensiv e .

The emotions b oth o f the present and future assume


I t ll
n e ec t u a l
e m o t io n .
the most varied forms according as the idea changes
,
.

E specially important are those attaching to certain in


t e lle ct u al processes and originating in the peculiar f eel
ings which accompany them We can distinguish four .

kinds o f intellectual feelings : the logical ethical re , ,

ligio u s and aes thetic


,
Attaching them selves to very
.
complicated connections o f ideas they almost invariably ,

pass over i n to emotions and in that form exert upon o ur


,

mental life an influence which far exceeds that o f an y


oth er state o ffeeling Their analysis b elongs o fcourse L gi al
.
, , o c
m ti e o o ns
to th e special sciences from which they have their nam e
.

We w ill devote a fe w words to the logical emotions


first b ecause they are often overlooked altogether an d
, , ,

secondly b ecause their relationship to the emotions o f


,

the future enables us to use them as illustrations o f the


passage o femo tion in general into the particular forms
o f i n tellectual emotion Logical emotions are those
.

connected with our current o f ordinary thought .

It is well known that the rapidity o f the cou rse o f E m t i al i o on n


fl f th u en c e o e
thought exerts a considerable influence upon o u r general apidit y i r o
'

emotional condition It is not indi fferent to u s whether


.
th g ht ou .

our ideas succeed one another at their normal rate or ,

proceed slowly with many restraints and interruptions ,

or pour in upon us in perplexing confusion E ach o f .

these cases may b e realized whether from internal or


,

external causes Our state o f mind at the moment th e


.
,

topic o f o u r current thought and external sensations ,

may all b e o f determining influen ce The traveler in f h a g a


E x t .
a l uses e rn c
o c n e in

a new country is well content when his carriage takes a p id it y r .

him quickly from o n e impression t o another not so ,

quickly that he cannot assim ilate what he sees b ut not ,

so slowly that he is always wishing himself farther on


amid new scenes He is not so satisfied if he is lum
.

b ering along in a heavy wagon passing fo r days ,

through th e same scenery when he longs to b e at h is


,

journey s end or is curiously anticipating novel e xp e r
,

ie n ces. Nor is he quite happy when the railway tak e s


him swift as an arrow through a country rich in hist o r
ical associations and he tries in vain with deafened ears
,
Thi n ki ng ,
Fee ling , D o i ng .

and tired eyes to fix some o f its features in his memory .

This general result can b e produced b y internal causes


i t al a
n e rn c
just as well as by the variation o f external impressions
u se s .

I f you have to solve a mathematical prob lem in a short


time your thoughts trip each other up ; you are in a
,

hurry to get on b ut are obliged to go back b ecause , ,

you have b een following o u t a second thought b efore


you had finished the fi rst And it is not less disagree .

able to b e stopped in the middle o f your task b ecause


your thought halts and you cannot answer the next ,

question On the other hand work b ecomes a re cre


.
,

ation when one result leads certainly and easily t o


another .

We have there f
ore the three emotions o f con f
used
Three m ti
e o o ns , , ,

restrained and unimpeded thought ,


The last two are .

closely related to the emotions o f e ffort and facility . .

Correlated with these are the sensations attached t o


ease and diffi culty in muscular action They are gener .

E g “ a d mm
o n
ally present to some degree in the corresponding
“y;
emotions even when the causes o f these are wholly
,

mental The feeling o f effort is a weight which press es


.

upon the emotional condition ; and its removal is ac


companied b y a sudden feeling o f pleasure This char .

ac t e rist ic feeling o f relie f a ffects us mainly b y way o f


contrast to our previous mood .

Special forms o f the emotions o f unimpeded and t e


En o ym t a d
en n
t i m
u . stra ned thought are those o f enj oyment and ted i um
i ! .

I n enjoyment our time is so well filled b y external or ln


tern al inducements to activity o fideas that we hardly no
tice its passage ifwe do at all The nature o fted ium is
, .

indicated by its name Our t ime is unoccupied and .

passes slowly b ecause we have nothing el se to think o f .

T h i i th dig ifi d w d f b d
s s e n e or or o re n ess .

Tedium therefore has a certain affinity to e xpectation
, , ,

b ut it is an expectation that has remained indefinite It .

does not expect or anticipate an y particular occurrence ,

b ut simply waits fo r new events : A long continued ex


p e ct at io n al ways passes into tedium and an intensive ,

tedium is hardly distinguishable from strained ex


p e c t at io n .

Related to the feelings o f effort and facility are those Fail u re an d su c


es c s.
o ff ailure and success Investigation and discovery are
.

attended b y feelings which show a close resem blance to


those o f effort an d
facility The feelings
.

ofagr e e m en t a n d

c o n t r a d i c t i o n are
somewhat di fferent .

They originate in the


comparison o f s imul
tan e o u s ideas which ,

in the one case are


accordant and in the ,

other refuse to be con


n e ct e d.

D ou b t ,
which we b
Do u t .

can consider as an
oscillatory feeling is ,

not the same as con


t ra d i c t i o n . Th e
dou b ter cannot decide
which O f tWO alterna Fig 78 V y D b tf l . 1 . er ou u .

t ive s is the correct one he is in contradiction with him


sel f The conflicting ideas are nothing real but simply
.
,

products o f his own thought so that there is always ,

the possib ility that the contradiction in doub t may b e


238 Thin ki ng , Feeling , D o ing .

resolved b y experience or more mature con sidera


tion and so far doub t is related to the emotio n s o f
the future This relationship b ecomes sti ll more ap
.

parent in a speci al form o f doubt the feeling o f i n de


c isio n
. W hen we are undecided we are in contradiction
with ourselves as to which o f di fferent roads we shall
follow o r which o f di f
, ferent actions we shall choose .

Indecision is therefore a doub t i mplyi n g reference to


action and resolved by it .
CHAPT E R XVI I I .

M E M O RY .

IFI were writing a dictionary I would define memory


as that portion o fmental l ife about which everyb ody has
been talking fo r three thousand years withou t telling us
anything more than anyb ody o f common sense knows
b eforehand .

By memory we mean the relation b et ween two ideas


occurrin g at di fferent times whereb y the secon d is ln
,

tended to b e like the first I n some s chools o f design


.

the model is shown for a short time whereupo n the pupils


,

are requ ired to draw from memory The original im .

pression sometimes called the sense perception w as


,
-
,

that o f the model ; the memory picture is the mental


-

picture from which the drawing is made The relation .

b etween the two pictures is what we call memory .

There are numberless entertaining stories concerning


great and peculiar memories b ut it is much to b e
,

doub ted if anything o f any value is gained b y repeating


them Instead o f following the b eaten path it will b e
.

better to enter at once into the experimental work on


the subject Facts first theories afterwards
.
, .

Memory can b e investigated in two ways : b y m e asu r M e t ho ds o f


ing the di fference o f the repeate d idea from the original g
in v est i at io n .

or b y counting the num ber o fsuccessfully repeated ideas


out o f the total num b er
.

Memory fo r actions is a good subject to b egi n with .

239
Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

M e mo ry fo r H ow accu rately does the arm rememb er a straight


mo ve men t .
m ovem ent ? W ith the eyes closed draw on the first
sheet o f a pad o f paper a vertical line o f any agreeable
length W ithout opening the eyes tear o ff this sheet ;
.

it is very convenient to have the pad fixed fi rmly to the


E xp e rimen t .
table After waiting five seconds ( if you have no tick
.

ing clock at hand some one can tell you the time ) with
, ,

the eyes still closed draw a second line which you j udge
equal to the first Tear o ff the sheet as b e fore After
. .

waiting five seconds again draw a third line o f the same


,

lengt h as the se cond ( you need not attempt to recall the


first ) . Continue in this way till eleven lines have b een
drawn from memory .

Co m u tin g t h e Wi t h a millimeter scale ( o r a ruler divided i n to sixty


-
ra
s u ts
fourths o f an inch ) measure each line The di fference
.

between each line and its predecessor gives the amount


o ferror in remem b ering a f ter the particular five seconds .

Thus with a line ab out 1 00 millimeters long we migh t


, ,

get a series o f errors o f — 2 _ 1 1 + 2 _ 1 , , , , ,

3, 2 3 ,
1 where
, indicates
, that the secon d
line was too long and that it was too short .

In memory there are two changes that go on : first ,

an actual change in the idea remembere d and second , ,

an increasing uncertainty .

I f we average up all the errors taking into accoun t ,

the signs we shall get the average change Thus t he


, .
,

average o f the set we have just noticed is

_ ‘
1 1 e or _ r 1 mm
. .

This is the average change introduced b y the lapse o f


five seconds .

What is the uncertainty o f our judgment ? This we


find by averaging all the separate erro rs without regard A v e ra g e
i
u n c e rt a n t y.
to sign ; thus
+ 2 + I

10
mm
or 1 ! a

We would thus say that the average uncertainty intro


du ce d by a lapse o f five seconds i s 1 7 m m .

By repeating the experiments with an interval o f t e n


seconds we fi nd the average memory change and the
,
-

average uncertainty due to that interval Likewise we .

can use intervals o f fi f teen seconds thirty seconds o n e , ,

minute five minutes etc


, , .

Simple as such experiments o n memory are there dam , un en tal


1F
aw
seem to have b een only two sets o f them n either o f ,
:

them o f an y definite value A s the matter is o f funda


.

mental importance in the study o f memory I have had a


se t o fthem made especially f o r my readers From the re .

undamental law o fmemory can b e deduced as


su lt s the f

follows The average change is an individual matter de


pending o n circum
stances b ut the aver
,

age u n c e r t a i n t y in
creases in a definite
rel ation to the time .

I n learning to write
by means o f a copy
book the eye gets the
Fig 79 A L aff m D ai y C p y-bo k

mental image an d then ,
. 1 . e ro s s o o .

looking down guides the pen As the distance from


, .

t h e copy to the line grows l arger the eye has time to ,

p artially forget the exact form o f the lines in the copy


F i
( g 79 )1

The memory fo r the force o faction can be investigated


Thin king , Fe e ling , D o ing .

with the dyn amometer describ ed o n page 79 The pull , .

is executed to any agreeable weight say ten ounces , .

After five seconds it is repeated to apparently the same


weight The amount o f the error is recorded b y some
.

other person Again after five seconds the pull is re


.

p e a t e d and
, so on The average change
. and the aver
age uncertainty are calculated as b efore .

Then ten seconds fifteen seconds and so o n are used


, , ,

as intervals We fi nally ob tain the law o f memory fo r


.

force . Here also there have b een n o facts to proceed


, ,

upon The results o f an investigation lately made show


.

a rapid increase b oth o f the average change an d the


average uncertainty .

C ross-me mo ry .
The very curious fact o f cross -education has b een no
ticed on pages 75 8 3 and 1 1 2 there is also a cross
, ,

memory .

I f the original line in the experiments on page 24 0 b e


drawn with say the left hand it can be rememb ered
, , ,

with the right hand


L R
.

I f the o riginal pull


on the dyn amo m
eter b e made with
one hand it can b e ,

remembered w i t h
the other .

A most curious
S ymme t rica l fact ab out this cross
me mo ry
_
.

p memory is that t h e

Fig 1 80 S ymm t i al and D i ect C s


. . e rc memo ry ! O r m o v e r ro s

m m y e r
ments is symm e t
'

rical and not identical W e learn to write with the.

right hand when we attempt to write with the left we


succeed fairly well b y writing outward ( i e backward ) . .
, ,
j u st as the right hand wrote out ward b ut we cannot write ,

as well in the regular direction Here are two speci .

mens ( Fig . By looking at the words with a m ir


ror it will b e see n that with the left hand those written
o utward are be tter tha n those w ritte n inward .

Some exp e riments not extended far eno u gh to enabl e Law


, o fc ro ss
m m e o ry
me to put the law in a quantitative statement seem to in
.

dicat e its general forms as follows The average change


produced b y cross memory is composed o f two parts
-
,

that due to the crossing and that due to the interval o f


time the average uncertainty is always much greater
than in memory without crossing an d increases much
more rapidly .

The method used in these experiments w as the same as


t hat used o n page 24 0 The origin al li n e w as drawn w ith
.

o n e hand and w as repeated with the other alternately


, ,

symmetrical and direct I n the particular se t o fe xp e ri


.

ments referred to the results were as follows The


remembered line was o n an average sixteen per cent
, ,

shorter in t h e sym

metrical movement

cent shorter in the L


d i r e c t movement Fig 8 M a m t
. 1 1.S ymm t i al a d
e s u re en s o n e rc n

_ Di
.

t C -m m rec ro ss e or
y
The ave rage u n ce r
.

tainty was n ine per cent in the sym metrical an d nine


per cent in the d irect .

These results can b e indicated as in Fig 1 8 1 The . .

top line is the standard drawn by the right hand in the


,

direction o fthe arrow The two other lines are averages


.

o fthose b y the lef


t hand the portions in dashes indicate
the regions w ithin which these lines ended The irre gu .

larity is the same fo r b oth b ut although b oth movements


,
Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

di ffer from the standard the unsymmetrical one is t he ,

less correct o f the two .

M e m o ry fo r
Memory fo r tones can b e measured in a sim ilar way t o
t o n es .
that employed on pages 1 39 1 40 in determining the least , ,

noticeable di fference I n fact all the experiments o n


.
,

the least noticeable di fference might b e considered as


experiments o n memory with a very small interval o f
time between the two impressions compared There .

we used an interval o f two seconds ; b y ch anging this


interval to five seconds ten seconds etc we get t h e , , .
,

record o f the size o f the least noticeable d ifference as


depending on the lapse o f time The matter is so sim .

ple that further e xpl anations hardly seem necessary A .

b eautiful se t o fexperiments might be performed with t he


tone tester describ ed on page 1 4 1
-
, .

The method o f percentages o f correct answers m ay


also b e employed .

The e x p e r i m e n t s
descri b ed o n pages
1 43 1 4 4 are to b e ,

repeated w ith di ffer


ent intervals .

The results o f an
Re su lts investigation o f this
Fig 8 Law fF g t ti g T
.

. 1 2. o or e n o ne s
.

kind are shown in


Fig 1 8 2
. Here the figures on the horizontal line indi
.

cate the num b er o f seconds that elapsed between tw o


tones to be compared and those on the vertical line in
,

dicat e the percentages o f right a n swers .

It is seen that the m aximum certainty is reached at


two seconds Thereafter it decreases At an interval o f
. .

sixty seconds the uncert ainty is so great that the answers


are ne arly h al fright and h al fwrong since m ere chance
w ould make them hal f right the uncertainty is almost ,

c omplete .

This is a characteristic case fo r many unmusical per i n divi du a l


di ffe re n c es
sons . Individuals differ o f course There are in t e lli
, .
.

g ent persons who cannot recognize a tone repeated


t wice in close succession On the other hand we fi nd
.
,

Mozart and later piano players who can carry in mind


-

t he slightest di f ferences Probably the most accurate


.

tone memory on record is that o f Mozart Two days


- .


af ter playing on a friend s butter fiddle ( as he called -

it o n account o fits so ft tone ) the seven year old Mozart ,


- -
,

w hile playing o n his own violin remarked that the b ut ,

t e r fiddle was tuned to hal f o f a quarter o f a tone lower


-

t h an his own And this w as found to b e the case


. .

We might make similar experiments o n touch tem , M e mo ry is n o


f
re alp ro c ess
smell etc In act memory is no real proces
.

p e rat u re , , . s ;
,

i t is merely a w ay o fconsidering and compar ing two im


p ressions at di f
f erent times This is what we did with
. a
s m all interval o n m any occasions in the earlier chapters

o f th is b ook When the interval is so s mall as to b e


.

n eglig ib le we speak o f simultaneous impres sions .

When a m an has no brains to invent methods o fexact S t at ist ics on


me m o ry
m easurement he falls back o n statist ics ; and these very
.

s ame negative brains assist him in making his statistics

w orthless It is the fashion to collect statistics on mem


.

o ry but only two really scientific investigations o f this


,

s ort h ave ever been made .

