Premise : Journal of English Education and Applied Linguistics

PJEE https://fkip.ummetro.ac.id/journal/index.php/english
Darong and Menggo
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REPOSITIONING CULTURE IN TEACHING TARGET LANGUAGE:

LOCAL CULTURE OR TARGET CULTURE?

by

Hieronimus Canggung Darong

Universitas Katolik Indonesia Santu Paulus
hieronimusdarong@gmail.com
Sebastianus Menggo
Universitas Katolik Indonesia Santu Paulus
sebastian.pradana@gmail.com

Received: August 10, 2021, reviewer: August 10, 2021

Reviewed1:September5, 2021 reviewed2: October 17, 2021
Accepted: October 23, 2021, published: October 28, 2021

Abstract:
The role of culture in teaching target language is undeniable. This article belongs to a literature review.
As such, it deals with the reviews of culture integration in English Language Teaching. The article
provides the conflicting findings of teaching target language with local culture or target culture along
with the reasonable reasons for each. The writers adopt the systematic way of doing literature review
consisting of four steps namely designing the review, conducting the review, analyzing, and writing the
review. Drawing from the review of the progress reports in the field, the writer recommends an
intermediary for prospective English Language Teaching accommodating both local and target culture in
question. Recomendations for future research studies are highlighted at the end.
Key words: Teaching, local culture and target culture.

INTRODUCTION
Teaching as imparting knowledge is a global phenomenon and goes through level of education.
For many English teachers, teaching English or any subjects refers to controlling the class,
delivering information as porposed in the curriculum, usually through talking or textbooks,
evaluating and scoring (Blazar & Kraft, 2017; Hafen et al., 2015; Pang, 2015; Tans, 2010).
Despite its global effects, it must be replaced by a more challenging and effective one.
The strong reliance on the conception of teaching was on Farrell's finding (2015)
emphasizing on an idea that teaching is what you know rather than on the race, culture and
ethnicity you belong to. Pushing further, regarding the effectiveness, it should be regarded as a
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process of making students’ strong willingness to learn. In this respect, the result of teaching
might make the students better to learn actively. Consequently, it is more complex and
complicated than learning. The reason is not because of having more knowledge as well as
information on what and how to teach but rather than considering the ultimate goal, that is
making the students to be active in learning. As such, there is an implication that the teacher
should have more than the students. They have to read and learn to make the studens learn
(Tans, 2010).
Moving to English Language Teaching (ELT) ahead, both as second language and
foreign language, it has become the research focus. Some basic ideas related to what and how
teaching are have been proposed along with approaches, methods, techniques following the
great shift of paradigm, idea or even new conception of ELT. Yet, the discussion is still, in fact,
becoming the point of interest regarding to its practice in the field. Let alone the countries as
Indonesia considering English as a foreign or “second” language. English has been formally
taught for far too long before and yet, in fact, it is still considered as the most diffucult subject
to get along with. What is the problem actually?
This article presents a discussion on teaching- learning process of English language and
culture which is definitely linked to it in question. The choice of adapting the target culture or
the local culture as a context in English Language Teaching is outlined. Conceptual frameworks
and some research findings are the basis to go to the conclusion and recomendation for the
teaching practice and future prospective research studies. For that reason, the authors have
decided to present and discuss the following topics as guideline of systematic reviews: (1) what
is target Culture as a context? (2) what is local culture as a context ?

METHOD

This study belongs to a literature review under the Snyder’s (2019) method of systematic
literature review consisting of four steps that are designing the review, conducting the review,
analyzing, and writing the review were employed by the writers. The data were obtained from
books and scientific articles published in national and international journals that subsequently
highlighted following the steps of the method in question.

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The writers gained the digested data from articles and books published in reputable
journal both national and international. In this respect, the authors employed peculiar keywords
and considered some specific criteria in searching articles. The criteria dealt with the indexed
status of the publication, year of the publication, and the topic.
The criteria of the journals were indexed by Sinta, Scopus, or Web of Science.
Meanwhile, for the books, the writers used some relevant books regardless of their publication
years. This was intentionally done with a consideration that the chosen books were still up to
date up to the present time. Both articles and books discussed culture, target, and local culture
in the context of teaching English as the target language.

