One-Dimensional, Steady-State

Conduction with
Thermal Energy Generation
 Implications of Energy Generation

• Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to conversion

from another form of energy in a conducting medium.

• The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from

electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):

E& g I2 R
q& = =
V V

or it may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation

passing through a semi-transparent medium. For a plane wall,

q& ∝ exp(− α x )

• Generation affects the temperature distribution in the medium and causes

the heat rate to vary with location, thereby precluding inclusion of
the medium in a thermal circuit.
 The Plane Wall
• Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction
in a plane wall of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions:

• Heat Equation:
•
d  dT  • 2
dT q
k  + q = 0 → + =0 (3.39)
dx  dx  dx 2 k

Is the heat flux q′′ independent of x?

• General Solution:

T ( x ) = −  q/ 2k  x 2 + C1 x + C2
 •

 

What is the form of the temperature distribution for

• • •
q = 0? q > 0? q < 0?
•
How does the temperature distribution change with increasing q ?
Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:

• What is the temperature gradient

at the centerline or the insulated
surface?
• Why does the magnitude of the temperature
gradient increase with increasing x?

• Temperature Distribution:
•
q L2  x 2 
T ( x) = 1− + Ts
2k  L2 
(3.42)

• How do we determine Ts?

Overall energy balance on the wall →
• •
− E out + E g = 0
•
−hAs (Ts − T∞ ) + q As L = 0
•
qL
Ts = T∞ + (3.46)
h
• How do we determine the heat rate at x = L?
 Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall Spherical Wall (Shell)

Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod) Solid Sphere

• Heat Equations:
Cylindrical Spherical
1 d  dT  • 1 d  2 dT  •
 kr +q =0  kr +q =0
r dr  dr  r 2 dr  dr 
• Solution for Uniform Generation in a Solid Sphere of Constant k
with Convection Cooling:

Temperature Distribution Surface Temperature

•
dT q r3 Overall energy balance:
kr2
=− + C1
dr 3 •
•
q r C1 2 • • q ro
T =− − + C2 − E out + Eg = 0 → Ts = T∞ +
6k r 3h
dT
|r = 0 = 0 → C1 = 0
dr Or from a surface energy balance:
•
2
q ro
T ( ro ) = Ts → C2 = Ts + •
6k q ro
Ein − E out = 0 → qcond ( ro ) = qconv → Ts = T∞ +
• •
•
q ro 2
 r  2

T (r) = 1 − 2  + Ts
3h
6k  ro 

• A summary of temperature distributions is provided in Appendix C

for plane, cylindrical and spherical walls, as well as for solid
cylinders and spheres. Note how boundary conditions are specified
and how they are used to obtain surface temperatures.
Extended Surfaces
FINS
ALHETAS
Nature and Rationale of Extended Surfaces
• An extended surface (also know as a combined conduction-convection system
or a fin) is a solid within which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be
one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection (and/or
radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of conduction.

– Why is heat transfer by conduction in the x-direction not, in fact, one-

dimensional?

– If heat is transferred from the surface to the fluid by convection, what

surface condition is dictated by the conservation of energy requirement?
– What is the actual functional dependence of the temperature distribution in
the solid?
– If the temperature distribution is assumed to be one-dimensional, that is,
T=T(x) , how should the value of T be interpreted for any x location?
– How does qcond , x vary with x ?
– When may the assumption of one-dimensional conduction be viewed as an
excellent approximation? The thin-fin approximation.
• Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are commonly used as
fins to enhance heat transfer by increasing the surface area available for
convection (and/or radiation). They are particularly beneficial when h is small,
as for a gas and natural convection.
• Some typical fin configurations:

Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections; (c) annular
fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
TYPICAL FIN CONFIGURATIONS

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

 The Fin Equation
dqconv
dAs
qx
Ac (x)
q x = q x + dx + d qconv
qx+dx

dx

z x
y
x

dT d qx dT d  dT 
q x = − k Ac q x+ dx = q x + dx = −k Ac −k  Ac  dx
dx dx dx d x  d x 

d  dT  d As d qconv = h dAs (T − T∞ )
−k  Ac  + h (T − T∞ ) = 0
d x d x dx

d2T  1 d Ac  d T  1 h d As 
2
+   −   (T − T∞ ) = 0
dx  Ac d x  d x  Ac k d x 
 The Fin Equation
• Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface
surface of constant conductivity ( k ) and uniform cross-sectional area ( Ac,)
with negligible generation  q• = 0  and radiation ( qrad
′′ = 0 ) , the fin equation
 
is of the form:  

d 2T hP
2
− (T −T∞ ) = 0 (3.62)
dx kAc

or, with m2 ≡ ( hP / kAc ) and the reduced temperature θ ≡ T −T∞ ,

d 2θ
2
− m 2
θ =0
dx
• Solutions (Table 3.4):