Numerous sets o f calculations o fthe number o fletters G re at so u rce s


o f e rro r.
o r words f orgotten o u t o f the total numb er seen , heard ,

s poken etc , h ave been undertaken Letters and words


.
, .

are very complicated affairs and the results will vary ,

c ompletely b y a slight ch ange in the word in the ar ,

rangement in the time in the loudness or illumination


, , ,
Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

in the intonation or the size etc etc The sources o f


, .
, .

error are so great th at a scientist i e a careful worker, . .


, ,

must spend years o flabor in getting them under control .

Law fo r m e m The first carefully executed experiments in this line


o ry o f sy a esll bl
show that when a set o f meaningless syllables has once
.

b een learned the time required fo r learning them o n a


,

s e cond occasion increases as the interval betw een the tw o


occasions according to a definite law
, .

This law runs in the way shown in a specimen table o f


results :
Interval 1 24 4 8 1 44 744 hour s

Per cent o f
k
4 2 5 6 67 66 7 2 75 79
relearning
At first there is a rapid loss more than half during t he
,

first hour then the loss is steadily less rapid an d finally


becomes almost steady Between the second day an d
.

the thirty first day there is almost no change


- .

Further experiments with letters under various condi


tions o f rate repetition lapse o f time rhythm etc
, , , ,

have been in progress fo r many years but the fin al re ,

su lts have not b een reached .

Co n c re t e case s .
Statistical experiments require an immense amount o f
labor and seldom lead to satisfactory results when em
,

ployed to determine fundamental laws o f mental life .

The case is quite different when the question to be


answered applies to a single concrete case The ques .

tion o f how much the boys o f a class have remembered


from the last lesson twenty f
, our hours ago can b e
-
,

answered with more or less accuracy b y an examin ation .

The determination o f a general law o f memory in such


a manner that knowledge o f certain circumstances e n
Me mo ry .

ables the prediction o f how much will b e remembered at


any future time is another matter altogether .

The education o f the memory powers has ever been a P o dig i r es o f


m m y e or .

subj ect o f interest to practical people More or less


.

fabulous accounts o f the prodigies o f memory m ay b e


found in v arious psychological story books - E ven when
.

the records o f the results obtained are to be credited ,

the accounts o f how the freaks educated their memories


are mostly to be regarded as u nconscious fi ction Fo r .

practical purposes statements on the development o f


memory should b e founded on observatio n o f and ex
p e r im e n t o n ordinary people .

The fundamental laws fo r the cultivation o f memory


are intensifying the image by attention and keeping ,

it ready b y conscious repetition .

I n the first pl ace intensi f


, y the impression See hear .
, ,

do what you wis h to remem ber You cannot expect to


.

remem ber a picture when yo u have not really seen it .

It is said that the N iirn b e rg e rs n ever hang a man till


they have caught him and yet many a teacher expects
,

his pupils to re m e mb e r a lesso n without really learning it .

H o w shall w e intensify the impression ? Any method


that increases th e amount o f attentio n will help to ln
tensify the impression these methods have b een con
side re d in Chapter VI I . But it is not su fficient merely
t o pay attention something f urther must b e done if the
impression is to be retained N 0 experimental work in
.

the laboratory has b een done on this problem b ut some ,

o fthe most acute experimenting h as been carried on b y

advertisers on account o fthe b usiness interests involved .

The ve ry principles they have discovered are j ust the


ones we should make use o fon ourselves and in teaching
o th ers
. I believe that these principles have never b een
Thi n king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

formulated and that advertisers follow them unconsciousl y


— w e can walk successf ully although we may know n oth
ing ab out the action o f the muscles o f th e le g .

A powerful principle employed fo r memorizing a fact


F i st p ri
r l
n cip e .

is that o f the ridiculous Yo u cannot forget the ab surd


.

pictures b y means o f which publishers and playe rs ad



v e rt ise their n e w w ares ; o r Pade re wsk i s hair whos e ,

echoes lasted longer than those o f his playing ; o r t h e



tramp army whereb y General Coxey hopes to live
,

in history .

A sub ordin ate prin ciple b elonging t o the ridiculous is


that o f the pun A .

'

g o o d p u n is an
msth e t ically ridicu

lous contradiction
a b ad o n e is in
tensely irritating b ut
is rid iculous ridicu
lo u sn e ss If yo u .

Yo u CAN GE T A H OLD “ ” wish your class to

rememb er the story


ON TH E P E O P LE
o f Waterloo make ,
Fig 83 U e ft he P f M m y P p o es
1 s o un or e or ur s
a p u n ab out it an d
. . .

a bad o n e t o o ( Y o u all
, kno w the
. horri d o n e t i) whic h
I refer ) .

A second principle o f memorizing is that o f rhyme .

We all know ho w much easier it is t o learn rhymed


poetry than blank verse o r prose Rhymed couplets or .

verses can frequently b e employed t o memori z e difficult



facts The farmer s calendars in olden times were bas ed
.

on the memorial days o f the saints To rememb er when .

t h e sowing reaping etc should b e done an appropri


, , .
, ,

ate couplet was rhymed with the day The same method .
is employed in some aids to learning history Those .

who have studied form al logic will remember the medie



v al memory verse b eginning
-
Barbara Celarent etc , , , .

Students o f medicine are required to know the names


and arrangement o f the b ones in the hand Being a .

very difficult matter the German students have been in


,

g e n io u s enough to m a ke a tr a nsl ation o f the Latin names


into an absurd stanz a Over six years ago I happened
.

to hear this a couple o f times to day the lines are still -

in memory
Vi l k ig g
e ec i l k ig kl i ro ss , V e ec e n ,

D K p f m b i d m H ak
er o i u ss e e e n se n .

Da i w i b im M
'

h ifl r n sc d h i
en r e on e nsc e n

D i k ig ti b E b bi ’ ”
re ec er s r se n e n.

The chief words when transl ated into Latin give the
n ames required .

This principle o f rhyme w hen comb ined w ith the


ridiculous can b e carried so f ar that couplets and stan z as

can no t be f
orgotten Those who have read M ark Twain s
.

“ ”
story a b out P unch Brothers etc will remember a
, , .
,

case In order to spare a very disagreeable experience


.

to those who have not been haunted by this stanza I ,

will not repeat it .

The principle o f alliteration i e o fwords b eginning , . .


,

with the same sound was largely used in olden poetry ,


.

Memory w as dou btless greatly assisted there by It is in .

use to a ce rtai n extent to day in book titles catch words - T hi d p -


,
-
,
r l
rin c ip e .

advertisements etc Sometimes it is used u n in t e n t io n


, .

ally The n ation will never forget the famous phrase o f


.

the presidential campaign o f 1 88 4 Rum Romanism , , ,

and Rebellion .

A nother very e ffi cient principle is that o f pu z z le D is .

se ct e d maps the game o fauthors the solution o fmathe


, ,

m at ical conundrums are cases . .


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

S e c o n d law .
To retain things in memo ry they should generally b e
repeated a number o f times With a very intense first
.

impression the repetition m ay b e unnecessary with weak


impressions it may b e frequently required The relation .

o f inten sity t o repetition has however never been ex


, ,

p e rim e n tally determined .

E m p h asis o n The fundamen tal fact to be observed is that the


i
c o n sc o u s .

repetition must b e conscious Nearly everyb ody su p .

poses that a series o ffacts a group o fnames a collectio n


, ,

o fdates can b e learned b y simple mechanical repetition


, .


It is not t o o strong to say that learning b y rote is
absolute impossibility We remember the connectio n
.

between two words wh en we pay attention to the fact o f


such connection Fo r example suppose we wish t o re
.
,

member that Aristotle w as a tutor t o A lexander The .

fact strikes us at once and will have some power o fper


sistence in o u r memories Any amount o f mechanical
.

repetition o f A ristotle tutor Alexander will not as


- -

sist But let each repetition be a cons cious attentive


.
,

connection o f the three facts there is a distinct gai n .

The di ffi culty lies in making the repetition conscious an d


not mech anical .

Tw o m e t h o ds .
The methods o fdoing this may be described as vo lu n
tary and involuntary In the voluntary method the in
.

dividual calls up each time by an e ffort o f will a char


act e rist ic picture o fA ristotle te aching Alexander The .

involuntary method consists in findi n g some word natu


rally connected with Aristotle which by another natural

connection brings up another word and so o n till teach ‘

is reached a fter which the same process stretches fro m


,

“ “ ”
teach to Alexande r Teachers o fm e m o ry culture
.
-
,

like Lo ise tt e have made a special application by the


,

method o f searching fo r a series o f connecting associa


I ll e mo i y .

tions between the two words o r facts to b e remembered '

The objectio n made to such associative systems is that


they are too cum b ersome when anyt hing is t o be re
called Whil e practicing with the Lo ise t t e system I
.

noticed the tendency o f the middle links t o fall o u t no


matter h o w many intermediate words were inserted b e
” “ ”
tween Aristotle an d teach a fter a while the two ,

were involuntarily associated with n o though t o f the ,

middle links Th is process which is in h armony with


.
,

facts previously discovered concerning the association o f

ideas might be called the o bliteratio n o f intermediate


,

associations .

Like all o u r mental life memory depends upon age D p d


, .
e en en c e o f
m m y or o n ag e .
I n a series o fe xp e r e

im e n ts o n s c h o o l
childre n a tone w as
sounded fo r two se c
o u ds the n i t w a s
,

started again and


the child w a s re
quired t o s t o p i t
when it had lasted as
long as b efore In .

all cases the second


sound was made too
short ; th e younger
children o fte n made
the soun d b y mem
Fig 84 D pe d 1 fT im -
m m y Ag e n e nce o e e or on e.
o ry only o n e f ourth . .

o fits true length As they grew older the memory b e


.
,

came more accurate .

Concerning the ages above seventeen no experiments M m y a e or nd


ld ag o e.
have been made We know however th at old people
.
, ,
25 2 Th i n king , Fe e li ng , D o ing .

gradually lose th eir memories Indeed we might say


.
,

that memory is the ostensible friend who insists upon


presenting us with a house bountifully furnished with the
skeletons o f past sins but who in Old age turns us o u t
,

into the cold night o fforgetfulness whe n we would gladly


remember even the sins Memory grows to its prime
.

and then ne v er gets any further t ill it suddenly b ecomes


withered and past .
CHAPT E R XIX .

RH YT H M I C AC TIO N .

W H A T is rhythmic action ? Such a hard Greek word D fi it i e n on.

as rhythm ( al as ! there is no E nglish word ) must mean


something very dreadful D o you remember M Jour
. .

’ ”
dain in Moliere s Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme who ,

w as astounded and delighted t o learn that he h ad b een


speaking prose all h is life ? Well yo u have bee n ex
,

e c u t in g rhythmi c actions ever since yo u b ega n to walk .

By rhythmic action we understan d an act repeated at E xampi es .

intervals which the doer b elieves to b e regular W alk .

ing is in simple rhythm The b eating o f a dru m is in


.

tende d to b e in a more o r less complicated rhythm .

Let us take a lesso n in walking I n order that t here Walki g


.
n .

m ay b e no dispute o n the subject an d that w e may


have a perm anent record we shall t ry to arrange matters
,

so that eve ry step is recorded W hile studying action


.

we learn ed the principle o fgraphic


recording by air transmission all
we h ave t o do n o w is to modify
the method so th at it records the
movement o fwalking .

The person experimented o n Th p


e mat i
ne u c
S bm
puts o n a pair o f shoes with hol ‘

lo w ru bber soles ( Fig 1 8 5 ) which act as re c e iv mg


cap aGm i“dm eth
.

od

sules E ach sole communicates by a long tub e Wi th a pp


o

e .
.

sm all capsule that writes on a small smoked drum ( Fig .


Thi n king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

1 86 ) carried in the hand When the foot is on the


.

ground the air is pressed through the tu b e to the re


,

cording capsule this causes it to m ake a mark on the


drum .

Resu l ts .
The characte r o f the results is indicated in Fig 1 8 7 . .

The length o f time during which


the foot re sts o n the ground is in
dic at e d by the length o f the m ark
o n the drum In walking one foot.
,

leaves the ground j ust as the other


touches it in going upstairs b oth ,

feet touch f o r a wh ile at the same

time in running both feet are o ff ,

the ground fo r short intervals .

But all this was already known


in sporting circles ? Still you must ,

n o t object to putting a competitor

or even an ump i re o n record In


Walk i g w it h
.

86 1 . n
mat i S h
ne u a d
g a walki ng match a m an i s ruled o u t
oes n -
R di g D
e co r m n ru .

by the ump i res if hi s metho d o f


progress changes from 1 t o 3 ( Fig What a lot o f.

quarreling would be saved ifeve ry m an could c arry on his


back a minute in st ru
ment telling his walk
in bl ack an d white
p syc h o l gyo of The interest o f the
“ W h
p y 6 i o 1 0 5 i s t e n d s
5 555 .

where t hat o f the psy R i g u nn n

c h o lo gist beg i ns The physiologist knows that we walk


.

with our feet the p sychologist knows that w e walk with


our m inds also We w ill to walk faster o r slower this
.
,

way or th at how does the execution compare with the


intention
R hy thm ic Act ion .

The met hod j ust describ ed w as developed fo r phys


io lo g ical purposes and has n o t been used fo r a study o f
the psychology o fwalking although t hat could b e done ,

with very little troub le .

Fo r a study o fthe in fl uence o f the mind on walking I E l t i h ec r c s o e .

have devised a little reaction key fo r the foot to b e used


-
,

with the spark method This key is shown in Fig 1 88 . . .

I t is attached to the heel o f the shoe fl exi ble conduct


ing cords e l a d f
rom it to the spark coil The spark coil- -
.

is arranged to record o n the


dru m b y making a dot o n
th e smoked paper The .

rest o f the arrangement de


pends on the particular ques
tion t o b e studied .

M A R K TI M E ! Le ft right ,
M a k i g t im
,
r n e.

le ft right etc
, ,
The drum .

b e a t s rub a dub du b a n d
- - -

Sergeant Merritt at the end


o f the lin e b rings his f oot
down exactly in time with
the strokes o f the drum .

Fig 88 Th E l t i S h 1 e ec r c o e.
Yes e x actly in time Ser
. .

.
,

ge ant Merritt is not an ordinary sergeant his is the


crack company o f the Seventh Regiment The whole .

world knows that everything is e x actly right in th at reg


im e n t and nothing short o f a stroke o flightning would
,

convince the sergean t that he is b ehind time Let u s .

try o u r spark method which is merely lightning o n a


,

sm all scale But b e fore we b egin an experiment we


.

must distrust everything and everyb ody— even the


drummer The drummer him self may have something
.

the matter with him w e will attend to that later but


— —
Th i n ki ng , Fe e li ng , D o i ng .

at an y rate we mu st u se some arrangement fo r dru m


ming which we have pro v ed to be exact .

p re p arat io n s The drumming we shall use will be a series o fclicks at


f° r
exactly equal intervals To produce the click we use the.

graphic chronometer This is essentially a stop watch


.
-

which m akes the fine pointer beat either in seconds o r in


fi fths o f a second This pointer writes o n the smoked
.

drum At the same time it breaks an electric current


.

and makes a click b y means o fa telegraph sounder .


A foot key is fastened o n o n e O f the sergeant s heels
-

and the wires are led t o the spark coil j ust as in the case -
,


o f the pi ano player Fi
( g
-
The serge ant s case is not .

th at o fsimple reaction to sound he knows from memory ,

o f time j ust when the clicks are coming


, .

The record on the drum will b e like that shown in

Fig . 1 89 . R e gu lar Re tarded Rh yt h m .

Fig . 1 It shows a line drawn by the chronometer


89 .

point on which at regular intervals representing seconds


, , ,

there are side lines denoting the moments o f the clicks .

The dots are made by the sparks at the moment the heel
touches the floor .

