345-kV SF6 circuit breaker

installation at Goshen
Substation, Idaho Falls,
Idaho, USA. This circuit
breaker has a continuous
current rating of 2,000A
and an interrupting
current rating of 40 kA
(Courtesy of PacifiCorp)

7
SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

S hort circuits occur in power systems when equipment insulation fails due
to system overvoltages caused by lightning or switching surges, to insulation
contamination (salt spray or pollution), or to other mechanical causes. The
resulting short circuit or ‘‘fault’’ current is determined by the internal volt-
ages of the synchronous machines and by the system impedances between
the machine voltages and the fault. Short-circuit currents may be several
orders of magnitude larger than normal operating currents and, if allowed to
persist, may cause thermal damage to equipment. Windings and busbars may
also su¤er mechanical damage due to high magnetic forces during faults. It is
therefore necessary to remove faulted sections of a power system from service
as soon as possible. Standard EHV protective equipment is designed to clear
faults within 3 cycles (50 ms at 60 Hz). Lower voltage protective equipment
operates more slowly (for example, 5 to 20 cycles).

379
380 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

We begin this chapter by reviewing series R–L circuit transients in Section 7.1,
followed in Section 7.2 by a description of three-phase short-circuit currents
at unloaded synchronous machines. We analyze both the ac component, in-
cluding subtransient, transient, and steady-state currents, and the dc compo-
nent of fault current. We then extend these results in Sections 7.3 and 7.4 to
power system three-phase short circuits by means of the superposition princi-
ple. We observe that the bus impedance matrix is the key to calculating fault
currents. The SHORT CIRCUITS computer program that accompanies this
text may be utilized in power system design to select, set, and coordinate
protective equipment such as circuit breakers, fuses, relays, and instrument
transformers. We discuss circuit breaker and fuse selection in Section 7.5.
Balanced three-phase power systems are assumed throughout this chap-
ter. We also work in per-unit.

CASE S T U DY Short circuits can cause severe damage when not interrupted promptly. In some cases,
high-impedance fault currents may be insufficient to operate protective relays or blow
fuses. Standard overcurrent protection schemes utilized on secondary distribution at
some industrial, commercial, and large residential buildings may not detect high-
impedance faults, commonly called arcing faults. In these cases, more careful design
techniques, such as the use of ground fault circuit interruption, are required to detect
arcing faults and prevent burndown. The following case histories [11] give examples of
the destructive effects of arcing faults.

The Problem of Arcing Faults in Low-

Voltage Power Distribution Systems
FRANCIS J. SHIELDS

ABSTRACT the reported incidents have involved both indus-

trial and commercial building distribution equipment,
Many cases of electrical equipment burndown
without regard to manufacturer, geographical loca-
arising from low-level arcing-fault currents have
tion, or operating environment.
occurred in recent years in low-voltage power dis-
tribution systems. Burndown, which is the severe
BURNDOWN CASE HISTORIES
damage or complete destruction of conductors, in-
sulation systems, and metallic enclosures, is caused The reported incidents of equipment burndown are
by the concentrated release of energy in the fault many. One of the most publicized episodes involved
arc. Both grounded and ungrounded electrical dis- a huge apartment building complex in New York
tribution systems have experienced burndown, and City (Fig. 1), in which two main 480Y/277-volt
switchboards were completely destroyed, and two
(‘‘The Problem of Arcing Faults in Low-Voltage Power 5000-ampere service entrance buses were burned-
Distribution Systems,’’ Francis J. Shields. > 1967 IEEE. off right back to the utility vault. This arcing fault
Reprinted, with permission, from IEEE Transactions on blazed and sputtered for over an hour, and in-
Industry and General Applications, Vol. 1GA-3, No. 1, convenienced some 10,000 residents of the devel-
Jan/Feb. 1967, pg. 16–17) opment through loss of service to building water
 CASE STUDY 381

Figure 2
Service entrance switch and current-limiting fuses
completely destroyed by arcing fault in main low-voltage
switchboard

Figure 1
Burndown damage caused by arcing fault. View shows
low-voltage cable compartments of secondary unit
substation

pumps, hall and stair lighting, elevators, appliances,

and apartment lights. Several days elapsed before
service resembling normal was restored through
temporary hookups. Illustrations of equipment dam-
age in this burndown are shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
Another example of burndown occurred in the
Midwest, and resulted in completely gutting a ser-
vice entrance switchboard and burning up two
1000-kVA supply transformers. This burndown arc Figure 3
current flowed for about 15 minutes. Fused feeder switch consumed by arcing fault in high-rise
In still other reported incidents, a Maryland manu- apartment main switchboard. No intermediate
segregating barriers had been used in construction
facturer experienced four separate burndowns of
secondary unit substations in a little over a year; on
the West Coast a unit substation at an industrial Fig. 4. The arcing associated with this fault con-
process plant burned for more than eight minutes, tinued for over 20 minutes, and the fault was finally
resulting in destruction of the low-voltage switch- extinguished only when the relays on the primary
gear equipment; and this year [1966] several burn- system shut down the whole plant.
downs have occurred in government office buildings The electrical equipment destruction shown in
at scattered locations throughout the country. the sample photographs is quite startling, but it
An example of the involvement of the latter type is only one aspect of this type of fault. Other less
of equipment in arcing-fault burndowns is shown in graphic but no less serious effects of electrical
382 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

equipment burndown may include personnel fatal-

ities or serious injury, contingent fire damage, loss
of vital services (lighting, elevators, ventilation, fire
pumps, etc.), shutdown of critical loads, and loss
of product revenue. It should be pointed out that
the cases reported have involved both industrial
and commercial building distribution equipment,
without regard to manufacturer, geographical loca-
tion, operating environment, or the presence or
absence of electrical system neutral grounding.
Also, the reported burndowns have included a va-
riety of distribution equipment—load center unit
substations, switchboards, busway, panelboards,
service-entrance equipment, motor control cen-
ters, and cable in conduit, for example.
It is obvious, therefore, when all the possible ef-
fects of arcing-fault burndowns are taken into con-
sideration, that engineers responsible for electrical
power system layout and operation should be anx-
ious both to minimize the probability of arcing faults
Figure 4 in electrical systems and to alleviate or mitigate the
Remains of main secondary circuit breaker burned down
during arcing fault in low-voltage switchgear section of destructive effects of such faults if they should in-
unit substation advertently occur despite careful design and the use
of quality equipment.

7.1
SERIES R–L CIRCUIT TRANSIENTS

Consider the series R–L circuit shown in Figure 7.1. The closing of switch
SW at t ¼ 0 represents to a first approximation a three-phase short circuit at
the terminals of an unloaded synchronous machine. For simplicity, assume
zero fault impedance; that is, the short circuit is a solid or ‘‘bolted’’ fault. The
current is assumed to be zero before SW closes, and the source angle a de-
termines the source voltage at t ¼ 0. Writing a KVL equation for the circuit,
LdiðtÞ pffiffiffi
þ RiðtÞ ¼ 2V sinðot þ aÞ td0 ð7:1:1Þ
dt
The solution to (7.1.1) is
iðtÞ ¼ iac ðtÞ þ idc ðtÞ
pffiffiffi
2V
¼ ½sinðot þ a  yÞ  sinða  yÞet=T  A ð7:1:2Þ
Z
 SECTION 7.1 SERIES R–L CIRCUIT TRANSIENTS 383

FIGURE 7.1
Current in a series R–L
circuit with ac voltage
source

where
pffiffiffi
2V
iac ðtÞ ¼ sinðot þ a  yÞ A ð7:1:3Þ
Z
pffiffiffi
2V
idc ðtÞ ¼  sinða  yÞet=T A ð7:1:4Þ
Z
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Z ¼ R2 þ ðoLÞ 2 ¼ R2 þ X 2 W ð7:1:5Þ
oL X
y ¼ tan1
¼ tan1 ð7:1:6Þ
R R
L X X
T¼ ¼ ¼ s ð7:1:7Þ
R oR 2pf R

The total fault current in (7.1.2), called the asymmetrical fault current, is
plotted in Figure 7.1 along with its two components. The ac fault current
(also called symmetrical or steady-state fault current), given by (7.1.3), is a
sinusoid. The dc o¤set current, given by (7.1.4), decays exponentially with
time constant T ¼ L=R.
The rms ac fault current is Iac ¼ V=Z. The magnitude
pffiffiffi of the dc o¤set,
which depends on a, varies from 0 when a ¼ y to 2Iac when a ¼ ðy G p=2Þ.
Note that a short circuit may occur at any instant during a cycle of the ac
source; that is, a can have any value. Since we are primarily interested in the
largest fault current, we choose a ¼ ðy  p=2Þ. Then (7.1.2) becomes
pffiffiffi
iðtÞ ¼ 2Iac ½sinðot  p=2Þ þ et=T  A ð7:1:8Þ
384 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

TABLE 7.1 Instantaneous Current rms Current

Component (A) (A)
Short-circuit current—
pffiffiffi
series R–L circuit* 2V V
Symmetrical (ac) iac ðtÞ ¼ sinðot þ a  yÞ Iac ¼
Z Z
pffiffiffi
 2V
dc o¤set idc ðtÞ ¼ sinða  yÞet=T
Z qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Asymmetrical (total) iðtÞ ¼ iac ðtÞ þ idc ðtÞ Irms ðtÞ ¼ Iac 2
þ idc ðtÞ 2
with maximum dc o¤set:
Irms ðtÞ ¼ KðtÞIac

* See Figure 7.1 and (7.1.1)–(7.1.12).

where
V
Iac ¼ A ð7:1:9Þ
Z
The rms value of iðtÞ is of interest. Since iðtÞ in (7.1.8) is not strictly periodic,
its rms value is not strictly defined. However, treating the exponential term as
a constant, we stretch the rms concept to calculate the rms asymmetrical fault
current with maximum dc o¤set, as follows:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Irms ðtÞ ¼ ½Iac  2 þ ½Idc ðtÞ 2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi ffi
¼ ½Iac  2 þ ½ 2Iac et=T  2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ Iac 1 þ 2e2t=T A ð7:1:10Þ
It is convenient to use T ¼ X=ð2pf RÞ and t ¼ t=f , where t is time in cycles,
and write (7.1.10) as
Irms ðtÞ ¼ KðtÞIac A ð7:1:11Þ
where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
KðtÞ ¼ 1 þ 2e4pt=ðX=RÞ per unit ð7:1:12Þ
From (7.1.11) and (7.1.12), the rms asymmetrical fault current equals the rms
acffiffiffi fault current times an ‘‘asymmetry factor,’’ KðtÞ. Irms ðtÞ decreases from
p
3Iac when t ¼ 0 to Iac when t is large. Also, higher X to R ratios ðX=RÞ
give higher values of Irms ðtÞ. The above series R–L short-circuit currents are
summarized in Table 7.1.