Base (x = 0) condition
θ ( 0 ) = Tb − T∞ ≡ θb

Tip ( x = L) conditions
A. Convection: − kdθ / dx |x = L = hθ ( L )
B. Adiabatic: dθ / dx |x = L = 0 All the heat rate that
the fin releases HAS
C. Fixed temperature: θ ( L ) = θ L TO GO THROUGH
D. Infinite fin (mL >2.65): θ ( L ) = 0 ITS BASE

• Fin Heat Rate:

dθ
q f = − kAc |x = 0 =  Af hθ ( x ) dAs
dx
 Condição de Distribuição de temperaturas Taxa de transmissão de
Caso
fronteira em x = L θ/θb calor
h h
cosh[m(L − x )] + sinh[m(L − x )] sinh (m L ) + cosh (m L )
dθ mk mk
(i) − k   = h θ (L ) M
 d x  x=L h h
cosh (m L ) + sinh (m L ) cosh (m L ) + sinh (m L )
mk mk
dθ cosh [m(L − x )]
(ii)   =0 M tanh (m L )
 d x  x =L cosh (m L )

(θ L θ b ) sinh (m x ) + sinh [m(L − x )] cosh (m L ) − θ L / θ b

(iii) θ (L ) = θ L M
sinh (m L ) sinh (m L )

(iv) θ (L ) = 0 e−m x M

hP
m2 = M = h P k Ac θb
k Ac
 Fin Performance Parameters
• Fin Efficiency: COMPARES ACTUAL
qf qf HEAT RATE WITH THAT
ηf ≡ = IF THE FIN WAS ALL AT
q f ,max hA f θb Tb (< 1)
How is the efficiency affected by the thermal conductivity of the fin?
Expressions for η f are provided in Table 3.5 for common geometries.
Consider a triangular fin:
1/ 2
A f = 2w  L2 + ( t / 2 ) 
2
 
Ap = ( t / 2 ) L
1 I1 ( 2mL )
ηf =
mL I 0 ( 2mL )

COMPARES ACTUAL
• Fin Effectiveness: HEAT RATE WITH THAT
qf IF THE THERE WAS NO
εf ≡
hAc , bθb FIN (> 1).
ε f ↑ with ↓ h, ↑ k and ↓ Ac / P A GOOD FIN HAS AT
LEAST NA
• Fin Resistance: EFFECTIVENESS OF 2!
θ 1
Rt , f ≡ b =
q f hA f η f
Correction of fin length to account for heat loss from the tip

q f ,tip = h Ac θ (L ) ≈ h P (Lc − L )θ (L )

Ac
Lc = L +
P

Fin of rectangular cross section with t << w:

Lc = L + t / 2

Fin of circular cross section :

Lc = L + D / 4

Approximation error negligible if ht / k or

hD / 2k ≤ 0.0625
 Fins efficiency

1.0 1.0 y (x)

(a) t
ri
0.9
x
(b)
0.8 L 0.8

t
0.7 (c)

0.6 0.6
ro
(d)
hf hf 0.5
ro
=1 (e)
0.4
ri
0.4

1.4 0.3

0.2 1.6 0.2

3 1.8
2
4 0.1

0.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
 Fin Arrays
• Representative arrays of
(a) rectangular and
(b) annular fins.

– Total surface area:

At = NA f + Ab
Number of fins Area of exposed base (prime surface)

– Total heat rate:

θb
qt = Nη f hA f θb + hAbθb ≡ ηo hAtθb =
Rt , o
– Overall surface efficiency and resistance:
NA f
ηo = 1 −
At
(1 − η f )
θb 1
Rt , o = =
qt ηo hAt
• Equivalent Thermal Circuit :

• Effect of Surface Contact Resistance:

θb
qt = ηo ( c ) hAtθb =
Rt , o ( c )
NA f  η f 
ηo ( c ) = 1 − 1 − 
At  C1 
C1 = 1 + η f hA f ( Rt′′, c / Ac , b )
1
Rt , o ( c ) =
ηo ( c ) hAt