25 The sergeant is alas ! always j ust about one sixth o fa


,

second behind time He is very regular about it too


.
,

fo r he is a rather stolid unexcitable fellow on whom you ,

c an depend f or getting there although he may not ,

be so lively as another .

I rre g la
uw r
When the sergeant saw his record it worried him into ,

tarde d ac t io n .
making an e ffort at being on time H is second record .

w as like Fig 1 90 . .

Gained he had not on an ave rage he w as as much


behind as at first But his nervousness had added a
.

worse fault that o f irregularity


, .

Next to the sergeant comes Corporal Alan Adair R g la , e u r ac c e l


e rated act io n .

Fig . 1 90. i rreg ular Re tarde d Rh yth m .

Fig . 1 91 . Regu lar A cce le at


r ed Rh yth m .

eager and enthusiastic He always speaks b efore he .

thinks his record shows that in h is ardor he gets quite


ahead o f the drum ( Fig .

W e have also in o u r company a Frenchman Antoine ,

Boulanger His record ( Fig 1 92 ) proves to give a good


. .

average b ut it is very irregular Antoine we all know


, .
, ,

is a first rate fellow although he is inclined to be very


-
,

nervous an d excitable .

All the persons tested show records that can be classi

Fig . 1 92. i rreg u lar A ccurat e Rh yt h m .

Fig . 1 93. Re gu lar Accurate Rh yt h m .

fie d ontwo principles accuracy and regularity Accuracy


, .

is the nearness o f the general average t o the series o f


clicks Regularity is the person s agreement with him 255 3535
.
’ 5

sel f A man may b e accurate b ut irregular like Antoine


.
, ,

or in accurate and irregular like the sergeant when ,

nervous or inaccurate b ut regular like Alan Finally


, , .
,

when the foot comes down always within a small range


Th i n king , Fe e li ng , D o i ng .

before and after the click so that it on an average hits , , ,

the click ( Fig 1 93 ) the record is both accurate an d


.

regular This is the ideal o frhythmic action


. .

Teachers can readily pick o u t the very b ad cases o f


inaccuracy o r irregularity among a class o f m arching
boys D rill sergeants can tell tales o ftheir raw recruits
. .

The distance between eac h two o f the checks in the


Co m p u t in g t h e preceding figures means an interval o f one second .

re s“ ‘5 '
With a fine measure o r even by the eye alone we can, ,

divide the interval into ten parts each o fwhich will mean ,

one tenth o f a second Now note down ho w m any .


,

tenths o fa second the dot is distant from the check if


i t i s ahead o f the check put in front o f it if b ehind , ,

The record in Fig 1 90 fo r example will be .


, ,

3,

Take the average that is add them all up and divide by


, ,

ten This gives


. tenths o fa second as the average
amount by which the foot w as behind time I n physics .

this is c lled the const nt error in psychology e sp e c i


a a —

l
ally in educ tiona psychology
a — I propose to call it the
index o f in accuracy .


Now let u s find the index o f irregularity or as , ,

physici sts call it the variable error Find the di fference


fi g , .

I n de x o rre
u larit y between the number i n the i ndex o f i n accuracy i n th i s ,

case I an d e ach o f the numbers 3 4 2 1 etc o f the


, , , , , , .
,

original records You will get a second set o f ten


.

figures 2 3 1 ,
2 0 o ,
I ,
I , As you w ill n otice no
, , , , .
,

attention has been p aid to an d Average these


last results answer i ii o r o f a tenth o f a second
, , ,

whi c h is the index o f irregularity By chance the two .

indexes h ave the same figures .

A very irregular person might h ave the same in dex o f


a ccuracy as a very regular o n e they might both be one
t enth behind time ; but their indexes o firregul arity would
be di fferent O n the other hand two regul ar persons
.
,

will have small indexes o f irre gu


larit y whereas their c o n s t a n t
,

e rrors would be quite di f ferent .

Now to attend to the drummer


, .

Suppose we put into h is hand an E p im t x er en s o n


th d mm e ru er
e lectric drum stick E ve ry time
.

-
.

t h at the stick strikes the drum a


s p ark is m ade Since the drum
.

mer has no watch to guide him


b ut j udges his time as he pleases ,

we do not use any sounder but let


him beat alone A record can b e .

m ade j ust as b efore with the


Fig 94 Th E l t i Bat 1 e ec r c on
c hronometer and the regularity . . .

c an be measure d in tenths o f a second .

The index o f irregularity is o fimmense importance to Th h t e o rc e s ra

t h e orche stra le ader ; there is no index o f in accuracy


l d
,
ea er .

b ecause he sets his o w n time I t does n o t m ake much .

di fference j us t h o w fast he b eats provide d he be ats ,

reg u larly To measure the regularity in a case o f this


.

k ind an electric contact o n the end o fa b aton c an be ar


ranged b y which a spark record is made in the u su al

w ay ( Figs 1 94 1 95 ) .
,

The time b etween e ach record can be measured in E am l


p x e .

h undredths or thousandths o fa second as desired Sup , .

pose we h ave a record o feleven beats measured to hun


dre dt h s o f a second with the following results : 4 1 4 2 , ,

37 4,
1 39 4
, 0 4 0 ,4 0 4 1 8
3 4
,
1 The aver
, age time
, ,o fa
, .

b e at is j ust 40 How reg u lar is the beating ? This is


.

determined by finding the di fference between e ach sepa


Thi n ki ng Fee li ng
'

2 60 , D o i ng .

Pig . 1 95
'

Tak i n g an O ’
rch est ra Leade r s
'
Rec o rd w it h th e E l ec t ric Bat on

b wk
S d us
4 1 H Th e in d O f ifregu
lari t y is I f
f
'
42 o
t

37 »
c

41 H

39 H

40 O

40 O

40 O

41 H

38 o
t

41 H
R hy thm ic Actio n .

N ow let us take ano the r orchestra leader whose record An irre g lau r

gives 4 0 4 I 4 2 40 39 3 7 3 5 4 0 4 1 4 1 38 w hic it l e ade r.


, . . . . . . . . .

is the better man ? The average is 4 0 as b efore b ut the ,

index o f irregularity is as com p ared with 1 1 . .

Suppose we have a third leader from whom we get t he


ten records : 40 39 40 40 39 38 39 39 39 39 The
. . . . . . , . .

average is and the index o f irregul arity is less than

It is evident that the second leade r beats so irregularly


that an orchestra cannot possibly keep time that the ,

first leader is somewhat b etter and that the third is far ,

superior to the others The actual ave rag e time o fa beat


.

makes n o di fference within such small limits as music ,

pl ayed at the rate o fone b eat in seconds is not se n


sib ly di f ferent from that played at o n e b eat in se c

o u ds An essential qualification however fo r the su c


.
, ,

cess o fan orchestra leader is his reg u larily in estimating


intervals o ftime .

Another example similar to th e one j ust mentioned is P ia no - l


p ayin g .

that o fa piano player who must learn to strike the notes


-
,

at regular intervals The quarter notes should all b e


.
-

about the same lengt h equal measures should b e com


p le t e d in equa l times F o r most b eginners
. the irre g u

larit y in the time given t o successive measures varies to


such an exten t that it is pain ful to hear them attempt a
tune By practice with the metronome success ful play
.

e rs are abl e t o reduce their irregul arity till it does n o t

disturb the playing It is not known j ust how far this


.

may be carried as n o one has ever take n the trouble t o


,

make measurements It might be suggested however


.
, ,

th at even when the irregularity is so small that no o n e


,

notices it yet it may b e great enough to injure the e f


,

fe e t
. A successful musician o f an y kind should know
Thin ki ng , Fe e li ng , D o i ng .

not only that his i nstru me n t is in tu n e but also that he


him se lf is in tim e .

The rhythmical exercises with dum b bells are the ex


pression o fan instinctive desire o f the gymnast to culti
vate his accuracy and regularity o faction To make the .

measurements a fl exible wire is inserted into the handle


o f e ach o f a p air o f iron dum b bells an d is connected

with the spark coil so that when the metal ends are struck
-

together a spark is made Front and back movements


.

Fig . 1 96 . Tak i g a R
n e co rd w it h E l e c t ric D um b Bells .

( or t h e rataplan ) are well adapted to measurements .

Wh at is rhythmic action ? The process in the mind


o f the one who is acting is in the first place an estimate

o fequ al interv als o f time ter a fe w strokes at equal


af

intervals the person knows just when to expect the n ext


R hy thm ic Acti on . 263

one . In other words it is a case o f time memory cor


,
-

re c t e d by an actu al stroke e ac h time K nowing when


.

to expect the next stroke an act o fwill is executed so


,

that the final action occurs in some definite relation to


the stroke generally at the same moment or j ust after
,

it This process m ight be called a reaction to an ex


.

p e c t at io n
. I n extreme cases the act o fwill m ay be so

late that the action seems actually a reaction to each


stro k e . This would be the case with the sergeant .

I n some cases o fcongregation al singing the leader keeps


about a qu arter o f a second ahead o f the congregation ,

implying that they are incapable o fsinging the tune and


must rely on reaction to each note as heard Such re .

actio n s are however so complex that this method could


, ,

hardly be o f use unless the leader is very far ahead .


CHAPT E R XX .

S U G G E S TIO N AN D E X PE C T A TIO N .

I N H I S memoirs Robert Houdin begins with a de -

scription o f the e ffects o f suggestion from the time o f


day.


E ighto clock has just st ruck my wife an d children
are by my side I have spent one o f those pleasant
.

days which t ranquillity work an d study can alone se


, ,

cure with no regret fo r the past with no fear fo r the



,

future I am I am not afraid to say it as happy as


,
— —

man can be .

And yet at each vibration o f this mysterious hour


, ,

my pul se starts my temples throb and I can scarce


, ,

breathe so much do I feel the want o f air an d motion


,
.

I can reply to no question s so thoroughly am I lost in ,

a strange an d delirious reverie .


Shall I con ess to you reader
f ? And why not ? fo r
,

this electrical e ffect is not o fa nature to be easily under


stood by you The reason fo r my emotion being ex
.

treme at this moment is that during my profession al ,


career eight o clock w as the moment when I must ap
,

pear before the pub li c Then with my eye eagerly


.
,

fixed o u the hole in the curtain I surveyed with inten se ,

pleasure the crowd that flock ed in to se e me Then as .


,

now my heart beat fo r I w as proud an d happy o f suc h


, ,

su c cess .

D o you n o w u n derstand reader all the re m in is , ,

264
S ugg e stion an d E xpe ctatio n .

cences this hour evokes in me and the solemn feeling ,


that continually occurs to me when the clock strikes ?
The e ffect o f suggestion what has not been included Vag

u e u se o f
th t em
under this term l According to some o fthe hypnotismus e '


psychologists all mental li fe from the simpl e s t im
,

pressions o f the senses up to the highest creations o fart


and social li fe all is nothing b u t suggestion
— .

Volumes upon volumes have been written on hyp n o


t ism and suggestion indeed the list o fworks itsel f fills
,

a volume with over titles But at the end o fit all


.
,

what have we besides careless observation vague gu ess ,

work and endless spec u lation ? It is all on the level o f


,

the old psychology n o t an experimen t in it


, .

P erhaps the most curious poin t in the case is that


amon g the hypnotism dile t t an ts the mesmeric m yst ic ists
, ,

and the long winded double consciousness researchers


- -

there is actually a society fo r experimen tal ( l) psychol


o gy . Most o f th e se people have duped themselves into
the belie f that they are contributing t o science this
ceases to be selfdelusion and becomes deliberate swindle
-

when they mislead the pub lic b y calling their inanities by



the term experiment .

But why should it n o t b e possible to experiment o n


suggestion ? W hy should it not be possible to actually

measure a suggestion an d its e ffects ? I t is possi b le .

As in all n e w undertakings the way was hard to find


,

our attempts have cost endless thought and labor and ,

we have a choice collection o f failures as mementos .

But when we have found the way it seems strange that ,

we an d everybody else were so blind as n o t to see it long


ag o .

Yet not too much must be expected The method What


, .
h as be e n
b y which we have measured the suggestive e ffects o fS iz e
on weight will be explained and the results will be given .

This will serve to give a general idea o f one o f our


methods W hat I cannot do here is to give an account
.
,

o f the extended researches on suggestio n and hallucina

tion that have bee n carried my lab oratory during


the l ast two years .

W e have fou n d the


way t o measure in
so m a n y c a n d l e

power a sugg e stive


e ffect o f sight we ,

can produce hallu


c in at io n s o f t o n e s

that are equal in in


tensity t o real tones
whose physical e u
e rgy can b e meas

u re d we can cause
Fig 97 P d i g a H all i at i fWa m t h
,
1 . ro uc n n uc n on o r
a person by walking
. .

a certain number o f feet to see a spot where there is


none These experiments have been ab ly and patiently
.

executed under my
directions by one o f
my pupils but it is ,

the rule fo r such in


v est igat io n s to ap

p e a r fi r s t in t h e
20 25 OO O 0000
Studies from the

00000 0 0
Yale Psychological
Laboratory .
70 75 0
Th e su gg est io n Here is a series Fig 98 Bl k f M a i g th E fl t f
. 1 . oc s or e su r n e
'

ec o
b lo c k s a S gg ti fS iz u es on o e.
o f round bl o c ks
.

painted black in appearance they are all just alike b u t ,


S ugg estio n an d E xpe ctatio n

in weight they are di fferent This b lock D is a very b ig M ak i g t h x


.
n e e .

p im t er en
b lock pick out that one o f the series which appears o f ‘

the same weight as the b ig one when lifted b etween ,

thumb and finger You know nothing ab out the blocks


.

except that t o the b est o f your b elief the b ig one is o f


, ,

the same weight as the medium si z ed one P ut them on -


.

the scales down goes the big o n e you j udged it to b e ,

much lighter than it was Try it over again as often as


.

you please ; al ways the same result By means o f the .

scales find the medium one that weighs exactly the same
as the large one Then compare them b y li fting ; n oth
.

ing b u t the incontestable ev idence o f the scales will


make you b elieve they are the same After b eing .

familiar with the experiment fo r over a year I still find


the e ffec t almost as strong as at fi rst .

Bu t h o w much ? It is n o t su fficient to show that there H w m h o uc

is a suggestive e ffect you must measure it The di ffer


, .

ence in weight b etween the two b locks supposed to be


equ al gives the e ffect o f suggestion in j ust so many
ounces or grams .

I n a se t o f experiments carried out on school children E xpe im t


m"
r e n s on
“m
the medium sized blocks were graded in weight from 1 5
-

grams to 8 0 grams A large b lock D and a small block d


.
,

each o f 5 5 grams were successively compared with the


,

se t o f grade d b locks The di fference b etween the


.

weigh t picked out fo r the l arger one e g 20 grams ,


. .
, ,

and that fo r the smaller one e g 70 grams would ,


. .
, ,
'

give the e fl e ct o f the difference in si z e b etwee n the two


blocks The difference in weight in this example would
.

b e 5 0 grams which would b e the result o fthe di fference


,

o f S ix centimeters in the diameter o f the b locks .

The effect o f the suggestion depends u pon the ag e D ep e de e .


n nc
ag
The results fo r the New Hav en school children are indi e'
Thi n king , Fe eling , D o i ng .

cat e din Fig 1 99 The figure s at the b ottom indicate


. .

the ages those at the left the number o f grams in the


effect o f suggestion .

About 1 00 childre n o f each age from 6 to 1 7 were


taken The average effect o f the suggestion was as fo l
.

lows 6 yea rs 4 2 grams 7 years 4 5 grams 8 years


, , ,

4 8 grams 9 y e ars 5 0 grams 1 0 yea,rs 44 g rams 1 1 ,

a nd 1 2 years 40 grams ; 1 3 years 3 8 grams 1 4 to 1 6


, ,

years 3 5 grams 1 7 years 2 7 grams Fo r all ages the


, , .