EXAMPLE 7.1 Fault currents: R–L circuit with ac source

A bolted short circuit occurs in the series R–L circuit of Figure 7.1 with
V ¼ 20 kV, X ¼ 8 W, R ¼ 0:8 W, and with maximum dc o¤set. The circuit
breaker opens 3 cycles after fault inception. Determine (a) the rms ac fault
current, (b) the rms ‘‘momentary’’ current at t ¼ 0:5 cycle, which passes
 SECTION 7.2 THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT—UNLOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 385

through the breaker before it opens, and (c) the rms asymmetrical fault cur-
rent that the breaker interrupts.

SOLUTION
a. From (7.1.9),

20  10 3 20  10 3
Iac ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼ 2:488 kA
8:040
ð8Þ 2 þ ð0:8Þ 2

b. From (7.1.11) and (7.1.12) with ðX=RÞ ¼ 8=ð0:8Þ ¼ 10 and t ¼ 0:5 cycle,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Kð0:5 cycleÞ ¼ 1 þ 2e4pð0:5Þ=10 ¼ 1:438
Imomentary ¼ Kð0:5 cycleÞIac ¼ ð1:438Þð2:488Þ ¼ 3:576 kA
c. From (7.1.11) and (7.1.12) with ðX=RÞ ¼ 10 and t ¼ 3 cycles,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Kð3 cyclesÞ ¼ 1 þ 2e4pð3Þ=10 ¼ 1:023
Irms ð3 cyclesÞ ¼ ð1:023Þð2:488Þ ¼ 2:544 kA 9

7.2
THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT—UNLOADED
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

One way to investigate a three-phase short circuit at the terminals of a

synchronous machine is to perform a test on an actual machine. Figure 7.2
shows an oscillogram of the ac fault current in one phase of an unloaded
synchronous machine during such a test. The dc o¤set has been removed

FIGURE 7.2
The ac fault current
in one phase of an
unloaded synchronous
machine during a three-
phase short circuit (the
dc o¤set current is
removed)
386 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

from the oscillogram. As shown, the amplitude of the sinusoidal waveform

decreases from a high initial value to a lower steady-state value.
A physical explanation for this phenomenon is that the magnetic flux
caused by the short-circuit armature currents (or by the resultant armature
MMF) is initially forced to flow through high reluctance paths that do not
link the field winding or damper circuits of the machine. This is a result of
the theorem of constant flux linkages, which states that the flux linking a
closed winding cannot change instantaneously. The armature inductance,
which is inversely proportional to reluctance, is therefore initially low. As the
flux then moves toward the lower reluctance paths, the armature inductance
increases.
The ac fault current in a synchronous machine can be modeled by the
series R–L circuit of Figure 7.1 if a time-varying inductance LðtÞ or reactance
XðtÞ ¼ oLðtÞ is employed. In standard machine theory texts [3, 4], the fol-
lowing reactances are defined:
Xd00 ¼ direct axis subtransient reactance
Xd0 ¼ direct axis transient reactance
Xd ¼ direct axis synchronous reactance
where Xd00 < Xd0 < Xd . The subscript d refers to the direct axis. There are
similar quadrature axis reactances Xq00 ; Xq0 , and Xq [3, 4]. However, if the ar-
mature resistance is small, the quadrature axis reactances do not significantly
a¤ect the short-circuit current. Using the above direct axis reactances, the in-
stantaneous ac fault current can be written as
 
pffiffiffi 1 1 t=Td00
iac ðtÞ ¼ 2Eg 00  0 e
Xd Xd
    
1 1 t=Td0 1 p
þ  e þ sin ot þ a  ð7:2:1Þ
Xd0 Xd Xd 2
where Eg is the rms line-to-neutral prefault terminal voltage of the unloaded
synchronous machine. Armature resistance is neglected in (7.2.1). Note that
at t ¼ 0, when the fault occurs, the rms value of iac ðtÞ in (7.2.1) is
Eg
Iac ð0Þ ¼ ¼ I 00 ð7:2:2Þ
Xd00
which is called the rms subtransient fault current, I 00 . The duration of I 00 is
determined by the time constant Td00 , called the direct axis short-circuit sub-
transient time constant.
At a later time, when t is large compared to Td00 but small compared to
the direct axis short-circuit transient time constant Td0 , the first exponential
term in (7.2.1) has decayed almost to zero, but the second exponential has
not decayed significantly. The rms ac fault current then equals the rms tran-
sient fault current, given by
Eg
I0 ¼ ð7:2:3Þ
Xd0
 SECTION 7.2 THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT—UNLOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE 387

TABLE 7.2 Instantaneous Current rms Current

Component (A) (A)
Short-circuit current—
unloaded synchronous  
1 1 t=Td00
machine* Symmetrical (ac) (7.2.1) Iac ðtÞ ¼ Eg 00  0 e
Xd Xd
  
1 1 t=Td0 1
þ  e þ
Xd0 Xd Xd
Subtransient I 00 ¼ Eg =Xd00
Transient I 0 ¼ Eg =Xd0
Steady-state pffiffiffi I ¼ Eg =Xd
Maximum dc o¤set idc ðtÞ ¼ 2I 00 et=TA qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Asymmetrical (total) iðtÞ ¼ iac ðtÞ þ idc ðtÞ Irms ðtÞ ¼ Iac ðtÞ 2 þ idc ðtÞ 2
with maximum dc o¤set:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
pffiffiffi
Irms ðtÞ ¼ Iac ðtÞ þ ½ 2I 00 et=TA  2
2

* See Figure 7.2 and (7.2.1)–(7.2.5).

When t is much larger than Td0 , the rms ac fault current approaches its
steady-state value, given by
Eg
Iac ðyÞ ¼ ¼I ð7:2:4Þ
Xd
Since the three-phase no-load voltages are displaced 120 from each
other, the three-phase ac fault currents are also displaced 120 from each
other. In addition to the ac fault current, each phase has a di¤erent dc o¤set.
The maximum dc o¤set in any one phase, which occurs when a ¼ 0 in (7.2.1),
is
pffiffiffi
2Eg t=TA pffiffiffi 00 t=TA
idcmax ðtÞ ¼ e ¼ 2I e ð7:2:5Þ
Xd00
where TA is called the armature time constant. Note that the magnitude of
the maximum dc o¤set depends only on the rms subtransient fault current I 00 .
The above synchronous machine short-circuit currents are summarized in
Table 7.2.
Machine reactances Xd00 ; Xd0 , and Xd as well as time constants Td00 ; Td0 ,
and TA are usually provided by synchronous machine manufacturers. They
can also be obtained from a three-phase short-circuit test, by analyzing an
oscillogram such as that in Figure 7.2 [2]. Typical values of synchronous ma-
chine reactances and time constants are given in Appendix Table A.1.

EXAMPLE 7.2 Three-phase short-circuit currents, unloaded synchronous generator

A 500-MVA 20-kV, 60-Hz synchronous generator with reactances Xd00 ¼ 0:15,

Xd0 ¼ 0:24; Xd ¼ 1:1 per unit and time constants Td00 ¼ 0:035, Td0 ¼ 2:0,
TA ¼ 0:20 s is connected to a circuit breaker. The generator is operating at
5% above rated voltage and at no-load when a bolted three-phase short cir-
cuit occurs on the load side of the breaker. The breaker interrupts the fault
388 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

3 cycles after fault inception. Determine (a) the subtransient fault current
in per-unit and kA rms; (b) maximum dc o¤set as a function of time; and
(c) rms asymmetrical fault current, which the breaker interrupts, assuming
maximum dc o¤set.