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

Target Culture as a context

As a term, culture is a broad concept. It deals with the ways of life such as beliefs,
concepts, habits, behaviour, principles, and everything we learn to do. For some decades up this
present time, the relation between language and culture in teaching- learning process has been
broadly discussed even debated. As such, there is no fixed conception and formula regarding
what and how it should be. Yet, it is invetably that there is a close relation between the two
terms. Language might be loss if there is no culture. On the other way around, the culture does
not have formula if there is no language (Jiang, 2010). Likely, a report on language and culture
has conffirmed that they are so interwoven. In this regard separating them would lose the
significance of their own (Huda, 2015; Lindahl & Watkins, 2015).
To add on, Choudhury (2014), Jabeen & Shah, Sayed (2011), Mahmoud (2015), Mejía
(2016), Shin, Eslami, & Chen (2011) and Siefert, Salas, & Amico (2015) have assesrted a very
interesting opinion that is language is socially constructed and shared meaning system. The
language meaning might not be found in the language itself or its users but on its community
who has used it. Putting it differently, a language has a meaning and is socially constructed.
One’s interpretation on language always relates to a context where social experiences might
occur. Moving further, one constructs his/her knowledge, through engaging with others, the
language must be there. As such, actions, experiences, and life patterns determine him/her of
being more or less.
In teaching context, what and how to teach the students should be connected to culture.
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In this respect, a teacher should teach his/her lesson by referring to something and that
something is culture (Michelson, 2017). It is, therefore, the importance of cultural in teaching-
learning language is an absolute. Referring the shift of the teaching toward the learning,
(Limberg (2015), Miska, Szőcs, & Schiffinger (2017) Yang & Li (2019) have already reminded
that culture awarness plays a vital role in the classroom activities. Likely, aside from English
as the target language, Couper and Watkins, (2016) have emphasized the need to study target
culture for foreign Language learners. Language seems senseless if the learners do not know
anything about the people who speak that language.
Along the line of this argument, English learners are still struggling with the mastery
of basic linguistic forms. They might success or make errors in their language production. For
errors, they do not only appear as the insufficient knowledge of target language (L2) but also
of insuffiecient knowledge of target culture. As such, the former in question might occur both
in written and spoken mode resulting from linguistic and culture transfer of L1 to L2 (Dinamika
& Hanafiah, 2019; Fadilah, 2019; Fitria, 2018; Fitria, 2020; Kalee, Rasyid, & Muliastuti, 2018;
Setiyorini, Dewi, & Masykuri, 2020). This is to say that to treat the errors, English learners
should pay attention with both the linguistics forms and culture norms of the target language
users.
Learning English as the target language does not only deal with syntactical aspects,
phonological, and morphological (linguistic domain) but also learns the culture and the
pragmatic rules of L2 users (Kadarisman, 2015). As confirmed by Brown (2001), if one
successfully learns a language, he/she automatically succeds to learn something of the speakers
of that language. To attain this, target language (English) learners should have both language
and culture competence in their language production. Having insufficient knowledge of those
two can create the so-called pragmatic errors (Gunduz, 2016; Saleem, Anjum, & Tahir, 2021;
Zhu, 2012; Stukan, 2018; Brown & Levinson, 1978). Similarly, Mahmud (2019), Naoko
Taguchi (2012) and Naoko, Taguchi & Cmu (2011) have revealed that pragmatic errors might
occur as the wrong use of any linguistic forms and misunderstanding of what is meant by what
is said in context. Thus, the culture of target language users is very influential in learning their
language.
Therefore, of greater importance in teaching English as the target language is making
use of its culture as a teaching context. English teachers should teach their students the culture

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of L2 (Couper & Watkins, 2016; Lindahl & Watkins, 2015; Mahmoud, 2015; Marhamah, Daud,
& Samad, 8AD; Miska et al., 2017; Tajeddin & Pezeshki, 2014; Yang & Li, 2019) to put the
language barriers away and help them to do a culture adjustment regarding their language
production. Likely, since language and culture are interrelated, teacher should give a space in
which the target culture is embedded (Couper & Watkins, 2016; Limberg, 2015; Lindahl &
Watkins, 2015; Tajeddin, 2012).

Moreover, what to teach is automatically and usually links to culture. The lesson is about
something and it is cultural (Mahmoud, 2015; Siegel, 2014). Saying it differently (Tin, 2014;
Yang & Li, 2019) have proposed that if one wants to learn a certain language, he/she has to
learn its people and its culture. It does not make any sense to learn another language
independently without learn its culture (Tajeddin 2012). Then, it is very crucial to pay attention
on the target culture as one teaches and learns a target language. Since it is really urgent, culture
might be considered as the fifth skill to master. For teachers, the skill that has to go along with
the teaching skill that might empower the learners to master the language easily.

Local Culture as a context

In contrast with the first in which the target culture is embeded in teaching- learning
process, the second view is concerned with the local culture’s role in the teaching-learning
language. As such, the culture in question refers to any proper products, behaviour, visiable and
non- visible things which might be used in ELT. As such, this second view proposes that the
local culture employment in teaching- learning context is useful and of benefit for the learners’
language mastery. In the meantime, the target culture is rejected for its inclusion in language
teaching-learning context.
The rejection is concerned with the learners’ burden and a consideration of English as
lingua franca. The learners might view a strange phenomenon as they experience different
culture from what they imagine. In addition, they might have negative reactions and feel
shocked due to unfamiliar content or context found in the target culture. Briefly, their burden
would be more cognitively and linguistically. Aside from those, the learners are equipped with
the feeling of alienation and strangeness. Therefore, there is a must to teach learners by
considering their locality (Mahmoud, 2015).