Fig . 1 99. D e p e n de n c e o ft h e fe c t
Ef o fS u gg est io n o n Age an d Sex .

average was above twenty fiv e grams The suggesti -


.

bilit y S lowly increases from six years to n ine years a f ter


nine years it steadily decreas es as the children grow
D e p e n dence
older The re sults when separately calculated fo r b oys
.
,

o n se x .
and girls show that at all ages the girls were more su s
,

c e p t ib le to suggestion than the b oys with t he exception ,

o f the age n ine where b oth were extremely susceptible


,
.

These are the average results fo r large n umb ers o f


E xt re m e case s.
children Many young people how ever were so su s
.
, ,

c e p t ible that the se t o fmiddle si z ed b locks did not range -

far enough to suit them At the age o fseven yea rs 3 7 per


.

cent o f the childre n decl ared that the large block w as


lighter than the lightest block an d that the small block ,
was heavier tha n the h e aviest The actual differen ce b e
.

tween them was 6 5 grams thus the effect o f suggestion


w as more than the weight o f the suggesting blocks D
an d d .

The f
act ors that produce such a deceptio n j udg of

ment seem to consist in a suggestion o r rather a dis



, ,

appointed suggestion o f weight


— Big things are o f
.
,

course h e avier than little things o f exactly the same


,

kind W hen we fi nd two thi n gs o f the same appear


.

ance b u t di ffering in size the b ig thing mu st b e heavier


, .

This reasoning is all done withou t o u r suspecting it and ,

we unconsciously allow our j udgmen t o fweight to b e in


flu e n c e d b y the size as seen When the eyes are closed
.

an d the b locks are li f ted b y st rings o f course there is ,

no illusion .

W hich is the heavier a pound o f lead o r a pound o f


,

feathers ? A pound o f lead says the unsuspect ing per


,

son and then you guy him fo r his stupidity But this
, .

poor fellow w ho has b een laughed at fo r centu ries is


, ,

right A pound isn t a pound all the world over it all
.

depends o n ho w the pound looks A pound o f l e ad is .

heavier tha n a pound o f feathers Try it with a pillow .

and a piece o f lead pipe No matt er ifthe scal e s do say


.

that they weigh j ust the same the pound o f lead is much
,

the heavier as long as you look at it .

I n the preceding case we have had a suggestion from


sight alone Similar effects are produced b y difference s
.

in t he span o f the fi ngers Suppose we have all o u r


.

blocks o f exactly t he same diameter W e have one se t .

just alike in size b u t di ffering in weight and other ,

blocks o fjust the same diameter an d weigh t b ut di ffer


ing in length one b eing very long and the other very
,

short The experiments are made in the same w ay as


.
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

before except that the eyes are closed The suggestio n .

arises from the di fference in span o f the fingers fo r a


long block and a S hort one By looking at the blocks
.

with the eyes Ope a sight suggestion is added to the


n ,
-

muscular suggestion .

Su gg est io n by I n the preceding cases it has b een n oticed ho w a


mo ve men ts
sugge stion causes a change in j udgment ; there is an
other fi eld in which suggestion is very active n amely , ,

the suggestion o f movement While a perso n is exert .

ing his whole power o n a dynamometer ( page


let him observe contracting movements o f your hand .

He soon feels irresistible twitchings in his own hand and


actually exerts still more force .

The suggestion o f movement may even take e ffect


against the will o f the person concerned A child in .

school wit h the Vitus dance will sometimes b e in v o l


u n t arily imitated b y the others A contagion o f this .

kind that occurs in every day life is the effect o f gaping


- .

by g est u re
The orator and the actor m ake use o fexpressions and
;
gestures inte n ded to arous e similar impulses in their
hearers and consequently to make their ideas more
e ffective .

b y e xp ressio n o f On the other hand ifyo u wish to


, get at the thoughts
t he fac e
o f a person with whom you are speaking you should
.

look steadily at his face His expression cannot hel


.
,

changi n g and these changes produce similar changes in


,

your own face thereby awakening various emotions o f


,

doubt confidence anxiety etc This w as an art o f


, , ,
.

old time diplomacy The readiness o f women to read


-
.

characters in this way m ay be due to their greater


susceptibility to suggestion .

bl e
i rre sist i E very idea o fa mov ement brings an impulse to move
su gg est i o n s .

ment Thi s is espe c ially prominent in tho se rare indi


.
S ugg estio n an d E x e ctation p .

v idu als who cannot keep a secret The very reading and .

thinking ab out crimes and scandalous actions produ ce a


tendency t o commit them I n some persons this in
.

fl u e n c e is quite irresisti b le As soon as one b omb


.

thrower attacks a rich bank e r everyb ody knows that ,


(

within a week hal fa dozen others will do the same No .

sooner does o n e perso n commit suicide in such a way


that it is strikingly descri b ed in the newspapers than a ,

dozen ot hers go and do likewise .

A runner prepared t o start can o ften cause the


, ,

starter t o fire his p istol unintentionally b y starting t o


run This runner is ahead o f the starter b y the amount
.


o f the starter s reac t ion -time while the other runners are
,

b ehind the starter b y the amounts o f their o w n reaction


times A s the reaction time may readily amount to one
.
-

third o fa second the runner who relied o n the su gges


,

tion may gain b y a large fraction o fa second .

Thus we have gathered a fe w facts o n suggestibility S ig ifi a i n c n ce o


'

gg t ibil ity su es .

b y experiment The full significance o f suggestibility is


.

apparent when we rememb er that teaching preaching , ,

acting pub lic speaking and pleading are forms o f su g


, ,

g es t in
g T
. h e reaks
f o f hypnotis m are performed b y
. f
suggestion The ith cures and the miraculous e ffects
a -

o f the Grotto o f Lourdes are b enevolen t suggestions .

The ceremonials o f our churches are suggestions b ring


ing us into a religious frame o f mind The m an ipu .

lat io n s o f the spiritual ists and the monotonous b lackness


o fa f uneral are all forms o f suggestion How shall we .

develop the children so as to produce in them minds


well b alanced in respect to suggestion ? Is this not as
important a task as learning to do percentage or to
parse n sentence ? Here is a field where the educator
and the psychologist must seek fo r facts .
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

g
S u g e st ive ex In expecting an event we have some thought in mind
pe ct at i o n .

this thought o ften acts as a suggestion .

Ef fe c t on re The time o f reactio n depen ds on its expectedness


i
ac t io n -t m e .

unexpected events require in general more time and


produce v ery irregu lar results I t is customary t o
.

give a warning click about two seconds b efore an ex


p e rim e n t E xperiments
. o n one person give a reactio n

time o f 3 1 2 without warning and 1 9 2 with warning .

D if fe re n t dire c It also makes a di fference if the attentio n is directed


t io n o fat t en t o n i
to the stimulus expected or to th e movement to b e exe
.

cu t e d. I n general the latter method is quicker b u t ,

with some persons the reverse is the case E xperiments .

made on one subject give as reaction time t o sound the -

result 22 23 when the attention was directed toward the


expected sound an d 1 32 when it was directed toward the
,

fi nger to b e moved .

The expectatio n that a star will pass one o f the hair


lines in a telescope produces di fferences in regard to the
time o f its passage as actually recorded This p h e n o m e .

non which led to the discovery o f mental times is more


, ,

comp licated than the simple cases o f reaction time and


-

thinking -time that we have considered in Chapters I I I .

and IV .

Let me illustrate how this happens b y a simple case .

Pa ag
ss e o fa
st ar. Suppose that we have t o determine the time o f the
passage o f a star at some distance from the pole across
the meridian We may employ an old astronomical
.

method which is still sometimes used fo r time de -

terminations and which is called the


, eye and ear

method . A little b efore the time o f the expected
M e t ho d o f re
c o rdin g .
passage the astronomer sets his telescope in the eye
, ,

piece o f which there have been fi xed a n umber o f


clearly visible vertical threads in such a way that the
,
S ugg estio n an d E xpe ctatio n

middle thread exactly coincides with the meridian o f the


p art o f the sk y under observation Before looking .

through the instrument he notes the time by the as ,

t ro n o m ical clock at his side and then goes on counting ,

the pendulu m beats while he follows the movement o f


-

the star .

N o w the time determinatio n would be very S imple if a


-

pendulum beat came at the precise moment at which the


-

star crosses the middle thread Bu t th at o f course .


, ,

happens only occasionally and b y chance as a rule the ,

passage occurs in the interval b et ween t w o b eats To .

ascertai n the exact time o f the passage therefore it is , ,

necessary to determin e ho w much time has elapsed b e


tween the l ast beat b efore the p assage and the passage
itsel f and to add this time some fraction o f a second
,

to the time o f the last b eat Th e observer notes there .


,

fore the position o f the star at the b eat directly b e f


,
ore
its passage across the middle thread an d also its posi ,

tion at the beat which comes immediately after the pas


sage an d then divides the time according to the len gth
,

o f space traversed .

I ff ( Fig 200 ) is the middle thread o f the telescope


.
,

a the po sition o f the star at the first beat and b at the ,

second and if of is e g twice as long as fé there


, , . .
, ,

i=
=
a b
Fig . 200 . Ac t u a lP o sit io ns o ft h e S ta r at the P l
e n du u m- e at sb .

must be added V3 o fa second to the last counted second .

It has already bee n told ( page 40 ) h o w the ast ro n o


mers disagree in their records although the star would
have the same position fo r all A constant and reg .

ference such as t his actually is can be ex


u lar di f , ,
Thi n king , Feeling , D o i ng .

plained on the assumption that the objective times o fthe


actual events and the times o f their notice by the o b
server are not identical and that these times sho w a fu r ,

ther difference from o n e another according t o the individ


u al o b server Now attentio n w ill ob viously exercise a
.
,

decisive influen ce upon the directio n an d m agnitude o f


such individual variations Suppose that o n e observer .

is attending more closely to the visual impression o f the


star A rel atively longer time will elapse b efore he notices
.

the sound o f the pendulum beat I f therefore the real - .


, ,

position o f the star is a at the fi rst b eat and b at the


second ( Fig 20 1 ) the sound will possibly n o t be noticed
.

till c and d so that these appear to be the two p o


,

sit io n s o f the star I f ac and 6d are each o f them ys


.

o f a second the p assage o f the star is pl ainly put V


, 3 of

a second later than it really should be .

On the other h an d ifthe attention is concen trated prin


,

c ip ally on the pendulum beats it will be fully ready and -


,

a c b d

Fig . 201 . S u pp o se d P o sit io n s w it h Vi


su a l A tt en t io n .

properly adj usted fo r these coming as they do in regu lar ,

succession bef, ore they actu ally enter consciousness .

Hence it may happen th at the beat o f the pendulum


is associated with some point o f time earlier th an the

exact moment o f the star s passage across the meridian .

c a d b
Fig . 20 2 . S u p po se d P o sit io ns w ith A u dito ry A tt e n t io n .

In this case you hear too early so to speak j ust as in , ,

the other c ase you heard too late The po sitions c an d .

d ( Fig 20 2 ) are n o w inversely related to a an d b


. I fca .
S ugg estion an d E xpe ctatio n .

and db are say i o f a second the passage is put 3 o f


, , ,

a second earlier tha n it really occurs I f we imagine


.

t h at o n e o f t w o as t ronome rs ob serves o n the scheme o f


Fig 20 1 the other o n that o f Fig 20 2 in other
.
,
— .

w ords that the attention o f the one is predominantly


,

v isual that o f the o t her predomin antly auditory— t here


,

will b e a constant personal di fference bet we e n them


o fi i i o f a second You can also se e that D iff
. e ren ce
att
enti on
s maller di f ferences will appear where the manner o f
.

o bserving is the same in b oth cases b u t with di f ferences


in the degree o f the strai n o f the attention while larger
d ifferences must point to di f ferences like those j ust de
s cri b ed in the direction o f the atten tion
, .
CHAPT E R XXI .

MA T E R I A LI S M AN D S P R I IT UA LI S M IN PS Y C H OLO G Y .

IN good old days n o w happily gone forever


TH E , ,

when psychology belonged to philosophy we were accus ,

t o m e d to hear o f m aterialistic p sychology spirituali sti c ,

psychology the psychology o f Hamilton the psychol


, ,

ogy o f Hegel E nglish psychology German psycho logy


, , ,

etc etc
.
,
.


Nowadays it is just as absurd to speak o f anybo dy s

system o f psychology as to speak o f anybody s system
o f chemistry There is one science o f chemistry t o
.

which all scientifi c chemists are contributors ; there is o n e


science o f psychology which all scientifi c psychologists
make their humble efforts to develop How this has .

come about I am going to tell by translating a fe w pages


from Wu n dt s Vorlesu n gen iib e r Mensche n und Thier


The earliest psychology is materialism The soul is .

air o r fire o r an ether ; it remains however material , , ,

notwi thstandi n g the e fforts to lighten and thereby to


Plat o .
Spiritualize the matter Among the Greeks it was Plato .

who first freed the soul from the body whereby he made ,

it the ruli n g principle o f the latter He thus opened t he .

p ath fo r the one sided dualism which regarded sensory


-

existence as the contamination and degradation o f a


Aristo tl e .
purely mental being Aristotle who united a wonder .
,

Th wh l
e w k ha
o e b t a l at d a d p bl i h d
or s d
e enth t it l
r ns e n u s e un er e e,
L t i H m a a d A im al P y h l gy
e c u res n u n n n s c o o .

276
Mate ri alism an d Sp i ri tu alism i n P sycho logy . 2 77

fu l sharpn e ss o f observation to his gi ft o f speculation ,


Aristo t e l ian
s ought to so f ten t his contrast by infusing the soul into p syc h o l gy
o .

matter as the v ivifying and constructive principle I n .

t h e animals in the expressio n o f the hum an f


, orm in re
pose and motion even in n ourishmen t and growth he
, ,

s aw direc t e f fects o fmental forces and he drew the gen ,

eral conclusion that the soul brings forth all organic form
j ust as the artist forms the block o f m arble Li f
e and .

soul were fo r him the same even the plant had a soul .

Yet Aristotle like no o n e before him had studied into


, , ,

t he depths o f his o wn consciousness I n his work o n .

t he soul the first b ook treating psychology as an inde


,

p endent science we find the,fund amental processes care


fully distinguished and as f — ar as possible in his time

e xplained as t o their relations .

The Aristotelian psychology and especially its fu n , M iddle Ages .

dam e n t al principle that the soul is the principle o f li fe ,

g overned the whole o fthe M iddle Ages At the begin .

n ing o fm o de rn times here as in other subjects a return


, ,

t o the Platonic v iew s b egan t o weaken its power Soon Re tu rn t o


.
P lat o n ism .

a n e w influence was associated the revival o fthe modern


n atural sciences an d the mechanical views o f the world

which they Spread abroad The result o fthe co nflict was


.

t h e b irth o f two f undamental views in psychology which


d o w n t o the present day have fought each other in the
l

field o f science : S piritu alis m and materialism Strange .

t o say the very same man was o fprimary importance f


, or D escart es as a
l
S p irit u a ist
t h e development o f both D escartes no less great as
.

.
,

m athem aticia n than as philosop her defined in oppo , ,

sitio u to the Aristotelian psychology the soul exclu ,

s iv e ly as a thinking being and following the Platonic ,

views he ascribed to it an existence originally apart


, ,

from the body whence it derived as pe rmanent property


,
Thi n ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

those ideas which go b eyond sensory experience


all .

Itsel foccupying no space this soul w as connected wit h


,

the body at o n e point o f the b rain in order to receiv e ,

the influences from the outer world and in its turn to e x



e rc ise its influence on the b ody .

Lat e r p i
s it al
r u The later spiritualism adv anced b ut little b eyond th is
l sm '
theory o f D escartes Its last great representative w as
.