SOLUTION
a. The no-load voltage before the fault occurs is Eg ¼ 1:05 per unit. From
(7.2.2), the subtransient fault current that occurs in each of the three
phases is
1:05
I 00 ¼ ¼ 7:0 per unit
0:15
The generator base current is
Srated 500
I base ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 14:43 kA
3Vrated ð 3Þð20Þ
The rms subtransient fault current in kA is the per-unit value multiplied by
the base current:
I 00 ¼ ð7:0Þð14:43Þ ¼ 101:0 kA
b. From (7.2.5), the maximum dc o¤set that may occur in any one phase is
pffiffiffi
idcmax ðtÞ ¼ 2ð101:0Þet=0:20 ¼ 142:9et=0:20 kA
c. From (7.2.1), the rms ac fault current at t ¼ 3 cycles ¼ 0:05 s is
 
1 1
Iac ð0:05 sÞ ¼ 1:05  e0:05=0:035
0:15 0:24
  
1 1 1
þ  e0:05=2:0 þ
0:24 1:1 1:1
¼ 4:920 per unit
¼ ð4:920Þð14:43Þ ¼ 71:01 kA
Modifying (7.1.10) to account for the time-varying symmetrical compo-
nent of fault current, we obtain
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
Irms ð0:05Þ ¼ ½Iac ð0:05Þ 2 þ ½ 2I 00 et=Ta  2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2
I 00
¼ Iac ð0:05Þ 1 þ 2 e2t=Ta
Iac ð0:05Þ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
101 2 2ð0:05Þ=0:20
¼ ð71:01Þ 1 þ 2 e
71:01
¼ ð71:01Þð1:8585Þ
¼ 132 kA 9
 SECTION 7.3 POWER SYSTEM THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS 389

7.3
POWER SYSTEM THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS

In order to calculate the subtransient fault current for a three-phase short cir-
cuit in a power system, we make the following assumptions:
1. Transformers are represented by their leakage reactances. Winding
resistances, shunt admittances, and D–Y phase shifts are neglected.
2. Transmission lines are represented by their equivalent series react-
ances. Series resistances and shunt admittances are neglected.
3. Synchronous machines are represented by constant-voltage sources
behind subtransient reactances. Armature resistance, saliency, and
saturation are neglected.
4. All nonrotating impedance loads are neglected.
5. Induction motors are either neglected (especially for small motors
rated less than 50 hp (40 kW)) or represented in the same manner as
synchronous machines.
These assumptions are made for simplicity in this text, and in practice they
should not be made for all cases. For example, in distribution systems, re-
sistances of primary and secondary distribution lines may in some cases sig-
nificantly reduce fault current magnitudes.
Figure 7.3 shows a single-line diagram consisting of a synchronous
generator feeding a synchronous motor through two transformers and a
transmission line. We shall consider a three-phase short circuit at bus 1. The
positive-sequence equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 7.4(a), where the
voltages Eg00 and Em00 are the prefault internal voltages behind the subtransient
reactances of the machines, and the closing of switch SW represents the fault.
For purposes of calculating the subtransient fault current, Eg00 and Em00 are
assumed to be constant-voltage sources.
In Figure 7.4(b) the fault is represented by two opposing voltage sources
with equal phasor values VF . Using superposition, the fault current can then
be calculated from the two circuits shown in Figure 7.4(c). However, if VF
equals the prefault voltage at the fault, then the second circuit in Figure 7.4(c)
00
represents the system before the fault occurs. As such, IF2 ¼ 0 and VF ,

FIGURE 7.3
Single-line diagram of a
synchronous generator
feeding a synchronous
motor
390 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

FIGURE 7.4 Application of superposition to a power system three-phase short circuit

which has no e¤ect, can be removed from the second circuit, as shown in
Figure 7.4(d). The subtransient fault current is then determined from the first
circuit in Figure 7.4(d), IF00 ¼ IF1
00
. The contribution to the fault from the gener-
00 00 00 00
ator is Ig ¼ I g1 þ I g2 ¼ I g1 þ IL , where IL is the prefault generator current.
Similarly, I m00 ¼ I m1
00
 IL .

EXAMPLE 7.3 Three-phase short-circuit currents, power system

The synchronous generator in Figure 7.3 is operating at rated MVA, 0.95 p.f.
lagging and at 5% above rated voltage when a bolted three-phase short cir-
cuit occurs at bus 1. Calculate the per-unit values of (a) subtransient fault
current; (b) subtransient generator and motor currents, neglecting prefault
 SECTION 7.3 POWER SYSTEM THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUITS 391

current; and (c) subtransient generator and motor currents including prefault
current.

SOLUTION
a. Using a 100-MVA base, the base impedance in the zone of the transmis-
sion line is

ð138Þ 2
Zbase; line ¼ ¼ 190:44 W
100
and
20
Xline ¼ ¼ 0:1050 per unit
190:44
The per-unit reactances are shown in Figure 7.4. From the first circuit in
Figure 7.4(d), the Thévenin impedance as viewed from the fault is
ð0:15Þð0:505Þ
ZTh ¼ jXTh ¼ j ¼ j0:11565 per unit
ð0:15 þ 0:505Þ

and the prefault voltage at the generator terminals is

VF ¼ 1:05 0 per unit

The subtransient fault current is then

VF 1:05 0
IF00 ¼ ¼ ¼  j9:079 per unit
ZTh j0:11565
b. Using current division in the first circuit of Figure 7.4(d),
 
00 0:505
Ig1 ¼ I 00 ¼ ð0:7710Þð j9:079Þ ¼  j7:000 per unit
0:505 þ 0:15 F
 
00 0:15
Im1 ¼ I 00 ¼ ð0:2290Þð j9:079Þ ¼  j2:079 per unit
0:505 þ 0:15 F

c. The generator base current is

100
Ibase; gen ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 4:1837 kA
ð 3Þð13:8Þ
and the prefault generator current is
100
IL ¼ pffiffiffi cos1 0:95 ¼ 3:9845 18:19 kA
ð 3Þð1:05  13:8Þ
3:9845 18:19
¼ ¼ 0:9524 18:19
4:1837
¼ 0:9048  j0:2974 per unit
392 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

The subtransient generator and motor currents, including prefault current,

are then
Ig00 ¼ Ig1
00
þ IL ¼  j7:000 þ 0:9048  j0:2974
¼ 0:9048  j7:297 ¼ 7:353 82:9 per unit
Im00 ¼ Im1
00
 IL ¼  j2:079  0:9048 þ j0:2974
¼ 0:9048  j1:782 ¼ 1:999 243:1 per unit

An alternate method of solving Example 7.3 is to first calculate the

internal voltages Eg00 and Em00 using the prefault load current IL . Then, instead
of using superposition, the fault currents can be resolved directly from the
circuit in Figure 7.4(a) (see Problem 7.11). However, in a system with many
synchronous machines, the superposition method has the advantage that all
machine voltage sources are shorted, and the prefault voltage is the only
source required to calculate the fault current. Also, when calculating the con-
tributions to fault current from each branch, prefault currents are usually
small, and hence can be neglected. Otherwise, prefault load currents could
be obtained from a power-flow program. 9

7.4
BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX
We now extend the results of the previous section to calculate sub-
transient fault currents for three-phase faults in an N-bus power system.
The system is modeled by its positive-sequence network, where lines and
transformers are represented by series reactances and synchronous ma-
chines are represented by constant-voltage sources behind subtransient re-
actances. As before, all resistances, shunt admittances, and nonrotating
impedance loads are neglected. For simplicity, we also neglect prefault
load currents.
Consider a three-phase short circuit at any bus n. Using the superpo-
sition method described in Section 7.3, we analyze two separate circuits. (For
example, see Figure 7.4d.) In the first circuit, all machine-voltage sources are
short-circuited, and the only source is due to the prefault voltage at the fault.
Writing nodal equations for the first circuit,

Y bus E ð1Þ ¼ I ð1Þ ð7:4:1Þ

ð1Þ
where Y bus is the positive-sequence bus admittance matrix, E is the vector
of bus voltages, and I ð1Þ is the vector of current sources. The superscript (1)
denotes the first circuit. Solving (7.4.1),

Z bus I ð1Þ ¼ E ð1Þ ð7:4:2Þ

 SECTION 7.4 BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX 393

where
Z bus ¼ Y 1
bus ð7:4:3Þ
Z bus , the inverse of Y bus , is called the positive-sequence bus impedance ma-
trix. Both Z bus and Y bus are symmetric matrices.
Since the first circuit contains only one source, located at faulted bus n,
ð1Þ 00
the current source vector contains only one nonzero component, In ¼ IFn .
ð1Þ
Also, the voltage at faulted bus n in the first circuit is En ¼ VF . Rewriting (7.4.2),
2 32 2 3
3 ð1Þ
E1
Z11 Z12    Z1n    Z1N 0
6 7 6 ð1Þ 7
6 Z21 Z22    Z2n    Z2N 76 0 7 6E 7
6 6
76 . 7 6 7 2 7
6 . . 76 . 7 6 7
6 . 76 . 7 6 ... 7 6
7
6 7
6 Zn1 Zn2    Znn    ZnN 76 00 7 ¼ 6 7 ð7:4:4Þ
6 766
IFn 7 6 VF 7
7 6 7
6 . 76 . 7 6
6 . 74 . 5 6 .. 7 7
4 . 5 . 4 . 5
ZN1 ZN2    ZNn    ZNN ð1Þ
0 EN

The minus sign associated with the current source in (7.4.4) indicates that the
00 00
current injected into bus n is the negative of IFn , since IFn flows away from
bus n to the neutral. From (7.4.4), the subtransient fault current is
00 VF
IFn ¼ ð7:4:5Þ
Znn
Also from (7.4.4) and (7.4.5), the voltage at any bus k in the first circuit is
ð1Þ 00 Zkn
Ek ¼ Zkn ðIFn Þ¼ VF ð7:4:6Þ
Znn
The second circuit represents the prefault conditions. Neglecting pre-
fault load current, all voltages throughout the second circuit are equal to the
ð2Þ
prefault voltage; that is, Ek ¼ VF for each bus k. Applying superposition,
ð1Þ ð2Þ Zkn
Ek ¼ Ek þ Ek ¼ VF þ VF
Znn
 