Herb art He developed in thoroughly logical manner


.

the idea o f a simple soul sub stance according to D es ,

cartes Herbart w as o fvery great service to the n e w psy


.

c ho lo gy in a certain way and we shall say something ab ou t


,

his work later ( page b ut his spiritualistic psychol


ogy was a total failure His attempts at deducing t he
.

facts o fmental life from the idea o f a simple soul and its
relations to other b eings proved fruitless His effort s .

showed more clearly than anything else could do that this


pathway was an impossible one fo r psychology The .

idea o fa simple soul substance had not b een derived fro m


actual ob servations o fmental life b ut had b een arb itrarily
and unreasonably asserted the facts were to b e forced
to fit .

D esca tes contr i b uted to the development o f modern


D e sc
m at e f‘
afl

gsa a s
r .
al t ‘s
material i sm i n two ways b y hi s stri ctly mechan i cal V i ew
,

o f n ature in general and b y his treatment o f anim als as

automats Man alone had a mind ; animals were ma


.

chines But if the many evidences o f thinking feeling


.
, ,

and willing among anim als can b e explained p hysio lo gi


cally why cannot the same explanation b e used fo r man
,

This was the starting point fo r the materialism o f the


-

seventeenth century .


F o r materi ali sm all f acts o f thinking feeling an d
ma t ia l
, ,
Late r er
is m.
doing are products o f certain organs in the nervous sys
tem Any observation o f the facts o f mind is valueless
.
Mate rialism an d Sp i ritu alism in P sy cho logy . 2 79

until such facts can be explained b y chemical and physi


c al processes Thinking is a production o f the brain
.
Ch m i t y .
e s r of
mi d n

Si n ce this process stops when t h e circulation o fthe blood
.

stops and li fe ceases therefore thou ght is n othing b ut an


,

accomp animent o f the m aterials o f which the b rain is



composed .

D own to the present day modern materialism has t im p ib il s o ss


ty H
n o t gotten beyond this point —
mental li fe is a product .

o f the b rain ; psychology is merely physiology o f the

brain Our fe e liiigs thoughts and acts o fwill however


.

, , , ,

cannot be observed as all phenomena o fnature have b een


observed We can h ear the word th at expresses a
.

thought we can se e the man who formed it we can dis


, ,

sect the brain that thought it b ut the word the man , ,



the b rain these were n o t the thought
— A feeling o f .

anger is accompanied b y an i n crease o f b lood in t he


brain b ut no m atter ho w mi n ute our knowledge o f the
chemical processes b etween the b lood and the brain sub
stance m ay b e we know that we can n ever find out the
,

chemistry o f anger .

But says materialism these material processes may B ai p


, , r n ro
d mi d
n o t b e t h e thoughts ye t they produ ce them Just as the u ce s n .

.
,

liver produ ces b ile j ust as the contraction o f muscle


,

causes motion so are our ideas and emotions produced


,

b y blood an d brain heat and decomposition Ye t a very


, .

important difference has b een overlooked ‘

We can .

show ho w the bile is produced b y chemical processes in


the liver we can show ho w the movement is the result
o fchemical processes in the muscle b ut brain processes
give u s n o information o fthe w ay thoughts are produced .

We can understand ho w one b odily movement produces I ts ab dity su r .

another movement ho w one emotion or sensation


,

chan ges to another emotion or sen sation ; but ho w a


Thin ki ng , Fee ling , D o ing .

motion o f molecules or a chemical process can produ c e


an emotion is w hat n o system o f mechanics can m ak e
clear.

g e ms“ ma . These vagaries o f materialism hav e called attention t o


sm '
t e n al'
.

the study o f t he relations b etween mind and brain an d ,


we have had mental physiologies even from thos e ,

who are not materialists The study o f what happens in


.

the b rain o r in any part o f the b ody when we are angry ,

o r when we think o fan apple is o fcou se an immensely


r , , ,

valuable thing The absurdity arises when it is asserted


.

that every mental fact is merely an appendix to some


brain process that fo r example w e do n o t feel merry
, ,

at the thought o f a joke b ut that certain chemical


,

processes in the b rain produced the thought o f the joke


and at t he same time se t going other chemical processes
that produced the merry feeling There are many vol .

umes o f so -called psychology in which each mental


proce ss is translated into some imaginary ( fo r we have no
facts on the subject ) movement o f b rain molecules ,

which in some imaginary fashion sets u p another im agi


nary movement which is translated into a second mental
,

process that really followed the first one according to a


simple psychological law .

But the strife b etween spiritualism and materialism is


almost p assed . I t has left no contribution to scien ce ,

and n o o n e who carefully ex amines the subject o f the


stri fe can wonder at such a result Fo r wh at was the .

central point o f the battle o f Opinions ? About nothing


else than the questions concerning the soul its seat its , ,

connection with the body Materialism here fell into the


.

same fault as spiritualism Instead o f beginnin g upon


.

the facts th at were observed and investigati n g their rela


tions it b usied itsel f with metaphysical questions fo r
,
M ate malzkm Sp iritu alism in P sy cho logy
'

an d . 28 I

w hich answers can b e found only if ever through a — —

completely unprej udiced i e at the start free from


— . .
,

every metaphysical supposition investigation o fthe facts



o fexperience .

Starting from entirely different points o f view both ,


M istak e of
me th o d
spiritu alism an d materialism have landed in utterly fruit .

less suppositions The reason therefor lay in the meth


.

ods which they employed To suppose th at anything.

could be gained by vague specul ation on mental li fe was


folly equaled only by the b elief that dissecting b rains
would lead to a kno w ledge o f mind Both p arties fo r .

got one point namely to examine the facts o f mind



,

itself .

It is this forgotten duty that led to the n e w psychology Th e n ew p sy


— a psychology o ff act This psychology o f mental life
.
c h o lo gy .

this science o f direct investigation o f o u r thinking feel ,

ing and doing is neither spi ritu alism nor materialism ;


, ,

it has no speculations o feither kind to offer It confines .

itselfstrictly to the domain o ffact As long as they can .

se t themselves in harmony with the f acts the Hegelian ,

philosopher and the Fe u e rb achian materialist have equ al


rights When they go b eyond the facts they may settle
.
,

the question between them the n e w psychology is very


thankful that it has nothing to do w ith either .
CHAPT E R XXI I .

TH E N E W PS Y C H OLO G Y .

TH E facts we have been considering in this book hav e


been facts o f mind not o f the physical world The
,
.

beauti ful colors we se e are the physicists tell u s only


— —

vibration s o fether the physical world has no color t he ,

colors exist only when we are present Physical vibra .

tion s o f the air are t o u s tones Ce rtain mechanical .

movements are to us pressures Feelings and will im


.
-

pulses may b etray themselves b y movements o r other


wise in themselves they are mental facts I n short w e .
,

may say that all the facts as we know them are mental
, ,

facts The scien ce o f these facts is psychology


. .

But what is the n e w psychology ? The n e w psychol


o gy is entitled t o its special adjective b ecause it employs

a method n e w in the history o fpsychology although n o t ,

new in the history o fscience .

The old psychologist like Locke Hamilton an d


, , ,

many o f the present day sits at his desk and writes vol
,

umes o fvague observation en dless speculation an d flimsy


, ,

gu esswork The psychologist o f the n e w dispensatio n


.

must se e every statement proven b y experiment and


measurement before he will commit himsel f in regard t o
it E very alleged fact every statement must b e b ro u ght
.
, ,

as evidence sworn to b y the E tern al Tru th und er p e n


alty o fscientific disgrace — b efore the Court o fReason .

The di fference between the old and the n e w is not o n e


28 2
The N ew P sy cho logy .

of material the subject is the same fo r bo th namely the , ,

facts o f mind The difference lies in the carefu lness


.

with which the i n formation in regard to these phenomena


is obtained Inst ead o f careless ob servation and guess
.

work the u tmost care and selfsacrificin g labor are e x -

pended in the laboratory in order t o obtain sin le facts


This method o f careful scientific work is u n in e lligible
,
f
t o the men o f the o ld sch o o l The m ethod o f e xp e ri .

ment taxes patienc e t o the utmost and could hardly


h ave arisenin a country whose n atives could b e bo re d .

Just as the schoolmen o f lo n g ago were b usy in specula



ting o u such questions as H o w many angels could ,

stand on the point o f a n eedle ? so men still write
volumes about the Me the Unity o f Consciousness the
, ,

Consciousness o f Identity etc It never occurs t o them


, .

“ ”
th at the world might ask Well what o f it ? Sup , ,

pose you have proved that 1 9 % angels can stand o n the


af oresaid needle Well what o fit ? S u ppose you h ave
.
,

settled to your satis faction that consciousness is a unity ,

is dou b le or is anything else you please


, Well what o f .
,

it ? When you have written your numerous volumes


f? h ave you
o n these su bjects is the world any b etter o f
,

co n tributed one single fact to the advance o f science and


humanity ? While you were up in the clouds specula
ting we were hungering dying fo r the lack o f in forma
, ,

tion on the most vital questions Have you n o thought .


,

no suggestion as to ho w we may grow better ourselves


and e ducate o u r children to a better life ?
Who are the men t o who m we o w e the regeneration ? P y h l gy at s c o o

Of course the psychologic al awakening is only a p art o f


,
l a t f s . re e .

the great movement by which many o f the sciences have


successively emerged fro m the scholasticism o f the
M iddle Ages Mathem atics physics chemistry b iol
.
, , ,
Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

ogy and others are n o w free and fruitful sciences p sy


,

c ho lo gy has j ust joined the group leaving education , ,

logic and ae sthetics fo r some future generation


, .

Sir William Hamilton is the o n e to who m we must


look back as having vindicated the right to b uild psy
c ho lo gy upo n o b servations and n o t t o deduce it f rom
philosophical prejudices Since his time E nglish p sy
.

ch o lo gy has b een nominally empirical ( i e founded on . .


,

experience ) b ut actu ally merely a collection o f vague


,

observations as the basis o f endless discussion .

I n Germany the n atural revolt from the dull scho last i


cism o f the psychol

ogy o fW olff and the


mad speculation o f
Schelling w as led by
Herbart .

T h e philosopher ,

b
H e r art .

psychologist and cd ,

u c at o r Herbart
,
was ,

born in 1 776 He be .

c a m e professor o f
philosophy at GOt
tingen l ater he suc
c e e de d K ant as pro

fe sso r o f philosophy
in K On igsb e rg where ,

he died in 1 8 4 1 He .

is best know n fo r his


Fig 3 J ha F i d i h H bart 20 o nn re rc er
works on education
. . .

these being fo u nded on his psychology have led


, ,

educational people to adopt the Herbartian psychol


o gy with the Herbartian ped ago y
g The Herb artian .

pedagogy with the improvements o fit s follo w ers is t o


, , ,
The N e w P sycho logy .

day, perhaps the b est system and guide that we have .

To Herbart as a psychologist w e also o w e a debt p m i .


os v e se rv ce
fH m “ ° e
The o ld faculty psychology with i ts groun dless and end
-
,

less specul ation aroused his i re ; he se t ab out producing


,

a new psychology I n the first place h e determined to


.
,

start from the facts as he observed them in his own mind


this was in itself a great step You have probab ly
.

heard o f the medieval student who at the time when the ,

discovery o f spots o n the su n began to b e talked ab out ,

called the attentio n o f his old instructor t o them The .

reply w as : There can b e n o spots on the su n fo r I have ,



read Aristotle s works f rom b eginni n g to end and he s ays

the su n is incorruptible Clean your lenses and if the


.
,

spots are n o t in the telescope they must b e in your


,

eye .

Alas ! there are to day so called psychologists who


- -


write volumes full o f what Locke said what H amilton s ,

opinion was wh at Reid thought what Hume believe d


, , ,

without ever dreaming o f asking what the facts are .

This debt we o w e to Herbart is a great one the othe r N gat i e ve se rv

debt we owe him is fo r a di fferent reason M athem atics i fH ba t ce o er r .

.
,

we all know is the fostering mother o f the sciences


,
.

W h at w as more n atural than to pl ace poor disreputable ,

psychology in her care ? This is what Herbart at


tempted On the b asis o fhis ob servation s he proceeded
.

to b uild up his mathematics o f ideas H is r e sults are .

v ery curious ; f o r ex ample if you h av e an idea in your


,

mind and another one wishes to get in there occurs a ,

e between them and they press against each other


stri f

a
Wi th a force proporti onal to Of course , the Alg b ai e r c f l
ol y .

t/ a-l- b

whole thing was utterly absurd M athematics makes


.

use o f symbols fo r q u a n titie s ; w hen you speak o f a dis


Th in king , Fe e li ng , D o i ng .

tance t,you mean j u st so many inches or centimeters o r


miles t represents a n umber But when Herbart S peak s
.

o f an idea with t h e intensity a there is n o method o f


,

giving an y quantitativ e indication o f ho w great this in


tensity is he knows o f n o measure o f intensity and h is ,

use o f symbols is absolutely meaningless N o mathe .

m at ician would ever dream o f such folly Th e second .

debt w e o w e t o Herbart is then that o f a warning ex


, ,

ample against un founded speculation Herbart revolted .

against metaphysical speculation b ut fell into a kind o f,

mathematical speculatio n that w as n o less metaphysical .

But if all that was lackin g was merely the quantitative


expression fo r psychological facts why n o t get t o work ,

and measure them j ust as in astronomy an d physics ?


,

But ho w ? H o w can we measure the intensity o f a pain ,

or the time o f thought o r the exten t o f touch ? The


,

matter seems re ally in co mp re h e n sib le


~
.

an d One o f the s u rest ways o fb eing put in the wrong is t o


gggzg
say that something can never b e done Comte the .
,

philosopher once said that it would be forever im po s


,

sible t o tell the composition o f the stars ; forty -three


years later the use o f the spectro scope enabled astro n o
mers t o an alyze e ach o n e Herbart declared that
.

psychology must not experiment with man and instru


ments thereto do n o t exist in another pl ace he asserts
that psychological quantities are not presented in such
a way that they can b e measured ; they allow only an
incomplete estimate Nineteen years later Fe chn e r
.

published his great work o n psychophysi cs in which he ,

sho w ed h o w t o experiment on mental processes and

measure psychological facts .

Other influences had b een tending toward the develop


ment o f psychology and although Fe chn e r w as t he
, ,
The N ew P sy cho logy .

first really to start the n e w psychology he is only the ,

logical outcome o f the progress o f thought in other


lines
.

Both the physicist an d the physiologist frequently come


to problems where mental life is involved P hysicists .

still amuse th emselves b y the so called optical illusions


-

an d the b e au t ifii l phe n omena o f contrast al though there ,

is not a particle o f physics in any way connected with


the subject Physi .

ologists have always


been forced t o con
sider questions o fse n
sation emotion and
, ,

volition in order to,

draw conclusions in
regard to bodily proc
esses . M any n ames
might b e mentioned
in this connection b ut ,

one is o fspecial impor


tance that o f E rnst
,
Wb e e r.
H einric h Web er .

T h i s distinguished
p hysiol ogist a n d
physicist w ro t e a semi
Fig 4 G ta T h d F h
. 20 . us v eo or ec ner
.

psychological treatise
on Sensations o f Touch and t he Internal Feelings ,

which not only in duced later physiologists t o continue


the work b ut was also the direct S timulus fo r Fechner
, .

This influence we may call t he physiological o n e it has


done its m ain psychological service in outlining the se n
sat io n s in a qualitative manner Fechner may b e con
.

side re d as the b uilder o f p sycholo gy repre senting the


Thin ki ng , Fe e ling , D o ing .

final p assage from the qu alitative to the quantitative .

F ec h n e r .
Fechner ( 1 80 1 1 88 7) w as the founder o fexperimental

psychology While pro fessor o f physics at the Uni


.

versity o f Leipzig he invented an d worked out the


methods which we have u sed in finding the threshold
( page 1 0 3 , His greatest works w e i e E lement e
'
,


der Psychoph ysik and Revision der H auptpunkte der


Psychophysik S o much o f Fe c hn e r is embodied in
.

all our p sychologic al

work that it is u se
less to attempt more
th an to indicate his
m a i n services I .

will sum them up as


( )
I the invention o f
n e w met hods o f
measuring the in
ten sity o fsensation ;
( )
2 the introductio n

o f new methods o f

calcul ating results ;


( 3) the d e v e l o p
ment o f l aws con
cerning the relation
o f inten sities o fse n
Fig . 20
5 H ma. H l m h lt
er nn v o n e o z.
sat i o n s ; ( 4) t h e
foundation o fexperimental ae sthetics and ( 5 ) numerous
sm aller investigations an d ob servations .

H e l m h lt z
o .
A greater than Fe chn e r w as to come M athematician .
,

physicist physiologist psychologist and technologi st


, , , ,

Hermann von Helmholtz has given to the p sychology o f


sight an d hearing the b est his sciences had to gi v e W e .

can not claim him as a psychologist his genius was t o o ,


The JVe w P sy cho logy .

great fo r a scie n ce still so limit e d Nevertheless there are


.

fe w to whom psychology owes more .

We m ust turn back t o the last centu ry fo r a second I nfl n ue ce of


“ m mm y'
current o f thought that was to develop psychology .

This time it was an astronomer pu z zled b y mistakes o f


his own method . I n a preceding chapter ( page 40 ) the
story has been told The time measurements o f mental
.

phenomena were afterwards taken up and developed by


Wundt in whose lab oratory they are still con tinually
,

pushed fu rther .

W ilhelm Wundt b orn at N e ck e rau in Baden in 1 8 3 2 W dt


, , un .

w as a student o f medicine at Tiib in ge n Heidel b erg and , ,

Berlin His academical career b egan with a place as in


.

st ru c t o r in physiol

ogy at Heidelb erg ,

where in 1 8 63 he

p u b lis h e d his Lec
tures on Human and
Animal P s y c h o l
ogy ( 2 d edition
I n 1 864 he
was made assistan t
professor o f physi
ology In i 8 66 he
.


publ ish e d The
P h y s i c a l A xioms
an d their Relations

to the Principles o f

Causality .I n 1 8 74
he p u b l i s h e d t h e Fig. 6 Wil he l m W dt
20 . un .


Outlines o f Phys
io lo gical Psychology (4 t h edition In the same
year he was called to Zurich as professor o f philosophy
Thi n ki ng , Fee ling , D o i ng .

in 1 8 75 to Leipzig His later works have covered most


.

“ ”
sections o fphilosophy Logic ( 1 880 1 8 8 3 2d edition, ,

“ ” “
E ssays E thics ( 1 8 8 6 2 d edition ,


System o f Philosophy The pro
du ct io n s o f the Institute fo r E xperimental Psychology at

Leipzig are published in his Ph ilosophical Studies .

The institute at Leipzig has tak e n up not only the


time measurements and the work b egun b y Fe chn e r b ut ,

also nearly every portion o f psychology accessib le t o ex

p e rim e n t. I think it can b e said that there are only t w o

important regions o fpsy chology which have not rece ived


contributions from Leip z ig namely po w er and work in
, ,

voluntary action ( investigations from France and Italy )


and the applications o fpsychological principles to educa
tion ( a pecu liarly A meri can department ) When w e .

view the ten solid volumes o f investigation in the Phi



lo so p h ical Studies and remember that the men who
produced them were simply carrying o u t Wu n dt s ’

thoughts we must admit the j ustness o f the recognition


,

which the world pays to Wundt as the greatest genius in


psychology since the time o f Ari stotle .

in fl u en ce of There is another influence on the development o f psy


an at o m y .

c ho lo gy which we might call the an atomical


,
A rising .

from crude m aterialism it has sought to parcel out men


,

e among differen t portions o f the brain It has


t al li f .

“ ”
produced such monstrosities as mental physiology ,


physiology o f mind etc It speaks o f the di fferent
, .

mental faculties as seated in various portions o f the sur


face o f the b rain .

The evil this movement has done is very great It .

has le d t o a habit o f wild speculation concern in g


” ”

memory cells ,

associat i on fibers etc Concern
, .

in g what goes o n in the brain in company with mental


The N ew P sycho logy . 29 1

p ro cesses we know n othing more t han general outlines .

Ye t writers o f psychologies e specially in A merica


generally disdain t o speak o f the relations o f mental


.

processes to e ach other They fi rst turn t he sensations


.

into molecular movem e nts ( this is a favo rite phrase


b ecause its mean ing is so deliciously inde fi nite and its
alliteration so sonorously professorial ) then they se t
c omplicated processes running along n erve fib ers t o other

Fig . 207. Lec t u re roo m in t h e Yal e bo rato ry


La .

cells ; here there are more molecular movements ,

which are retranslated into m ental phenomena A .

'

mental process would b e very likely to su fl e r from so


many translations especially when t h e intermediate
,

processes are as the anatomist will tell yo u utterly u n


, ,

known languages .

As would b e expecte d it is not the b rain anatomist


,

w ho commits this fault He is after facts concerning the


.
Thin king , Fee ling , D o i ng .

structure o f the brain E xperimental psychology can


.

be o f great service to him especially in the p athology o f


,

mind where brain disease is accompanied by mental dis


,

t u rban c e o r mental troubles disastrously af fect the b ody .

These men are ardent and valu able friends o four science .

Indeed the subject o f psychology has passed through


,

T h latta
s
g
re e s
i
es o f three stages o f metaphysical speculation the doubly
p e cu on .

d i st i lled metaphysi cal speculat i on o f the pre Herbart i an -

Fig . 208 . A pparat u s-ro o m an d S w it h b


c o ard-h a ll i
n the Yale La bo rato ry .

era the
,
m at h e mat ic o -metaphysical
speculation o f Her
b art and his followers and the anatomico metaphysical
,
-

specul ation o f C arpenter M audsley and the rest, , .

And what about philosophy the science o f sciences ?


P l gy a
syc h o o nd ,

Ph il° S ° Ph Y °

Alas ! philosophy is still in the Middle Ages One by .

one the other scien ces have freed themselves ; the lin
geri n g clutch o fphilosophy on psychology is a last hop e
The N e w P sycho logy .

o f respectability Metaphysics o fthe worst sort still goes


.


begging fo r recognition under such terms as ration al
psychology ( as though the p sycholog y o f fact were
irrational theoretical psychology speculative ,

psychology etc
, Philosophy in modern times has
.

c ontributed n othing but stumbling -blocks in aid o f


psychology .

The trouble lies in the fact that the new philosophy


has only lately appeared The movement by which a
.

s cience o f philosophy is to be based on the special

sciences such as physics psychology and the rest is


, , , ,

s till so new as to be very little known outside o f Ger

many Thi s n e w philosophy haS no more an d n o less


.

c onnection with psycholog y than with physics mathe ,

m at ics an d astronomy
, E very scienti st every man
.
, ,

must b e more or less o f a philosopher in the new sense ,

a n d philosophy based on the special sciences cannot but

be a help in every way Such a philosophy would n o


.

more think o f claimin g a right to meddle in psychology


t han it would to regulate the manu f acture o f lathes in a
m achine shop .

H aving arriv ed at the present day we naturally ask V i w f t h


, , e o e
t
What is going on now ? I n Germany the number o f p rese n .

p sychological l aboratories is not large and the amount o f


c apital invested is small Yet it must be con fessed the G ma y
.
, , er n .

best work and almost all the good work in psychology


c ome from the German psychological physical an d , ,

physiological lab oratories The causes combining to thi s


.

result are many the main one is hard honest accurate , ,

work .

In America the first laboratory was founded at Johns A m i a er c .

Hopkin s Uni v ersity in 1 88 3 by G Stanley H all The . .

work done w as excellent an d full o f promise b ut the ,


Thin king , Fee ling , D o ing .

labo ratory was all o wed t o pass o u t o fexistence upo n t h e


departure o f P ro fessor Hall A t the present moment
.
,

there are ab out twenty A meri can instit u tions in which


attempts are made at laboratory i nstruction .

France has lately established a lab oratory Russia .

Fig . 209
. Wo rksho p in t h e Yale Laborato ry.

has a laboratory at Mosco w Up to the date o f my


.

l atest in formation n o laboratories exist in A u stria Italy , ,

Spain British E mpire ( e xcept Canada ) or elsewhere


, , .

The Yale laboratory w as started in 1 8 9 2 It di ffers .

Yale .
from the German laboratories in having an organized
system o f courses whereby the college stud e nt recei v es
,

a thorough training It di ffers from most American


.

l aboratories in its extensi v e provisions fo r accurate sc ie n ,

t ific researches b y trained investigators o f special sub

j e c ts
.
The N EW P sycho logy .

Laboratories are the outward signs o f internal forces F f o rc es o


d l pm t e ve o en
at work in developing psychology
.

The first o f these forces is the convicti o n in the mind P w ft h o er o e


p c ial i t s e s
o f every man that m ere ob servation and speculatio n will
.

not serve to b uild a locomotiv e paint a picture run a


, ,

gas factory or teach psychology Long long years o f


, .
,

special training an d l aborious experimenting mu st first


be spent in the workshop the studio the chemical lab
, ,

oratory or the psychological laboratory To do any o f


, .

these things a m an must b e a speci alist As long as .

psychology was an arm chair sc ience anyb ody could


-
,

teach it to day n o one but a carefully trained man can


-

do so .

A second great force is the recognition that all


rational an d effective education is b ased on psychology
“ ”
not the vague and verbose psychology o f ten ,

twenty or forty years ago b ut the accurate u p to date


, , ,
- -
,

practical psychology o f to day -


.
I N DE X .

Abn o rmal att en tio n , 1 01 . Asso c iat io n -t ime , 53 .

Abso l u t e w h it e 1 59 , . Asto n ish me n t , 99, 233 .

A ccide n ts du e to c o o r- l bl i d n n ess, 1 77. A st ro n o m e rs



disco ve ry o f react io n

A cc u rac y o fto n e j dgm t


- u en , 1 43 . t ime , 40, 272.

Ac t an d w ill, 28 , 33. A t mo sp h e re , i ll u sio n , 1 97 .

A c t io n , 28 , 226. At t e n t io n , 89 ; f o c us , 90 ; in sta i it y, 91 bl
A ddit io n , t im e o f, 54 . e x t e n t , 9 1 ; in c h i dren , 92 ; f o rc in l g,

Addit io n s, u n c o n sc io u s, 1 7. 93 ; in adv e rtis 93 ; law o f b ig i g n ,

Adj u stab l e f
or k , 1 39 ; p it c h - i e, 1 1
pp 4 . n e ss, 93 ; law o f in t e nsit y , 94 law
A dv e rt isin g , 93 , 24 7 . o ff l g
e e in , 96 ; law o f e x p ec t at ion ,

E st h e sio me t e r, 1 1 0, 1 1 1 . 97 ; law o f c h an
99 ; dise ases , g e,

E st h e t ic e mo t io n s, 234 . 1 01 ; f g
u e , 1 0 1 ; h yp n o t ism , 1 02
at i

E st h e t ic s , see F li g ee n . fec t o n m e n ta
ef u ic n e ss , 99 l q k
Ag e . fe c t o n
ef h igh t t es o n e , 1 36 ; see ef
fec t on ast ro n o m i al c rec o rds ,

S cho o l ch i ld ren . 272 ; an d st eadin ess, 75 .

Agre e able , se e Li k e. Att rac t io n , 229.

A gre e m e n t , 237. A u dio m e t e r, se e i n t en sit y o f t o n es.

ll
Air, i u sio n , 1 97 . A v e ra g e c h an g e , 240.

Ai r t ran sm ission 67 . . Av e r ag e e rro r, 81 .

l
A arm , 234 . Ave r ag e u n ce rtain ty, 24 1 .

A ll it at i
er o n , 249. Av e rsio n , 229.

A lp h ab t e , se e Le tt e rs . Bato n , 259.

Alte m at io n o f o do rs , 1 27 . Be am- balan ces , 1 06.

An ato m y, 279, 290 . Beau t ifu l ,


21 4 , 222.

An g e r, 84 , 88 , 224 , 229, 230. Be au t y an d bign es s , 96 .

An gie , ll
i u sio n , 1 89 . Big n ess fo r att en t ion , 93 .

l
An im a p syc h o o y, 1 8 , 278 lg . Bil e , 224.

l
An im a s, sme , 1 27 h earin ll g , 1 37. Bin au ra l , see E ars .

A n t ip at hy , 230 . Bi l
n o c u ar c o n t rast , 21 2.

An t s , 1 8. Bin o c u la l t r u s e r, 21 2 .

A n x ie t y , 224 , 228 . Bin o c u la l i fr re e , 205 .

A rist o t l e , 276 , 285 , 290. Bin o c u la t if r s r e , 21 0.

tl ll Bi la i i

A risto e s i u s io n , 1 1 3 . r v s on, 1
no cu 99 .

A rit h m o m an ia, 1 01 . Bla k 56 59


c , 1 , 1 .

Arm , t im e o f mo v e men t , 58 ; st e adi Bl i d t h h l d f pac


n , res o o s e, 1 1 1 .

n es s o f
, 69 . Bl i d- p t 83
n s o , 1 .

Arm-c h air p sycho lo gy , 24 . Bl k f ggest i 67


oc s o r su on , 2 .

A rt

l
s c o o rs , 21 8 . Bl 6ue , 1 2.

Asso c iat io n in i u sio n , 1 97 ; in


, ll e mo B ili g a f g
o n ro , 1 21 .

t io n , 232 ; in m e mo ry, 250 . B k t


oo ps e reo sco e , 20 2.

297
298

B o x e r, 59 . Co mp ass , 1 1 0.

Bo ys an d gi l r s co mp are d, se e S cho o l Co m t e , 286 .

ch i ld re n . Co n c e n t rat io n o f t ho ugh t , 1 01 .

B air A n , see n at o m y . Co n e o f co lo rs 1 57 , .

B i gp i
u rn n - o n t o f at t e n t io n
, 90 . Co n st e rnat io n , 234 .

Cap l 68 su es , , 76, 253 . C o n t e n t me n t , 230 .

C are 224 228


, , . Co n t radict io n , 237.

Carp e n t e r 292 , . C o n t rast 1 71 21 2 , , .

C hagrin 230 , . Co n t ro l 67 , .

C hain re act io n 38 5 2
-
, , . Co u rage 224 , .

C han ge an d atten t io n 99 , . C ross-e du cat io n 75 83 , , , 1 1 2.

C han ge l e ast n o t iceable


, , 1 06 , 1 20, C ro ss-m e m o ry 24 2 , .

1 43 ; av e ra e , g 240. C ro sse d disp arit y 205 , .

C harm 229 , . C rush ing a fro g 1 07 , .

C h ee rfu ln ess 228 , . C u rio sit y 98 99 , , .

C he m ist ry o f m in d 279 , . l
D a to n , 1 79 .

Chil dre n e xt e n t o fat ten t io n 92 ; sk in


, , D e af
n ess , 1 47.

spac e 1 1 2 fi e l d o fv isio n 1 82 see


, , ec t iv e ac t io n , 33 ;
D ef e x e c u t io n , 71
S ch o o l ch i ld re n . at t e n t io n , 1 0 1 sm e ll , 1 28 ; h e arin g ,

C h o ice -t im e 5 1 , . 1 35 ; co l o r se n se , 1 72.

Ch ro n o me t e r 256 , . De j ec t io n ,
228 .

C iv ilizat io n in fl uen ce , on t ime of l


D e icacy of t o u c h , h e arin g , e tc .
,
se e

t ho u gh t , 62 . Th resh o ld .

C lairv o yan t h eal in g 26 , . D e p ressio n , 225 , 228 .

C lo ck-w o rk dru m 68 , . D escart es , 277.

Co il 31 51 55 1 46 256
. . . . . D ia g ram o f c o o rs, 1 57. l
Co ld react io n to 47
, , . D if
fe re n ce , l e ast n o t ic e a bl e , 1 08 , 1 39,

Co ld spo ts 1 1 7 , . 1 70 .