Zkn
¼ 1 VF k ¼ 1; 2; . . . ; N ð7:4:7Þ
Znn

EXAMPLE 7.4 Using Z bus to compute three-phase short-circuit currents

in a power system

Faults at bus 1 and 2 in Figure 7.3 are of interest. The prefault voltage is
1.05 per unit and prefault load current is neglected. (a) Determine the 2  2
positive-sequence bus impedance matrix. (b) For a bolted three-phase short
circuit at bus 1, use Z bus to calculate the subtransient fault current and the
contribution to the fault current from the transmission line. (c) Repeat part (b)
for a bolted three-phase short circuit at bus 2.
394 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

FIGURE 7.5
Circuit of Figure 7.4(a)
showing per-unit
admittance values

SOLUTION
a. The circuit of Figure 7.4(a) is redrawn in Figure 7.5 showing per-unit ad-
mittance rather than per-unit impedance values. Neglecting prefault load
current, Eg00 ¼ Em00 ¼ VF ¼ 1:05 0 per unit. From Figure 7.5, the positive-
sequence bus admittance matrix is
 
9:9454 3:2787
Y bus ¼  j per unit
3:2787 8:2787
Inverting Y bus ,
 
0:11565 0:04580
Z bus ¼ Y 1
bus ¼ þ j per unit
0:04580 0:13893
b. Using (7.4.5) the subtransient fault current at bus 1 is

00 VF 1:05 0
IF1 ¼ ¼ ¼  j9:079 per unit
Z11 j0:11565
which agrees with the result in Example 7.3, part (a). The voltages at buses
1 and 2 during the fault are, from (7.4.7),
 
Z11
E1 ¼ 1  VF ¼ 0
Z11
   
Z21 j0:04580
E2 ¼ 1  VF ¼ 1  1:05 0 ¼ 0:6342 0
Z11 j0:11565
The current to the fault from the transmission line is obtained from
the voltage drop from bus 2 to 1 divided by the impedance of the line and
transformers T1 and T2 :
E 2  E1 0:6342  0
I21 ¼ ¼ ¼  j2:079 per unit
jðXline þ XT1 þ XT2 Þ j0:3050
which agrees with the motor current calculated in Example 7.3, part (b),
where prefault load current is neglected.
 SECTION 7.4 BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX 395

c. Using (7.4.5), the subtransient fault current at bus 2 is

00 VF 1:05 0
IF2 ¼ ¼ ¼  j7:558 per unit
Z22 j0:13893
and from (7.4.7),
   
Z12 j0:04580
E1 ¼ 1  VF ¼ 1  1:05 0 ¼ 0:7039 0
Z22 j0:13893
 
Z22
E2 ¼ 1  VF ¼ 0
Z22
The current to the fault from the transmission line is
E1  E 2 0:7039  0
I12 ¼ ¼ ¼  j2:308 per unit 9
jðXline þ XT1 þ XT2 Þ j0:3050

Figure 7.6 shows a bus impedance equivalent circuit that illustrates the short-
circuit currents in an N-bus system. This circuit is given the name rake equiv-
alent in Neuenswander [5] due to its shape, which is similar to a garden rake.
The diagonal elements Z11 ; Z22 ; . . . ; ZNN of the bus impedance matrix,
which are the self-impedances, are shown in Figure 7.6. The o¤-diagonal ele-
ments, or the mutual impedances, are indicated by the brackets in the figure.
Neglecting prefault load currents, the internal voltage sources of all
synchronous machines are equal both in magnitude and phase. As such, they
can be connected, as shown in Figure 7.7, and replaced by one equivalent
source VF from neutral bus 0 to a references bus, denoted r. This equivalent
source is also shown in the rake equivalent of Figure 7.6.

FIGURE 7.6
Bus impedance
equivalent circuit (rake
equivalent)
396 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

FIGURE 7.7
Parallel connection of
unloaded synchronous
machine internal-voltage
sources

Using Z bus , the fault currents in Figure 7.6 are given by

2 32 3 2 3
Z11 Z12    Z1n    Z1N I1 VF  E1
6 76 7 6 7
6 Z21 Z22    Z2n    Z2N 76 I2 7 6 VF  E 2 7
6 76 7 6 7
6 .. .. 76 .. 7 6 .. 7
6 . . 7 6 . 7 6 . 7
6 76 7 ¼ 6 7 ð7:4:8Þ
6Z Zn2    Znn    ZnN 76 In 7 6 VF  En 7
7 6 7 6
6 n1 7
6 . 76 . 7 6 .. 7
6 . 76 . 7 6 7
4 . 54 . 5 4 . 5
ZN1 ZN2    ZNn    ZNN IN VF  EN
where I1 ; I2 ; . . . are the branch currents and ðVF  E1 Þ; ðVF  E 2 Þ; . . . are the
voltages across the branches.
If switch SW in Figure 7.6 is open, all currents are zero and the voltage
at each bus with respect to the neutral equals VF . This corresponds to pre-
fault conditions, neglecting prefault load currents. If switch SW is closed,
corresponding to a short circuit at bus n, En ¼ 0 and all currents except
00
In remain zero. The fault current is IFn ¼ In ¼ VF =Znn , which agrees with
(7.4.5). This fault current also induces a voltage drop Zkn In ¼ ðZkn =Znn ÞVF
across each branch k. The voltage at bus k with respect to the neutral then
equals VF minus this voltage drop, which agrees with (7.4.7).
As shown by Figure 7.6 as well as (7.4.5), subtransient fault currents
throughout an N-bus system can be determined from the bus impedance
matrix and the prefault voltage. Z bus can be computed by first constructing
Y bus , via nodal equations, and then inverting Y bus . Once Z bus has been ob-
tained, these fault currents are easily computed.

EXAMPLE 7.5

PowerWorld Simulator case Example 7_5 models the 5-bus power system
whose one-line diagram is shown in Figure 6.2. Machine, line, and trans-
former data are given in Tables 7.3, 7.4, and 7.5. This system is initially un-
loaded. Prefault voltages at all the buses are 1.05 per unit. Use PowerWorld
Simulator to determine the fault current for three-phase faults at each of the
buses.
 SECTION 7.4 BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX 397

TABLE 7.3 Machine Subtransient Reactance—Xd00

Bus (per unit)
Synchronous machine
data for 1 0.045
SYMMETRICAL 3 0.0225
SHORT CIRCUITS
program* * S base ¼ 100 MVA
Vbase ¼ 15 kV at buses 1, 3
¼ 345 kV at buses 2, 4, 5

TABLE 7.4 Equivalent Positive-Sequence Series Reactance

Bus-to-Bus (per unit)
Line data for
SYMMETRICAL 2–4 0.1
SHORT CIRCUITS 2–5 0.05
program 4–5 0.025

TABLE 7.5 Leakage Reactance—X

Bus-to-Bus (per unit)
Transformer data for
SYMMETRICAL 1–5 0.02
SHORT CIRCUITS 3–4 0.01
program

SOLUTION To fault a bus from the one-line, first right-click on the bus sym-
bol to display the local menu, and then select ‘‘Fault.’’ This displays the Fault
dialog (see Figure 7.8). The selected bus will be automatically selected as the
fault location. Verify that the Fault Location is ‘‘Bus Fault’’ and the Fault
Type is ‘‘3 Phase Balanced’’ (unbalanced faults are covered in Chapter 9).
Then select ‘‘Calculate,’’ located in the bottom left corner of the dialog, to de-
termine the fault currents and voltages. The results are shown in the tables at
the bottom of the dialog. Additionally, the values can be animated on the one-
line by changing the Oneline Display Field value. Since with a three-phase
fault the system remains balanced, the magnitudes of the a phase, b phase and
c phase values are identical. The 5  5 Z bus matrix for this system is shown in
Table 7.6, and the fault currents and bus voltages for faults at each of the buses
are given in Table 7.7. Note that these fault currents are subtransient fault cur-
rents, since the machine reactance input data consist of direct axis subtransient
reactances.

2 3
TABLE 7.6 0:0279725 0:0177025 0:0085125 0:0122975 0:020405
6 7
6 0:0177025 0:0569525 0:0136475 0:019715 0:02557 7
Z bus for Example 7.5 6 7
j6
6 0:0085125 0:0136475 0:0182425 0:016353 0:012298 7
7
6 7
4 0:0122975 0:019715 0:016353 0:0236 0:017763 5
0:020405 0:02557 0:012298 0:017763 0:029475
398 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

TABLE 7.7 Contributions to Fault Current

Fault currents and bus Fault Current Gen Line Current
voltages for Example 7.5 Fault Bus (per unit) or TRSF Bus-to-Bus (per unit)
1 37.536
G1 GRND–1 23.332
T1 5–1 14.204
2 18.436
L1 4–2 6.864
L2 5–2 11.572
3 57.556
G2 GRND–3 46.668
T2 4–3 10.888
4 44.456
L1 2–4 1.736
L3 5–4 10.412
T2 3–4 32.308
5 35.624
L2 2–5 2.78
L3 4–5 16.688
T1 1–5 16.152

Per-Unit Bus Voltage Magnitudes during the Fault

VF F 1:05
Fault Bus: Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4 Bus 5

1 0.0000 0.7236 0.5600 0.5033 0.3231

2 0.3855 0.0000 0.2644 0.1736 0.1391
3 0.7304 0.7984 0.0000 0.3231 0.6119
4 0.5884 0.6865 0.1089 0.0000 0.4172
5 0.2840 0.5786 0.3422 0.2603 0.0000

FIGURE 7.8 Fault Analysis Dialog for Example 7.5—fault at bus 1

 SECTION 7.4 BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX 399

FIGURE 7.9 Screen for Example 7.5—fault at bus 1 9

EXAMPLE 7.6

Redo Example 7.5 with an additional line installed between buses 2 and 4. This
line, whose reactance is 0.075 per unit, is not mutually coupled to any other line.