Co lo r 1 53 , . D irec t me mo ry , 243 .

Co lo r-bl indn e ss 1 73 1 82 , , . g
D isa ree a e , se e D is i bl lk e .

C o l o r-c on e 1 57 , . D isappo in t me n t , 224 , 232 .

Co lo r-disk 1 55 , . D isco n t e n t e dn ss s , 230 .

Col or e q u at io n , 1 64 , 1 73 . D isc rim in at io n-t im e , 50 ; in c hi ld re n ,

C l o orf
ee li g n s, 21 7 . 60 .

C l o o r-n am es , 1 62, 1 63. D is k s f


o r co o rs, 1 54 l ; f
o r co n trast , 1 72

C l o o r p e ri m e t ry , 1 82 . se e a so l Co l o r-t o p .

C l
o o r, re co g n it io n -t im e , 1 49 in fl u e nce lk
D is i e, 96, 21 4 .

on po w e r, 88 ; fee in l g , 21 7 ; e mo D isp ari t y, 20 5 .

t io n , 23 1 . D issat isf
ac t io n , 230 .

Co lo r sen sit iv e n ess 1 70 , . D ist in c t v isio n . 1 80 .

Co lo r syst e m 1 56 , . D ist ractio n , in fl u e n ce on t ap p in g , 35 ;


C o lo r to p 1 53 1 57 1 63 1 70
-
, , , , ,
1 73 . av o idan ce o f
, 41 in iso at e d l ro o m ,

Co l o r-t riangl e , 1 66 .
42 .

l -w ak
Co o r e n ess 1 76 , . D iv ide rs, 1 10 .

l wh l
Co o r- e e 1 54 , . D o g , t im e o f t ho u gh t , 60 .

l
C o o re dg y
a s 1 60 r , . Do u ble co n sc io u s ess n , 265 , 283 .

C o o rs fu n dam en tal 1 65
l , , . D o u bl e im age s 204 , .

Co mbin at io n o f co lo rs 1 63 , , 1 67, 21 8 . D o u b t 237 , .

C o mb in at io n o f pain ts 1 67 , . D raw in ga st rai gh t l i ne , 71 .


152aflezr
. . 2399)

g
D raw in -divide rs , 1 1 0 . Faith- 6 c u re , 2 .

D ru m , smo e d reco rdin k g , 29 , 43 , 68 , Fa aday r f ’


s c o n essio n , 1 6 .

224 , 253 . Fa t t tapp i g


s es n , 34 ; t e e rap h in , 65 lg g .

D ru m-st ic k 59 , 2 . Fatig 34 37 ; ue, , o f at t en t io n , 1 0 1 ; o f

Du m b-b ll x i e e e rc ses , 262. m ll 6 s e , 12 .

D u rat io n , n o tat io n f
o r, 1 48 , 1 5 1 .

D ynam o g aphr , 86 . F e c hn e r, 286 , 288 .

D yn am o me t e r, 79 . Fechn e r s law , ’
see We b ’
er s law .

E ars , t w o , 1 52 . F li g
ee n , ; an d e m o t io n , 226
21 4 .

E du c at io n o f rap idity, 22 , 63 , 65 ; of F li g
ee n u se d f o r at t rac t in attent ion , g

st e adin es s, 74 ; cro ss, 75 , 83 ; of 96 .

at t e n t ion , 76 ; o fpo w e r, 82 ; o fs ki n, F g 55
e n cin , .

111 o f me mo ry, 247. F i w h l 96


e rr s ee , .

Ef fo rt , 236 . F ba h 8
eue r c , 2 1.

E if l
fe t o w e r, 96 . Fi ld fatt t i 9
e o en o n, 0.

l
E ec t ri c ato n , 259 b . Fi l d f i i 8
e o v s o n , 1 0.

El ec t ric dru m-st ic k , 259. Fi ger ill i


n 3 us o n, 1 1 .

El ec t ric sho e , 255 . Fi gn d f mo


e r, rec o r m t 3 o ve en , 1.

E m o t io n , 226 ; as a so u rce o f i ll usio n , Fi d id a


xe e s , 1 01 .

1 98 . Flag f il 55 -o
, .

En gl i h p s sych o o l gy , 284. F la d
v o rs t m ll 8 ue o s e , 12 .

En j o ym e n t , 236 . Fl w p t m 6
o e r s e c ru , 1 2.

E qu at io n , p e rso n a , 40, l 272 ; o f co o rs, l Fl t at i g p


uc u 5 n ressu re , 1 0 .

F fat t t i
o cu s o 9 en on , 0 .

E rro r, 1 6 . F il 55
o , .

-re adin
E rro r in p ro o f g , 17 . F t-k y 55
oo e , 2 .

E rro r o fp re j u dic e , 1 6. F d a iatio 54


o rce sso c n, .

E rro r o f t h e senses, 21 . F k l t i 8 43 46 ; mi
or , e ec r c , 2 , , 1 rro r,

E rro r o f un co n sc io u s addit io ns, 1 7. 76 ; f t i kl 4 ; g ia t or


34 ; c e, 10 n , 1

E rro rs in anima p syc h o l l gy


o , 1 8, 1 9, mall 35 adj tab l
s 39 f l a t
, 1 us e, 1 or e s

20 . t i abl
no diff ce 4 ; f e e ren ce , 1 0 or

E rro rs in me mo ry, stat ist ics, 245 . ag ab l t re e 3 e o n es , 22 .

E t h ica l e mo t io ns , 234 . F k or d 9 reco r


4 , 2 , 10 .

E xaspe rat ion , 230. F m 5 ; f to


or , 5 ; a d f
11 e li g o ne , 1 0 n e n .

E x c itat io n , 225 , 227. 220 .

E x e rc ises in o bse rv ing , 21 , 22 . F asso iati 53


re e c on, .

E x pe c tat io n , 232, 272 . F ight 34


r , 2 .

E xp e c t at io n an d att e n t io n , 97 an d F g 7
ro , 10 , 1 21 .

e m o t io n , 232 ; an d su e st io n , 272 gg . F dam t l l


un 65 e n a co o rs, 1 , 1 69.

E xp e rim e n t , its adv e n t , 24 , 25 its F dam tal fa t f bi


un en c o l
n o c u ar v isio n ,

law , 25 ; rades , 25 , 26 ; u ac e x g q k 1 99.

p e rim e n ts, 26, 265 ; need of, 28 . F u n dame n ta law o fo bse rvat io n , 1 5 l .

E xp ressio n , 270 . F u n dam e n ta p i m e n t s , 1 69 l g .

E xt e n t o f att e n t io n ,
91 . Gal il e i, 25 .

E ye an d ear me t h o d, 272 . Galto n , 1 37.

E yes, 1 5 . Galto n s w h ist e , 1 35 ’


l .

Fa il it y 36
c , 2 . Game o ft w e n ty u est ion s, 1 7 q .

Fa lt y-p y h l
cu s c o o gy, 285 . Games , 57, 82 .

Fail 37
u re , 2 . Gas-c ap su l e, 76 .
300 I n de x .

Gau ge fo r st eadin ess 74 , . Ill usio n ,



A risto t e s o r l fi n ge r, 1 1 3 ; lip ,
Ge issl e r t u be s 5 1 , . 1 13 ; t o o t h , 1 1 4 ; in t e rru p t e d sp ace
Ge rm an psych o lo g y 284 , . on k
s in , 1 1 4 ; o p t ica , 1 87 ; mo o n l
Ge rm an t yp e 50 , . i ll u sio n , 1 96.

Ges t u re 270 , . I n accu rac y , in de x of


, 258 .

Gio tt o s t o w e r 96

, . I n de x o fin acc u rac y, 258 .

Glo o m 228 , . I n de x o fi rre u ari ty , 258 gl .

Gram 80
'

, . I n difl e re n ce , 21 4 , 230 .

G rap h ic c h ro n o me te r 256 , . I di t i t i i
n s nc v s o n , 1 80 .

Grap hic m e t h o d 28 29 30 , , , , 43 , 68 , 86 , I fi it y f l
n n o co o rs, 1 5 7, 1 65 .

253 . I h ibit y 7
n or , 22 .

G rap h ic rec o rd 29 69 87 , , , , 88 , 254, 256. I t ll t al m


n e ec u e o t io n , 234.

G rasp 80 86 , , . I n t e ns ificat io n o f t ast e s, 1 30 .

G ratin g 1 60 , . I nt e n sit y . in fl u e n c e on re act io n -


time ,
Gray 1 59 1 65 . 21 7
, . 47, 4 8 ; la w ,
in a t t e n t io n , 94 ; de

Gree n 1 62 , .
p e n de n t o n u an t it y , 1 30 ; in au q
G ree n -bl in dn ess 1 74 , . e n ce o n g
h i h e st to n e , 1 38 o ft o n es ,

G rip o f p e n c il st eadin ess , , 73 . 1 46 ; o f act io n , see P o we r ; l e ast

G u ido A re t in o 1 48 , . no t ic e a bl e ,
see Th resh o ld .

Gu n , st e adin ess in h o din l g , 69 . I t t 94


n e res , .

l
H ai r- in es , 272 . I t l at i
n e rn a se ns
3 o n s, 22 .

ll
H a , G S t an e y , 293 . l . I t pt d pa ill i
n e rru e s ce , u s o n , 1 1 4 , 1 88 .

ll
H a u c in at io n , 266 . I g la it y i d f 58
rre u r , n ex o , 2 .

H am i t o n , l 276 , 28 2, 284 . I lat d m 4


so e ro o ,
1.

H an d-c ap su l e, 70 .
Jan de M e u rs, 1 48 .

H an d , st e adin e ss o f, 70 .
Jo y 88 225 228
, , , .

H app in ess, 230 . g


J u d m e n t , 55 ; o f space , 1 5 2 ; se e a so l
H e arin , 1 33 g . Le ast n o t ice a e diffe ren c e , Least bl
H e art , 224 , 227 . bl e c h an ge
n o t ic e a .

H e g l 76
e , 2 , 28 1 . Ju st n o t ice abl e see Le ast n o t ic eabl e , .

H e lmh ltz o , 1 54 , 1 62 , 288 .


Ju st pe ce p t ib le see Le ast n o t ic eabl e
r , .

H b
e r art , 94 , 278 , 284 . Ka n t , 284 .

H e rin g , 1 54 . lg
K e y, t e e rap h , 3 1 , 43 ; re act io n , 43
g
H i h p it c h , 1 33 . l l ’
m u t ip e , 43 ; p isto , 45 ; ru nn e r s , l
g
H i h est t o n e , 1 35 ; de pe n den t on in 45 ; t o u c h , 4
6 ; five - no e d, 51 ; k bb
t e n sit y , 1 38 . v o ice , 53 ; fo o t , 255 ; o rc h est ra

l
H i arit y, 228 . l ’
e ade r s , 259 .

H o l mg re n , 1 75 . Ki n de r art e n , g 76 , 1 54 .

H o p e , 233 . K n o w ed e , l g m e t h o d o f ac q u irin g , 15 ;
H ot, react io n t o , 47 ; ho t an d co ld , t h res h o ds l of,
1 25 .

1 16 . La bo rato rie s , 290 , 293 .

H ot sp o t s, 1 1 7. Lamp an d sp o o n , 1 20 .

H u be r ,
20 . Lan g g ua e, rap idit y in , 64 ; in th e
H u e , 1 56. p ri n t e ry , 65 .

H u m e , 28 5 . Lan t e rn t est , 1 76 .

H u n dre dt h s o f a se c o n d, si g n fo r, 30 . Lat in , rap idit y in t ran s at in , 64 l g .

H un g e r, 21 5 . Lat in t yp e , 50 .

H yp n o t ism , 26 , 1 02 , 265 . b
Law , o f o se rv at io n , 1 5 ; o f att e n t io n ,
I dea , me n o fo n e , 1 0 1 fi xe d , 1 01 .
93 o f c h an g e, 1 08 ; of beau t y ,
I n de x .
30 1

220 : of me m o ry. 24 1 . 242. 244 . 24 5 ; M e n ta l -


t ime , see Re ac t io n -
t im e , Th i nk
blit e rat io n 25 1
o fo ,
in g -t ime .

Least no tice ab l e c ha ge 1 06 n , , 1 20 , 1 43 . M e taph ysical m an ia 1 01 , .

Le ast n o t ic e abl e d ifl e re nc e M iddl e t o n e , 1 45


'

, 1 08 ; in .

p ressu re , 1 08 ; in p it ch , 1 39 ; in M il itary drill , 99, 255 .

l
co o r, 1 70 . M i lt o n 2 1 2 , .

L e ast n o tice a bl e se n sation , see Th resh M in d scie nce o f, 27 ; c h e mist ry


, of
,

o ld. 279»

L e ast n o t ic e able w e ight 1 03 ,


M irro r-t u nin g-fo rk 76 , .

L e ast pe rce p t ibl e se e Least , n o t ic e M n e m o n ics 247 , .

a ble . M o o ds 227 230 , , .

Le ip z i g , 290 . M o o n ill u sio n 1 96 , .

L e tt e rs, rec o g n it io n -t ime , 49, 50 ; fo r M o rt ific at io n , 230 .

l
co o rs , 1 56 . M o u t h-k e y, se e V o ice -k e y .

g
Li ht , rea ct io n to , 48 . M o ve me n t ste adin ess o f 71
, , ; me mo ry
L ik e an d dis i lk e, 96, 2 1 4. fo r, 240 ; su gg est io n , 270 .

ll
Lip i u sio n , 1 1 3 . M o z art 245 , .

Liv e r, 225 . M u lt ip le k e y, 43 .

lz
Lo ca i at io n , 224 . M u lt ip l icatio n -t ime , 54 .

L o cat io n o fso u n ds, 1 5 2 . M u sc l e sense 8 1 , .

L k 8 85
oc e , 2 2, 2 . M u sc l e s in fl u e nce d b y fee lin g
, and
L gi al m ti
o c e o o ns , 235 . e mo t io n , 225 , 227 .

L gi al j dgm
o c u e nt, 5 . M u sc u l ar act iv it y 2 1 5 , .

L f m ll
o ss o s e , 1 28 . M u sc u l ar t ime 55 58 , , .

Lo v e , 224 . M u sic e rro r in S imu l t an e it y


, , 32 ; in fl u
Lo w p itc h , 1 33 . e n ce o n po w e r, 85 n o tat io n f
o r,
Lo w est to n e , 1 34 . 1 50 .

Lu bbo c k , 20 . M usical l
sca e , 1 34 .

Lu st e r, 21 2 . M usk ,

Lysik rates, 96 . Name s fo r o do rs 1 23 ; fo r taste s , , 1 27 .

g ’
M a ic ian s t rain in , 22, 23 g . Nat u re b righ tes t co l o rs in 1 60
, , .

g
M a n esium o x ide , 1 59 .
Natu re s co l o rs 21 8

, .

M ap o fh o t an d c o d spo ts, 1 1 7 l .
Natu re s sp e c t ru m 1 6 1

, .

M ario t t e , 1 83 .
N e w H av e n m e asu re m en t s, s e e S ch oo l
k T
M ar e r, se e ime -mar e r k .
c hi dre n l .

k g
M ar in t im e , 255 .
N e w p syc h o lo gy, 28 2 .

g l
M at chin co o rs , 1 63 . N e wt o n , 1 63 .

l
Mate ria ism , 276 , 280 .
N o -E ye s , 15 .

Math e matics in p syc h o o y, 285 lg .


No ise , re act io n t o , 44 ; in flu e n ce on

M au ds e y, 292 l . p o w e r, 87 ; an d to n e , 1 33 .

M axw e , 1 54, 1 63 ll . N ll
o se i u sio n , 1 13 .

M e asu re me n t o f t ime , 28 . No tatio fo r p it ch an d du rat io n ,


n, 1 48 ;
M e lan ch o l y 228 , .
fo r in t e n sity , 1 50 .

M o ry 25 239 ; c ro ss 242
e m ,

, , .
Obl it e rat io n , m e mo ry, 25 1
law o fin .