SOLUTION The modified system is contained in PowerWorld Simulator case

Example 7_6. Z bus along with the fault currents and bus voltages are shown
in Tables 7.8 and 7.9.

2 3
TABLE 7.8 0:027723 0:01597 0:00864 0:01248 0:02004
6 7
6 0:01597 0:04501 0:01452 0:02097 0:02307 7
Z bus for Example 7.6 6 7
j6
6 0:00864 0:01452 0:01818 0:01626 0:01248 7
7
6 7
4 0:01248 0:02097 0:01626 0:02349 0:01803 5
0:02004 0:02307 0:01248 0:01803 0:02895
400 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

TABLE 7.9 Contributions to Fault Current

Fault currents and bus Fault Current Gen Line Current
voltages for Example 7.6 Fault Bus (per unit) or TRSF Bus-to-Bus (per unit)
1 37.872
G1 GRND–1 23.332
T1 5–1 14.544
2 23.328
L1 4–2 5.608
L2 5–2 10.24
L4 4–2 7.48
3 57.756
G2 GRND–3 46.668
T2 4–3 11.088
4 44.704
L 1 2–4 1.128
L 3 5–4 9.768
L 4 2–4 1.504
T 2 3–4 32.308
5 36.268
L2 2–5 4.268
L3 4–5 15.848
T1 1–5 16.152

Per-Unit Bus Voltage Magnitudes during the Fault

VF F 1:05
Fault Bus: Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4 Bus 5
1 0.0000 0.6775 0.5510 0.4921 0.3231
2 0.4451 0.0000 0.2117 0.1127 0.2133
3 0.7228 0.7114 0.0000 0.3231 0.5974
4 0.5773 0.5609 0.1109 0.0000 0.3962
5 0.2909 0.5119 0.3293 0.2442 0.0000

7.5
CIRCUIT BREAKER AND FUSE SELECTION

A SHORT CIRCUITS computer program may be utilized in power system

design to select, set, and coordinate protective equipment such as circuit
breakers, fuses, relays, and instrument transformers. In this section we discuss
basic principles of circuit breaker and fuse selection.

AC CIRCUIT BREAKERS

A circuit breaker is a mechanical switch capable of interrupting fault currents

and of reclosing. When circuit-breaker contacts separate while carrying
 SECTION 7.5 CIRCUIT BREAKER AND FUSE SELECTION 401

current, an arc forms. The breaker is designed to extinguish the arc by elon-
gating and cooling it. The fact that ac arc current naturally passes through
zero twice during its 60-Hz cycle aids the arc extinction process.
Circuit breakers are classified as power circuit breakers when they are
intended for service in ac circuits above 1500 V, and as low-voltage circuit
breakers in ac circuits up to 1500 V. There are di¤erent types of circuit
breakers depending on the medium—air, oil, SF6 gas, or vacuum—in which
the arc is elongated. Also, the arc can be elongated either by a magnetic force
or by a blast of air.
Some circuit breakers are equipped with a high-speed automatic reclos-
ing capability. Since most faults are temporary and self-clearing, reclosing is
based on the idea that if a circuit is deenergized for a short time, it is likely
that whatever caused the fault has disintegrated and the ionized arc in the
fault has dissipated.
When reclosing breakers are employed in EHV systems, standard prac-
tice is to reclose only once, approximately 15 to 50 cycles (depending on op-
erating voltage) after the breaker interrupts the fault. If the fault persists and
the EHV breaker recloses into it, the breaker reinterrupts the fault current
and then ‘‘locks out,’’ requiring operator resetting. Multiple-shot reclosing in
EHV systems is not standard practice because transient stability (Chapter 11)
may be compromised. However, for distribution systems (2.4–46 kV) where
customer outages are of concern, standard reclosers are equipped for two or
more reclosures.
For low-voltage applications, molded case circuit breakers with dual
trip capability are available. There is a magnetic instantaneous trip for large
fault currents above a specified threshold and a thermal trip with time delay
for smaller fault currents.
Modern circuit-breaker standards are based on symmetrical interrupt-
ing current. It is usually necessary to calculate only symmetrical fault current
at a system location, and then select a breaker with a symmetrical interrupt-
ing capability equal to or above the calculated current. The breaker has the
additional capability to interrupt the asymmetrical (or total) fault current if
the dc o¤set is not too large.
pffiffiffiRecall from Section 7.1 that the maximum asymmetry factor K ðt ¼ 0Þ
is 3, which occurs at fault inception ðt ¼ 0Þ. After fault inception, the dc
fault current decays exponentially with time constant T ¼ ðL=RÞ ¼ ðX=oRÞ,
and the asymmetry factor decreases. Power circuit breakers with a 2-cycle
rated interruption time are designed for an asymmetrical interrupting capa-
bility up to 1.4 times their symmetrical interrupting capability, whereas slower
circuit breakers have a lower asymmetrical interrupting capability.
A simplified method for breaker selection is called the ‘‘E/X simplified
method’’ [1, 7]. The maximum symmetrical short-circuit current at the sys-
tem location in question is calculated from the prefault voltage and system
reactance characteristics, using computer programs. Resistances, shunt ad-
mittances, nonrotating impedance loads, and prefault load currents are
neglected. Then, if the X/R ratio at the system location is less than 15, a
breaker with a symmetrical interrupting capability equal to or above the
402 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

TABLE 7.10 Rated Values

Preferred ratings for Insulation Level
outdoor circuit breakers Current
(symmetrical current Voltage Rated Withstand
basis of rating) [10] Identification Test Voltage Rated Rated Short-
(Application Guide for Rated Rated Continuous Circuit
AC High-Voltage Nominal Nominal Max Voltage Low Current at Current
Circuit Breakers Rated Voltage 3-Phase Voltage Range Fre- Impulse 60 Hz (at Rated
on a Symmetrical Class MVA (kV, Factor quency (kV, (Amperes, Max kV)
Current Basis, ANSI (kV, rms) Class rms) (K ) (kV, rms) Crest) rms) (kA, rms)
C37.010 (New York:
American National Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5 Col 6 Col 7 Col 8
Standards Institute, 14.4 250 15.5 2.67 600 8.9
1972). > 1972 IEEE) 14.4 500 15.5 1.29 1200 18
23 500 25.8 2.15 1200 11
34.5 1500 38 1.65 1200 22
46 1500 48.3 1.21 1200 17
69 2500 72.5 1.21 1200 19
115 121 1.0 1200 20
115 121 1.0 1600 40
115 121 1.0 2000 40
115 121 1.0 2000 63
115 121 1.0 3000 40
115 121 1.0 3000 63
138 145 1.0 1200 20
138 Not 145 1.0 1600 40
138 145 1.0 2000 40
138 145 1.0 2000 63
138 145 1.0 2000 80
138 Applicable 145 1.0 3000 40
138 145 1.0 3000 63
138 145 1.0 3000 80
161 169 1.0 1200 16
161 169 1.0 1600 31.5
161 169 1.0 2000 40
161 169 1.0 2000 50
230 242 1.0 1600 31.5
230 242 1.0 2000 31.5
230 242 1.0 3000 31.5
230 242 1.0 2000 40
230 242 1.0 3000 40
230 242 1.0 3000 63
345 362 1.0 2000 40
345 362 1.0 3000 40
500 550 1.0 2000 40
500 550 1.0 3000 40
700 765 1.0 2000 40
700 765 1.0 3000 40
 SECTION 7.5 CIRCUIT BREAKER AND FUSE SELECTION 403

TABLE 7.10 Related Required Capabilities

(continued) Current Values

Max 3-Second
Symmet- Short-Time
rical Current Closing and
Rated Values Interrupting Carrying Latching
Capability Capability Capability
Rated Rated Max 1.6K Times
Rated Permissible Voltage K Times Rated Short- Rated Short-
Interrupting Tripping Divided Circuit Current Circuit
Time Delay by K Current
(Cycles) (Seconds) (kV, rms) (kA, rms) (kA, rms) (kA, rms)
Col 9 Col 10 Col 11 Col 12 Col 13 Col 14

5 2 5.8 24 24 38
5 2 12 23 23 37
5 2 12 24 24 38
5 2 23 36 36 58
5 2 40 21 21 33
5 2 60 23 23 37
3 1 121 20 20 32
3 1 121 40 40 64
3 1 121 40 40 64
3 1 121 63 63 101
3 1 121 40 40 64
3 1 121 63 63 101
3 1 145 20 20 32
3 1 145 40 40 64
3 1 145 40 40 64
3 1 145 63 63 101
3 1 145 80 80 128
3 1 145 40 40 64
3 1 145 63 63 101
3 1 145 80 80 128
3 1 169 16 16 26
3 1 169 31.5 31.5 50
3 1 169 40 40 64
3 1 169 50 50 80
3 1 242 31.5 31.5 50
3 1 242 31.5 31.5 50
3 1 242 31.5 31.5 50
3 1 242 40 40 64
3 1 242 40 40 64
3 1 242 63 63 101
3 1 362 40 40 64
3 1 362 40 40 64
2 1 550 40 40 64
2 1 550 40 40 64
2 1 765 40 40 64
2 1 765 40 40 64
404 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

calculated current at the given operating voltage is satisfactory. However, if

X/R is greater than 15, the dc o¤set may not have decayed to a su‰ciently
low value. In this case, a method for correcting the calculated fault current to
account for dc and ac time constants as well as breaker speed can be used
[10]. If X/R is unknown, the calculated fault current should not be greater
than 80% of the breaker interrupting capability.
When selecting circuit breakers for generators, two cycle breakers are
employed in practice, and the subtransient fault current is calculated; there-
fore subtransient machine reactances Xd00 are used in fault calculations. For
synchronous motors, subtransient reactances Xd00 or transient reactances Xd0
are used, depending on breaker speed. Also, induction motors can momen-
tarily contribute to fault current. Large induction motors are usually modeled
as sources in series with Xd00 or Xd0 , depending on breaker speed. Smaller in-
duction motors (below 50 hp (40 kW)) are often neglected entirely.
Table 7.10 shows a schedule of preferred ratings for outdoor power cir-
cuit breakers. We describe some of the more important ratings shown next.

Voltage ratings

Rated maximum voltage: Designates the maximum rms line-to-line op-

erating voltage. The breaker should be used in systems with an operat-
ing voltage less than or equal to this rating.
Rated low frequency withstand voltage: The maximum 60-Hz rms line-
to-line voltage that the circuit breaker can withstand without insulation
damage.
Rated impulse withstand voltage: The maximum crest voltage of a volt-
age pulse with standard rise and delay times that the breaker insulation
can withstand.
Rated voltage range factor K: The range of voltage for which the sym-
metrical interrupting capability times the operating voltage is constant.

Current ratings

Rated continuous current: The maximum 60-Hz rms current that the
breaker can carry continuously while it is in the closed position without
overheating.
Rated short-circuit current: The maximum rms symmetrical current that
the breaker can safely interrupt at rated maximum voltage.
Rated momentary current: The maximum rms asymmetrical current that
the breaker can withstand while in the closed position without damage.
Rated momentary current for standard breakers is 1.6 times the sym-
metrical interrupting capability.
Rated interrupting time: The time in cycles on a 60-Hz basis from
the instant the trip coil is energized to the instant the fault current is
cleared.
 SECTION 7.5 CIRCUIT BREAKER AND FUSE SELECTION 405

FIGURE 7.10
Symmetrical interrupting
capability of a 69-kV
class breaker

pffiffiffi
Rated interrupting MVA: For a three-phase circuit breaker, this is 3
times the rated maximum voltage in kV times the rated short-circuit
current in kA. It is more common to work with current and voltage
ratings than with MVA rating.
As an example, the symmetrical interrupting capability of the 69-kV
class breaker listed in Table 7.10 is plotted versus operating voltage in Figure
7.10. As shown, the symmetrical interrupting capability increases from its
rated short-circuit current I ¼ 19 kA at rated maximum voltage Vmax ¼
72.5 kV up to Imax ¼ KI ¼ ð1:21Þð19Þ ¼ 23 kA at an operating voltage Vmin ¼
Vmax =K ¼ 72:5=1:21 ¼ 60 kV. At operating voltages V between Vmin and
Vmax , the symmetrical interrupting capability is I  Vmax =V ¼ 1378=V kA.
At operating voltages below Vmin , the symmetrical interrupting capability re-
mains at Imax ¼ 23 kA.
Breakers of the 115-kV class and higher have a voltage range factor
K ¼ 1:0; that is, their symmetrical interrupting current capability remains
constant.

EXAMPLE 7.7 Circuit breaker selection

The calculated symmetrical fault current is 17 kA at a three-phase bus where

the operating voltage is 64 kV. The X/R ratio at the bus is unknown. Select a
circuit breaker from Table 7.10 for this bus.

SOLUTION The 69-kV-class breaker has a symmetrical interrupting capabil-

ity IðVmax =VÞ ¼ 19ð72:5=64Þ ¼ 21:5 kA at the operating voltage V ¼ 64 kV.
The calculated symmetrical fault current, 17 kA, is less than 80% of this ca-
pability (less than 0:80  21:5 ¼ 17:2 kA), which is a requirement when X/R
is unknown. Therefore, we select the 69-kV-class breaker from Table 7.10. 9
406 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

FUSES

Figure 7.11(a) shows a cutaway view of a fuse, which is one of the simplest
overcurrent devices. The fuse consists of a metal ‘‘fusible’’ link or links en-
capsulated in a tube, packed in filler material, and connected to contact ter-
minals. Silver is a typical link metal, and sand is a typical filler material.
During normal operation, when the fuse is operating below its continu-
ous current rating, the electrical resistance of the link is so low that it simply
acts as a conductor. If an overload current from one to about six times its
continuous current rating occurs and persists for more than a short interval
of time, the temperature of the link eventually reaches a level that causes
a restricted segment of the link to melt. As shown in Figure 7.11(b), a gap
is then formed and an electric arc is established. As the arc causes the link
metal to burn back, the gap width increases. The resistance of the arc even-
tually reaches such a high level that the arc cannot be sustained and it is
extinguished, as in Figure 7.11(c). The current flow within the fuse is then
completely cut o¤.

FIGURE 7.11
Typical fuse
 SECTION 7.5 CIRCUIT BREAKER AND FUSE SELECTION 407

FIGURE 7.12
Operation of a
current-limiting fuse

If the fuse is subjected to fault currents higher than about six times its
continuous current rating, several restricted segments melt simultaneously,
resulting in rapid arc suppression and fault clearing. Arc suppression is accel-
erated by the filler material in the fuse.
Many modern fuses are current limiting. As shown in Figure 7.12, a
current-limiting fuse has such a high speed of response that it cuts o¤ a high
fault current in less than a half cycle—before it can build up to its full peak
value. By limiting fault currents, these fuses permit the use of motors, trans-
formers, conductors, and bus structures that could not otherwise withstand
the destructive forces of high fault currents.
Fuse specification is normally based on the following four factors.
1. Voltage rating. This rms voltage determines the ability of a fuse
to suppress the internal arc that occurs after the fuse link melts. A
blown fuse should be able to withstand its voltage rating. Most low-
voltage fuses have 250- or 600-V ratings. Ratings of medium-voltage
fuses range from 2.4 to 34.5 kV.
2. Continuous current rating. The fuse should carry this rms current in-
definitely, without melting and clearing.
3. Interrupting current rating. This is the largest rms asymmetrical cur-
rent that the fuse can safely interrupt. Most modern, low-voltage
current-limiting fuses have a 200-kA interrupting rating. Standard
interrupting ratings for medium-voltage current-limiting fuses in-
clude 65, 80, and 100 kA.
4. Time response. The melting and clearing time of a fuse depends on the
magnitude of the overcurrent or fault current and is usually specified
by a ‘‘time–current’’ curve. Figure 7.13 shows the time–current
curve of a 15.5-kV, 100-A (continuous) current-limiting fuse. As
shown, the fuse link melts within 2 s and clears within 5 s for a 500-
A current. For a 5-kA current, the fuse link melts in less than 0.01 s
and clears within 0.015 s.
408 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

FIGURE 7.13
Time–current curves for
a 15.5-kV, 100-A
current-limiting fuse

It is usually a simple matter to coordinate fuses in a power circuit such

that only the fuse closest to the fault opens the circuit. In a radial circuit,
fuses with larger continuous current ratings are located closer to the
source, such that the fuse closest to the fault clears before other, upstream
fuses melt.
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 409

Fuses are inexpensive, fast operating, easily coordinated, and reliable,

and they do not require protective relays or instrument transformers. Their
chief disadvantage is that the fuse or the fuse link must be manually replaced
after it melts. They are basically one-shot devices that are, for example, inca-
pable of high-speed reclosing.

M U LT I P L E C H O I C E Q U E S T I O N S
SECTION 7.1
7.1 The asymmetrical short-circuit current in series R–L circuit for a simulated solid or
‘‘bolted fault’’ can be considered as a combination of symmetrical (ac) component
that is a __________, and dc-o¤set current that decays __________, and depends on
__________. Fill in the Blanks.
7.2 Even though the fault current is not symmetrical and not strictly periodic, the rms
asymmetrical fault current is computed as the rms ac fault current times an ‘‘asym-
metry factor,’’ which is a function of __________. Fill in the Blank.

SECTION 7.2
7.3 The amplitude of the sinusoidal symmetrical ac component of the three-phase short-
circuit current of an unloaded synchronous machine decreases from a high initial
value to a lower steady-state value, going through the stages of __________ and
__________ periods. Fill in the Blanks.
7.4 The duration of subtransient fault current is dictated by __________ time constant,
and that of transient fault current is dictated by __________ time constant. Fill in the
Blanks.
7.5 The reactance that plays a role under steady-state operation of a synchronous ma-
chine is called __________. Fill in the Blank.
7.6 The dc-o¤set component of the three-phase short-circuit current of an unloaded syn-
chronous machine is di¤erent in the three phases and its exponential decay is dictated
by __________. Fill in the Blank.