M e mo ry an d e mo t io n 23 1 , . Ob se rv at io n , 1 5 ; co n t rast e d w it h e x

M en o fo n e ide a, 1 01 . p e rim en t , 25 , 283 ; fu n dam en t a l


M e n t al act ivit y, in flu en ce o n tapp in g ,
law of, 15 .

35 Od o rs , g ro u p s o f
, 1 24 ; a t e rn at io n o l f,
l
M en ta ph ysio l gy
o , 280 .
1 27 .
30 2 I n de x .

Olfa c t o m et e r, 1 24 . P i mat i p t
rs c s e c ru m , 1 6 1 .

O n e-c o l or p e rso n s, 1 75 . P f adi g


-
ro o re n , e rro r in , 17 .

Oag
r n e, 1 61 . P p t i al ity
ro or on o fdif
fe ren ces, 1 10 .

O h t a l ad 59
rc es r e e r, 2 . P y h i al a
s c c res e rc h , 26 .

Pai t P igm t
n s , se e en s . P y h l gy 76
s c o o , 2 , 282 .

Pa adi L t
r se os ,
21 2 . P g il i t 5 9
u s , .

Pa all l l i ill i 9
r e n e s, us o n , 1 0 . P l u se , 22
3 4 , 22 , 225 .

Pa g f ta 7
ssa e o s r, 2 2 . Pu n , 248 .

Pa sis o n s , 22
7 . P zzl 98 49
u e, ,
2 .

P il p im t g ip 73
en c ex er en s o n r , .
! kua l -bl i d
e rs, c o o r n n ess, 1 78 .

P fm
er u 4 e s, 1 2 . ! al itat i
u xp im t ve e er e n s , 25 .

P im t 8
er e e r, 1 1 .
! al it t i
u i a 4 v e sc e n c es , 1 .

P al q at i
e rso n 4 7 e u on , 0, 2 2 .
! u an t itat iv e e x p e rim e n t s, 26 .

P l p id 97
e rso n a r e, .
! u ic k b o se rv at io n , 22, 23 .

Phil p h y 9
o so , 2 2. Rag 23 e , 0.

Ph y i als c i 84 e x e rc se , . Rail ro ads an d co lo r-bl in dn e ss 1 76 , .

Ph y i al p im t 6
s c ex er e n s, 2 . Rain bo w co lo rs 1 61 1 69 21 7 , , , .

Ph y i f l igh t 53 8
s cs o , 1 , 2 2 . Rale igh e rro r o f t h e se nse s 21
, , .

P h y i l gy f m i d 79 9
s o o o n , 2 , 2 0 . Rap idit y in o b s e r v a t i o n 23 ;
. in
P ia p l y im lta ity i 3
no- a e r, S u ne n, 1 . tho u gh t an d act io n , 62, 63 ; in
P ia p layi g 3 6
no - n , 1 , 2 1 . e mo t io n , 235 .

Pigm t 57 64 67 ; f dam
e n s, 1 , 1 , 1 un l Rat
e n ta e o f c h an g e , 1 07, 1 20 , 1 43 .

1 69 . React io n in raci g 45 n , .

Pil t 76
o ,
1 . Re act io n -k e y 43 , .

P i t l k y 45
s o - e , . React io n-ro o m 41 , .

Pit h 33 ; a g
c , 1 r n e of
, 1 34 n o tat io n , Re act io t im e 38 99 n- , , .

1 48 infl u e n c e on po w e r, 1 86 . Re act io n to so u n d 44 ; , t o t o u c h , 46
Pit h p ip 4
c - e, 1 1 . to co ld
47 ; t o h o t , 47 ; t o i h t ,
, lg
Plat 76 o , 2 . 48 ; de p e n den c e o n ag e , 48 ; p h o
Pl ta o onG km i ree u s c, 85 .

t o g rap h e r s ap p icat io n , 48 l .

P m t i h 53
ne u a c s oe , 2 . Readin g 5 64 ; bl in d spo t 1 85
, 0, -
, .

P i t f ga d 8
o n o re r , 1 0 , 1 85 . Re co gn itio n t h resh o ld o f 1 26 , , .

P d fl d a d p
oun o ea n o und o ff
e at h e rs, Re co g it io n-t im e 49
n , .

269 . Re co rdi g dru m se e D ru m


n , .

P o w e r, 79 ; acc u rac y, 80 ; g reat est , 83 ; Rec tangl e 222 ,


.

dep e n de n c e o n m e n t a l c o n di t io n , Re d, 1 61 .

83 ; l
re at io n to p h ys ica l e x e rc ise , bl
Re d- in dn es s, 1 74 , 1 82 .

84 ; in flu e n ce of m u sic , 85 ; in fl u Re gard p o in t o f 1 80 1 85
, , , .

e n ce of p it c h , 86 ; in fl u e n ce o f Re id 285 , .

n o ise s , 87 ; in flu e n c e o f c o o rs , l 87 Re l ie f 205 , .

in fl u e n ce s o f sme ll , 88 ; m e m o ry Re l ig io u s e mo t io n s 234 , .

fo r, 242 . Re p u gn an ce 230 , .

P a ti
r c ce , in fl u e n ce o n st e adin e ss, 73 Re p u lsio 229 n, .

on p o w e r, 83 . Re v ise d mate rial ism 280 , .

P j re u dic e , 76 .
Rh ym e 248 , .

P re ssu re an d t e mp e rat u re , 1 21 . Rh yt h m 233 256 , , .

P id p
r e, e rso n a l , 97 . Rh yt h m ic act io n 253 , .

Pim 6
rs , 1 1 . Ridic u l o u sn ess 248 , .

Pim t
rs s e reo sc o p e , 20 1 . Ro be rt H o u din -
,
I n de x .
3 3
0

Ro o m iso late d 41 react io n


, , , 41 . S p e c t ru m , 1 60 ; o f fl o w e rs , 1 62 .

Ro u ghn ess 1 1 4 , . Sp l
e c t ru m c o o rs , 1 6 1 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 .

R u n r s k e y 45
n

e , . S pe ct ru m g at i g r n , 1 60 .

R u n n e r s re act ion -t ime 45



Sp t , . e c ru m li 6 n e s, 1 2.

Run n e r s su ggest io n 271



S p lat i 8 83 84 85 9 , . ec u on, 2 1 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 0 .

S at i fa ti s 3 c o n , 2 2. Sp i it al i m 76 r u s , 2 .

S al i m i
c e 34n S p t ma t di
us c, 1 f 69. or s n , s ea n ess o , .

S h ll i g 84
c e n , 2 Sp t h t. l d 7 b l i d 83 o , o , co , 11 n , 1 .

S h l h il d
c oo tap p i g 36 ; f
c at ig Sp i g
re n , al dy am m t 79 n , ue, rn -sc e n o e e r, .

36 ; a ti t im re48 ; t im f di
c Sq z 8 86
on- e, e o s u ee e, 0, .

imi ati
cr a d h i n6 m l S ta da d w h it 59
on n c o ce , 1 u sc e n r e, 1 .

8 h a i g f 4
se n se , l S ta da d f l 6
1 e rn o , 1 2 co o r n r so c o o r, 1 1.

it i
se ns 7 gg t i 67 S ta di g t adi
v en ess , 1 i 7 1 su es on, 2 . n n , s e n ess n, 0.

S i a d
c e n ce i it y 98 n S ta pa ag
cu r os f4 7 , . r, ss e o , 0 , 2 2.

S i

l 8
c e n ce s c o o rs, 21 S tati t i a dm a m t 4 . s cs n e su re en , 1 .

S i t ifi p
c en it i fl c q i k S tati t i
u rsu m m y 45
s, n u en c e o n u c s cs o n e or , 2 .

n es s, 58 . S t eadin ess , 67 ; o f th e arm, 68 ; of a

S ee in g l co o r, 1 53 ; w it h o n e e ye , 1 80 spo rtsman , 69 ; in st an din g , 70 ; o f


w it h t w o e yes , 1 99 . t he h an d, 70 ; o f t h e t o n g ue , 70 ;
S ensat io n , t h resh o ld of,
1 25 . l
re at io n to w i ll , 71 in m o v e me n t s ,
S ex , se e S cho o l hild
c ren . 71in draw in , 71 g i n fl u e n ce o f
S h ade , 1 56. p rac t ice , 73 ; gau e fo r, 74 ; e du ca g
S h ado w s, i ll u sio n , 1 98 . t io n o f, 75 ; c ro ss-e du cat io n , 75 in
S hap e o f t h e sk y, 1 96 . g g
sin i n , 76 ; o fp o in t o fre ard, 1 80 g .

S h o e , 253 , 255 . S teamsh ip , 1 77 .

g
S i h t , disc ri min at io n-
t im e , 5 1 . S t e reo sco p e , 20 1 .

g
S i m a, 30 . S to p-w at c h , 38 , 256 .

l
S im u tan eo us act s, 31 . g l
S t rai h t in e , draw in g , 71 .

g g
S in in , accu rac y o f, 76 ; in t e rva s , 78 l . S t re n gth a nd wi ll , 84 .

z
S i e an d distan c e , 1 95 ; an d su gg es b in o c u lar 21 0
S t rife , , .

t io n , 266 . S t ro nge st possible e ffo rt , 82 ; dep e n d


S ki n-sp ace , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 . en c e o n me n ta l co n dit ion , e flec t o f
'

S ky , sh ap e o f, 1 96 .
p ract ice , 83 .

S m ll 3 e , 12 . S u ccess , 237 .

S m ll i fl
e , n u enc e o n p o w e r, 88 . Sugg est i i it y , 271 bl .

S m ll m a
e - e su re r, 1 24 . S gg
u e st io n , 1 0 1 , 264 .

S m ll e 4 e r, 1 2 . S gg
u est io n b l o c ks , 266 .

Sm k dd mo e ru , see D ru m . S u rp rise , 99, 233 .

S mo o t h n ess , 1 1 4. S ymm e t ric a m e mo ry, 242 l .

S n app e r so u n de r, 1 52 . S ym m e t ry , 220 .

S o rro w , 225 , 227 . S yst e m o fco l o rs , 1 56 ; o fp syc h o o l gy , 276 .

S o rt in g l co o rs, 1 55 . T app i g n ,
at i
34 ; f g
in , 34 ; in u e n c e
ue fl
S o u n d, re ac t io n t o , 44 ; se e H earin g . of m e n ta l act iv ity, 35 ; in fl u e n c e
S o u n de r, sn ap pe r, 1 5 2. o ft ime , 35 ; in fl u e n ce o f ag e , 36
S p ace , t o u ch , 1 10 ; au dit o ry, 1 52 p ro du ce s se n sat io n s o f h o t an d

v isu a l , 1 80 , 1 85 , 1 86 . l
co d, 1 1 9 .

S p an an d su gg est io n , 269 . Ta t s e, 1 27 ; an d t o u c h , 1 31 , 21 6 ; an d
S pa k r -co il,
3 1 , 5 1 , 55 , 256 . t e mpe rat u re , 1 3 2 , 21 6 ; an d f
e e lin g ,

l
S pe c t ra -c u rve , 1 66 . 21 6 .
3 4
0 I n de x .

T e ar- gl a n ds, 225 . T h-k y 46


o uc e , .

T e diu m , 236. T h-w ight 3


o uc e s, 1 0 .

T e e l g ap h k y 3
r e , 1. T a lat i t im f 54
r ns on, e o , .

T e e l g aph ap idity
r e r, r o f, 65 . T i gf k
un n F k -o r
, see or .

T e e l p h 43 53 46o ne , , , 1 . Tw t y q t i
en 7 u es o n s, 1 .

T l p 4 7
e esco e, 0 , 2 2. Tw - l o co o r
p 74 e rso n s, 1 .

T e mp e rat u re , se e H o t, Co ld . Typ 5 e. 0.

T e mp e rat u re an d p res su re , 1 21 an d Ugl y 4 ,


21 , 222 .

tast e , 21 6 . Uly 8
sse s, 0.

T e rro r, 22
4 34 , 2 . U tai ty a ag 4
n ce r n , ve r e, 2 1.

T t 5
e s s, 2 . U i addit i
n co n sc o u s 7 o n s, 1 .

Th i k i g-tim 49 ;
n n e, dec rease d b y c ivi U d di p a it y
n c ro sse 5 s r , 20 .

liz at io n , 62 . U ai
ne s n ess , 2
34 .

T hi t rs , 21 5 . U t tw t h i
n rus ft h or n ess o e senses , 21 .

T h gh tou , t ime of
, 49 ; e mo t io n , 226 , Vi l t 6
o e , 1 2.

235 . Vi i di t i t a d i di ti t
s on , s nc n n s nc , 1 80

Th ght-t a f
ou r n s e re n c e , 26. f ld f 8 ; bi
ie la 99
o , 1 0 nocu r, 1 .

Th - l pree c o o r e rso n s , 1 73 . V i -k y 53
o ce e , .

T h h ld 3
res o , 10 , 1 24 , 1 25 , 1 27, 1 29, 1 30 , V l ta y W ill
o un r , se e .

1 46, 1 47 ; o fspace , 1 1 0. Walk i g 53 n , 2 .

Th res ho d l of c h an g e, see Le ast Wa mth hall i at i


r , f 66 uc n on o , 2 .

n o t icea bl e c h an ge. Watch 38 52 1 47 , , , .

Th resho ld o f dif
fe re n c e , see Le ast Watch ing 232 ; se e Obse rvatio n
, .

n o t icea bl e diffe re n ce . Wavy p ressu re 1 05 , .

T i kl
c e , 1 04 . Wearin ess 230 , .

T im a e n d ac t io n , 27. We be r 287 , .

Time mark e r, 28 . We be r s co mpass 1 1 1



, .

Time-me mo ry, 25 1 , 263 . W e be r s law 1 9



, 0 .

Time o fact io n , 28 . We igh ts 8 1 1 03 1 08 , , , .

Tim e o fday, in fl u en ce o n tapp in , 35 g . Whe e l fo rco lo rs 1 54


, , .

Time o fre act ion , se e R ea ct io n -t im e . Wh ist l e fo r h igh est to n e 1 35


, , .

Time o f t ho u h t , se e hin in -t im e g T k g . Wh it e 1 59 21 6
, , .

Tim e o f w i , 2 8 ll . W ill an d t ime o f actio n 28 ;


, , an d
Tim e , v a u e o f, 6 1 l . steadin ess, 71 an d po w e r, 79 ;
Ti t n , 1 56 . can n o t be p h ysic a y m e asu re d, 8 1 ; ll
T bao cco , 88 . an d st ren gt h , 84 .

T o ne , re ac t io n 44 ; accu rac y in to , Wo lfl 284 '

, .

g g
sin in , 76 ; an d no ise , 1 33 ; n o t a Wo me n as o bse rve rs 23 , .

t io n , 1 36 , 1 5 0 ; u d m en t , 1 43 j g . Wo n de r 99 233 , , .

T o n es , 1 33 ; l o w est , 1 34 g
; h i h est , 1 35 ; Wo rds reco gn it io n-t ime 49
, , .

l g
fee in , 223 ; m e mo ry fo r, 244 . Wo rld se e n w ith o n e e ye 1 80 ;
, , w it h
T on e s, disc rim in at io n -t ime , 5 1 . two e ye s, 1 99 ; in t h re e diffe re n t
To n e t est e r, 1 4 1 . w ays, 1 99 .

T g on u e , st e adin ess o f
, 70 . Wo rsted t est 1 75 , .

T g on u e-c ap su e , l 70 . Writ ing 24 1 , .

T thoo , est im at e o f sp ac e , 1 1 4. Wu n dt 1 8 226 276, , , , 289.

To p , fo r co l o rs , 1 54. Yal e 55 294


, , .

T o u ch , ; an d t e mpe rat u re ,
1 03 1 21 Y e ll o w 1 61 , .

an d taste , 1 31 , 2 1 6 .

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