SECTION 7.3
7.7 Generally, in power-system short-circuit studies, for calculating subtransient fault cur-
rents, transformers are represented by their __________, transmission lines by their
equivalent __________, and synchronous machines by __________ behind their sub-
transient reactances. Fill in the Blanks.
7.8 In power-system fault studies, all nonrotating impedance loads are usually neglected.
(a) True (b) False
410 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

7.9 Can superposition be applied in power-system short-circuit studies for calculating

fault currents?
(a) Yes (b) No
7.10 Before proceeding with per-unit fault current calculations, based on the single-line di-
agram of the power system, a positive-sequence equivalent circuit is set up on a cho-
sen base system.
(a) True (b) False

SECTION 7.4
7.11 The inverse of the bus-admittance matrix is called __________ matrix. Fill in the
Blank.
7.12 For a power system, modeled by its positive-sequence network, both bus-admittance
matrix and bus-impedance matrix are symmetric.
(a) True (b) False
7.13 The bus-impedance equivalent circuit can be represented in the form of a ‘‘rake’’ with
the diagonal elements, which are _______, and the non-diagonal (o¤-diagonal) ele-
ments, which are __________. Fill in the Blanks.

SECTION 7.5
7.14 A circuit breaker is designed to extinguish the arc by __________. Fill in the Blank.
7.15 Power-circuit breakers are intended for service in ac circuit above __________ V. Fill
in the Blank.
7.16 In circuit breakers, besides air or vacuum, what gaseous medium, in which the arc is
elongated, is used?
7.17 Oil can be used as a medium to extinguish the arc in circuit breakers.
(a) True (b) False
7.18 Besides a blast of air/gas, the arc in a circuit breaker can be elongated by _______.
Fill in the Blank.
7.19 For distribution systems, standard reclosers are equipped for two or more reclosures,
where as multiple-shot reclosing in EHV systems is not a standard practice.
(a) True (b) False
7.20 Breakers of the 115-kV class and higher have a voltage range factor K = ________,
such that their symmetrical interrupting current capability remains constant. Fill in
the Blank.
7.21 A typical fusible link metal in fuses is ________, and a typical filler material is
________. Fill in the Blanks.
7.22 The melting and clearing time of a current-limiting fuse is usually specified by a
________ curve.
 PROBLEMS 411

PROBLEMS
SECTION 7.1
7.1 In the circuit of Figure 7.1, V ¼ 277 volts, L ¼ 2 mH, R ¼ 0:4 W, and o ¼ 2p60
rad/s. Determine (a) the rms symmetrical fault current; (b) the rms asymmetrical
fault current at the instant the switch closes, assuming maximum dc o¤set; (c) the rms
asymmetrical fault current 5 cycles after the switch closes, assuming maximum dc o¤-
set; (d) the dc o¤set as a function of time if the switch closes when the instantaneous
source voltage is 300 volts.
7.2 Repeat Example 7.1 with V ¼ 4 kV, X ¼ 2 W, and R ¼ 1 W.
7.3 In the circuit of Figure 7.1, let R ¼ 0:125 W, L ¼ 10 mH, and the source voltage is
eðtÞ ¼ 151 sinð377t þ aÞ V. Determine the current response after closing the switch for
the following cases: (a) no dc o¤set; (b) maximum dc o¤set. Sketch the current wave-
form up to t ¼ 0:10 s corresponding to case (a) and (b).
7.4 Consider the expression for iðtÞ given by
pffiffiffi
iðtÞ ¼ 2Irms ½sinðot  yz Þ þ sin yz :eðoR=X Þt 
where yz ¼ tan1 ðoL=RÞ.
(a) For (X/R) equal to zero and infinity, plot iðtÞ as a function of ðotÞ.
(b) Comment on the dc o¤set of the fault current waveforms.
(c) Find the asymmetrical current factor and the time of peak, tr , in milliseconds, for
(X/R) ratios of zero and infinity.
7.5 If the source impedance at a 13.2 kV distribution substation bus is ð0:5 þ j1:5Þ W per
phase, compute the rms and maximum peak instantaneous value of the fault current,
for a balanced three-phase fault. For the system (X/R) ratio of 3.0, the asymmetrical
factor is 1.9495 and the time of peak is 7.1 ms (see Problem 7.4). Comment on the
withstanding peak current capability to which all substation electrical equipment need
to be designed.

SECTION 7.2
7.6 A 1000-MVA 20-kV, 60-Hz three-phase generator is connected through a 1000-MVA
20-kV D/345-kV Y transformer to a 345-kV circuit breaker and a 345-kV transmission
line. The generator reactances are Xd00 ¼ 0:17, Xd0 ¼ 0:30, and Xd ¼ 1:5 per unit, and
its time constants are Td00 ¼ 0:05, Td0 ¼ 1:0, and TA ¼ 0:10 s. The transformer series
reactance is 0.10 per unit; transformer losses and exciting current are neglected. A
three-phase short-circuit occurs on the line side of the circuit breaker when the gener-
ator is operated at rated terminal voltage and at no-load. The breaker interrupts the
fault 3 cycles after fault inception. Determine (a) the subtransient current through
the breaker in per-unit and in kA rms; and (b) the rms asymmetrical fault current the
breaker interrupts, assuming maximum dc o¤set. Neglect the e¤ect of the transformer
on the time constants.
7.7 For Problem 7.6, determine (a) the instantaneous symmetrical fault current in kA in
phase a of the generator as a function of time, assuming maximum dc o¤set occurs in
this generator phase; and (b) the maximum dc o¤set current in kA as a function of
time that can occur in any one generator phase.
7.8 A 300-MVA, 13.8-kV, three-phase, 60-Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator is ad-
justed to produce rated voltage on open circuit. A balanced three-phase fault is
412 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

applied to the terminals at t ¼ 0. After analyzing the raw data, the symmetrical tran-
sient current is obtained as

iac ðtÞ ¼ 10 4 ð1 þ et=t1 þ 6et=t2 Þ A

where t1 ¼ 200 ms and t2 ¼ 15 ms. (a) Sketch iac ðtÞ as a function of time for
0 c t c 500 ms. (b) Determine Xd 00 and Xd in per-unit based on the machine ratings.
7.9 Two identical synchronous machines, each rated 60 MVA, 15 kV, with a subtransient
reactance of 0.1 pu, are connected through a line of reactance 0.1 pu on the base of
the machine rating. One machine is acting as a synchronous generator, while the other
is working as a motor drawing 40 MW at 0.8 pf leading with a terminal voltage of
14.5 kV, when a symmetrical three-phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. Deter-
mine the subtransient currents in the generator, the motor, and the fault by using the
internal voltages of the machines. Choose a base of 60 MVA, 15 kV in the generator
circuit.

SECTION 7.3
7.10 Recalculate the subtransient current through the breaker in Problem 7.6 if the genera-
tor is initially delivering rated MVA at 0.80 p.f. lagging and at rated terminal voltage.
7.11 Solve Example 7.4, parts (a) and (c) without using the superposition principle. First
calculate the internal machine voltages Eg00 and Em00 , using the prefault load current.
Then determine the subtransient fault, generator, and motor currents directly from
Figure 7.4(a). Compare your answers with those of Example 7.3.
7.12 Equipment ratings for the four-bus power system shown in Figure 7.14 are as follows:
Generator G1: 500 MVA, 13.8 kV, X 00 ¼ 0:20 per unit
Generator G2: 750 MVA, 18 kV, X 00 ¼ 0:18 per unit
Generator G3: 1000 MVA, 20 kV, X 00 ¼ 0:17 per unit
Transformer T1: 500 MVA, 13.8 D/500 Y kV, X ¼ 0:12 per unit
Transformer T2: 750 MVA, 18 D/500 Y kV, X ¼ 0:10 per unit
Transformer T3: 1000 MVA, 20 D/500 Y kV, X ¼ 0:10 per unit
Each 500-kV line: X1 ¼ 50 W
A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus 1, where the prefault voltage is 525 kV.
Prefault load current is neglected. Draw the positive-sequence reactance diagram in

FIGURE 7.14
Problems 7.12, 7.13,
7.19, 7.24, 7.25, 7.26
 PROBLEMS 413

per-unit on a 1000-MVA, 20-kV base in the zone of generator G3. Determine (a) the
Thévenin reactance in per-unit at the fault, (b) the subtransient fault current in per-
unit and in kA rms, and (c) contributions to the fault current from generator G1 and
from line 1–2.
7.13 For the power system given in Problem 7.12, a three-phase short circuit occurs at
bus 2, where the prefault voltage is 525 kV. Prefault load current is neglected. Deter-
mine the (a) Thévenin equivalent at the fault, (b) subtransient fault current in per-unit
and in kA rms, and (c) contributions to the fault from lines 1–2, 2–3, and 2–4.
7.14 Equipment ratings for the five-bus power system shown in Figure 7.15 are as follows:
Generator G1: 50 MVA, 12 kV, X 00 ¼ 0:2 per unit
Generator G2: 100 MVA, 15 kV, X 00 ¼ 0:2 per unit
Transformer T1: 50 MVA, 10 kV Y/138 kV Y, X ¼ 0:10 per unit
Transformer T2: 100 MVA, 15 kV D/138 kV Y, X ¼ 0:10 per unit
Each 138-kV line: X1 ¼ 40 W
A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus 5, where the prefault voltage is 15 kV. Pre-
fault load current is neglected. (a) Draw the positive-sequence reactance diagram in
per-unit on a 100-MVA, 15-kV base in the zone of generator G2. Determine: (b) the
Thévenin equivalent at the fault, (c) the subtransient fault current in per-unit and
in kA rms, and (d) contributions to the fault from generator G2 and from
transformer T2.

FIGURE 7.15
Problems 7.14, 7.15, 7.20

7.15 For the power system given in Problem 7.14, a three-phase short circuit occurs at bus
4, where the prefault voltage is 138 kV. Prefault load current is neglected. Determine
(a) the Thévenin equivalent at the fault, (b) the subtransient fault current in per-unit
and in kA rms, and (c) contributions to the fault from transformer T2 and from
line 3–4.
414 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

7.16 In the system shown in Figure 7.16, a three-phase short circuit occurs at point F.
Assume that prefault currents are zero and that the generators are operating at rated
voltage. Determine the fault current.

FIGURE 7.16
Problem 7.16

7.17 A three-phase short circuit occurs at the generator bus (bus 1) for the system shown in
Figure 7.17. Neglecting prefault currents and assuming that the generator is operating
at its rated voltage, determine the subtransient fault current using superposition.

FIGURE 7.17
Problem 7.17

SECTION 7.4
7.18 (a) The bus impedance matrix for a three-bus power system is
2 3
0:12 0:08 0:04
6 7
Z bus ¼ j 4 0:08 0:12 0:06 5 per unit
0:04 0:06 0:08
where subtransient reactances were used to compute Z bus . Prefault voltage is 1.0 per
unit and prefault current is neglected. (a) Draw the bus impedance matrix equivalent
circuit (rake equivalent). Identify the per-unit self- and mutual impedances as well as the
prefault voltage in the circuit. (b) A three-phase short circuit occurs at bus 2. Determine
the subtransient fault current and the voltages at buses 1, 2, and 3 during the fault.
(b) For 7.18 Repeat for the case of
2 3
0:4 0:1 0:3
6 7
Z bus ¼ j 4 0:1 0:8 0:5 5 per unit
0:3 0:5 1:2
7.19 Determine Y bus in per-unit for the circuit in Problem 7.12. Then invert Y bus to obtain
Z bus .
7.20 Determine Y bus in per-unit for the circuit in Problem 7.14. Then invert Y bus to obtain
Z bus .
7.21 Figure 7.18 shows a system reactance diagram. (a) Draw the admittance diagram for
the system by using source transformations. (b) Find the bus admittance matrix Y bus .
(c) Find the bus impedance Z bus matrix by inverting Y bus .
 PROBLEMS 415

FIGURE 7.18
Problem 7.21

7.22 For the network shown in Figure 7.19, impedances labeled 1 through 6 are in per-unit.
(a) Determine Y bus . Preserve all buses. (b) Using MATLAB or a similar computer
program, invert Y bus to obtain Z bus .

FIGURE 7.19
Problem 7.22

7.23 A single-line diagram of a four-bus system is shown in Figure 7.20, for which ZBUS is
given below:
2 3
0:25 0:2 0:16 0:14
6 0:2 0:23 0:15 0:151 7
6 7
Z BUS ¼ j 6 7 per unit
4 0:16 0:15 0:196 0:1 5
0:14 0:151 0:1 0:195
Let a three-phase fault occur at bus 2 of the network.
(a) Calculate the initial symmetrical rms current in the fault.
(b) Determine the voltages during the fault at buses 1, 3, and 4.
(c) Compute the fault currents contributed to bus 2 by the adjacent unfaulted buses 1,
3, and 4.
(d) Find the current flow in the line from bus 3 to bus 1. Assume the prefault voltage
Vf at bus 2 to be 1 0 ru, and neglect all prefault currents.
416 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

FIGURE 7.20
Single-line diagram for
Problem 7.23

PW 7.24 PowerWorld Simulator case Problem 7_24 models the system shown in Figure 7.14
with all data on a 1000-MVA base. Using PowerWorld Simulator, determine the cur-
rent supplied by each generator and the per-unit bus voltage magnitudes at each bus
for a fault at bus 2.
PW 7.25 Repeat Problem 7.24, except place the fault at bus 1.
PW 7.26 Repeat Problem 7.24, except place the fault midway between buses 2 and 4. Deter-
mining the values for line faults requires that the line be split, with a fictitious bus
added at the point of the fault. The original line’s impedance is then allocated to the
two new lines based on the fault location, 50% each for this problem. Fault calcu-
lations are then the same as for a bus fault. This is done automatically in PowerWorld
Simulator by first right-clicking on a line, and then selecting ‘‘Fault.’’ The Fault
dialog appears as before, except now the fault type is changed to ‘‘In-Line Fault.’’ Set
the location percentage field to 50% to model a fault midway between buses 2 and 4.
PW 7.27 One technique for limiting fault current is to place reactance in series with the
generators. Such reactance can be modeled in Simulator by increasing the value of the
generator’s positive sequence internal impedance. For the Problem 7.24 case, how much
per-unit reactance must be added to G3 to limit its maximum fault current to 2.5 per unit
for all 3 phase bus faults? Where is the location of the most severe bus fault?
PW 7.28 Using PowerWorld Simulator case Example 6.13, determine the per-unit current and
actual current in amps supplied by each of the generators for a fault at the PETE69
bus. During the fault, what percentage of the system buses have voltage magnitudes
below 0.75 per unit?
PW 7.29 Repeat Problem 7.28, except place the fault at the BOB69 bus.
PW 7.30 Redo Example 7.5, except first open the generator at bus 3.
SECTION 7.5
7.31 A three-phase circuit breaker has a 15.5-kV rated maximum voltage, 9.0-kA rated
short-circuit current, and a 2.67-rated voltage range factor. (a) Determine the sym-
metrical interrupting capability at 10-kV and 5-kV operating voltages. (b) Can this
breaker be safely installed at a three-phase bus where the symmetrical fault current is
10 kA, the operating voltage is 13.8 kV, and the (X/R) ratio is 12?
 CASE STUDY QUESTIONS 417

7.32 A 500-kV three-phase transmission line has a 2.2-kA continuous current rating and
a 2.5-kA maximum short-time overload rating, with a 525-kV maximum operating
voltage. Maximum symmetrical fault current on the line is 30 kA. Select a circuit
breaker for this line from Table 7.10.
7.33 A 69-kV circuit breaker has a voltage range factor K ¼ 1:21, a continuous current
rating of 1200 A, and a rated short-circuit current of 19,000 A at the maximum rated
voltage of 72.5 kV. Determine the maximum symmetrical interrupting capability of
the breaker. Also, explain its significance at lower operating voltages.
7.34 As shown in Figure 7.21, a 25-MVA, 13.8-kV, 60-Hz synchronous generator with
Xd 00 ¼ 0:15 per unit is connected through a transformer to a bus that supplies four
identical motors. The rating of the three-phase transformer is 25 MVA, 13.8/6.9 kV,
with a leakage reactance of 0.1 per unit. Each motor has a subtransient reactance
Xd 00 ¼ 0:2 per unit on a base of 5 MVA and 6.9 kV. A three-phase fault occurs at
point P, when the bus voltage at the motors is 6.9 kV. Determine: (a) the subtransient
fault current, (b) the subtransient current through breaker A, (c) the symmetrical
short-circuit interrupting current (as defined for circuit breaker applications) in the
fault and in breaker A.

FIGURE 7.21
Problem 7.34

C A S E S T U DY Q U E S T I O N S

A. Why are arcing (high-impedance) faults more di‰cult to detect than low-impedance
faults?
B. What methods are available to prevent the destructive e¤ects of arcing faults from
occurring?

DESIGN PROJECT 4 (CONTINUED):

POWER FLOW/SHORT CIRCUITS
Additional time given: 3 weeks
Additional time required: 10 hours

This is a continuation of Design Project 4. Assignments 1 and 2 are given in

Chapter 6.
418 CHAPTER 7 SYMMETRICAL FAULTS

Assignment 3: Symmetrical Short Circuits

For the single-line diagram that you have been assigned (Figure 6.13 or 6.14),
convert the positive-sequence reactance data to per-unit using the given base
quantities. For synchronous machines, use subtransient reactance. Then using
PowerWorld Simulator, create the machine, transmission line, and trans-
former input data files. Next, run the program to compute subtransient fault
currents for a bolted three-phase-to-ground fault at bus 1, then at bus 2,
then at bus 3, and so on. Also compute bus voltages during the faults and the
positive-sequence bus impedance matrix. Assume 1.0 per-unit prefault volt-
age. Neglect prefault load currents and all losses.
Your output for this assignment consists of three input data files and
three output data (fault currents, bus voltages, and the bus impedance ma-
trix) files.
This project continues in Chapter 9.

REFERENCES

1. Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference

Book, 4th ed. (East Pittsburgh, PA: 1964).
2. E. W. Kimbark, Power System Stability, Synchronous Machines, vol. 3 (New York:
Wiley, 1956).
3. A. E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, and S. Umans, Electric Machinery, 5th ed. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1990).
4. M. S. Sarma, Electric Machines 2nd ed. (Boston: PWS Publishing, 1994).
5. J. R. Neuenswander, Modern Power Systems (New York: Intext Educational Pub-
lishers, 1971).
6. H. E. Brown, Solution of Large Networks by Matrix Methods (New York: Wiley,
1975).
7. G. N. Lester, ‘‘High Voltage Circuit Breaker Standards in the USA—Past, Present
and Future,’’ IEEE Transactions PAS, vol. PAS–93 (1974): pp. 590–600.
8. W. D. Stevenson, Jr., Elements of Power System Analysis, 4th ed. (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1982).
9. C. A. Gross, Power System Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1979).
10. Application Guide for AC High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Cur-
rent Basis, ANSI C 37.010 (New York: American National Standards Institute, 1972).
11. F. Shields, ‘‘The Problem of Arcing Faults in Low-Voltage Power Distribution Sys-
tems,’’ IEEE Transactions on Industry and General Applications, vol. IGA-3, no. 1,
(January/February 1967), pp. 15–25.