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Meanwhile, progress reports in the field have extensively discussed and widely debated
concerning with the local culture in teaching and learning language. There have been many
studies carried out resulting from curiosity whether its use is relevant or not. Many studies have
indicated that local culture is definitely needed to be integrated in the process of teaching. For
example, the studies of Chan (2013), Nicholas (2015), Siegel (2014) which found that using
unfamiliar context might cause the linguistic problems. On the other way around, context
familiarity by utilizing local aspect is beneficial and helpful for English learners. The studies
have also highlighted the term processing overload of having linguistic and target culture at the
same time. This means that local culture which is more familiar and preferable to use than the
target one. Focusing on students own culture instead of dealing with the discourse of target
culture in EFL classroom might facilitate the target language acquisition.
Along the line the studies, teachers should understand, contextualize and adapt English
language that is internationally used and is as a lingua franca in teaching context. Diversity and
complexity of various ELT context and its effect in teaching process are helpful. Context
diversity and complexity, in this sense, are concerned with the inclusion of the learners’ local
culture (Cocks, Vetter, & Wiersum, 2017; Shin et al., 2011; Tin, 2014). In this regard, it is
necessarly done to reconstruct the local knowledge by placing in context and through function
and meaning it might serve.
While the mentioned studies concentrated on the necessity of local culture as a context
of teaching, there was moving a step forward emphasizing the concrete insertion of local culture
in the textbooks. Research reports on English language text books have strongly argued that the
course should rely on country’s enviorenment reflecting people’s life, belief, experinces,
manner and interest. Local-based teaching materials should be made, as they are percieved more
culturely or experintially than other course books written by native speakers from English
speaking contries (Mahmud, 2019; Snodin, 2015; Suswandari, 2017). To add on, the setting of
English Language Teaching (ELT) must take place in original source of the learners. To achieve
more effective learning experinces, the integration of learners’ local context and culture should
be carried out. As such, it could be as a bridge of good learning process; without any obstacles,
or if any, learning problems can be solved smoothly (Byram, 1993; Meihami & Khanlarzadeh,
2015; Syahri & Susanti, 2016).

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Focusing on the identity awareness, Reed, Said, Davies, Bengsch, & Reed (2019), Hajar
(2017), and Teng (2020) have proposed and encouraged learners of English to talk using their
local materials in order to be aware of their own culture indentity in global context. Likely,
Motteram (2016) has suggested to insert the locality in English textbooks for the sake of identity
in 21st century. More particularly, those research findings have indicated the significant
inclusion of local context in English teaching-learning and have provided an effective way of
facilitating learner’s identitiy to living globally.
To date, a relevant question is what happens in Indonesian context? There have been
many studies carried out regarding the use of local culture in English Language Teaching. For
example, Alamsyah (2016) did a research on the significance of integration local context or
culture in curiculum. This is supported by Kuntoro, Peterson, and Slaughter (2017) who
emphasized the importance of local culture integration in teaching- learning process. As such,
the insertion might serve a function to improve and maintain the spirit of nationalism.
Meanwhile, other studies have highlighted beliefs, values and local wisdom in
classroom instruction. Pushing further, the study offered an alternative instructional method
that incorporated with the three in question in classroom context (Suswandari, 2017). As such,
aside from improving English, it is beneicial for bulding a good character. Along the line of this
findings, Mahmud (2019), Syahri and Susanti (2016) have proposed the development of
English course books which relies much on environmental eduaction. These cover learners’
activities outside school, ethic, conduct, and manner in terms of valuing diversity and
nationalism. At this point, it is necessary to put a great attention on the local culture employment
during teaching learning process. The teachers should localize their pedagogy which might be
beneficial in designing orientation, tolerance and personality development.
Overall, the local culture insertion in teaching is of benefit for learners’ English
language mastery and learners’ attitude. Aside from English as a lingua franca, the local culture
employment might maintain learners’ identity, ethic, conduct and manner in global context. In
a more profound sense, the insertion, as highlighted by previous studies, would be of insightful
to reduce the probability of having assimilation as well as alienation along with the linguistic
concern of the target language.
The issue of culture is a complex. Bringing it to English Language Teaching, it is not a
simple case. Choice of adapting target or local culture as a context in English Language

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Teaching, in fact, is still debateable. Progress reports in the field have revealed differently
following the benefits and the role of their own (Shin et al., 2011; Wolthuis, Bloemert, &
Tammenga-helmantel, 2020). Therefore, as an English teacher, there should be an extra effort
to realign his/her ways of teaching along with the instructional materials, techniques and
approach used. More importantly, both teacher and students should attain the learning goals
and be able to teach and learn language properly both in use and usage as well.
With respect to the inclusion of the target culture, findings of previous studies have
claimed that the necessity of target context (culture) in English teaching-learning relies on target
language learning acceleration and the consideration of expanding learners’ cultural awareness.
Besides, it should be done to incorporate global and multicultural perspectives (Ridha & Maad,
2016). Teaching target culture in English language classroom aims at evolving responsive
action. An extensive and a more all- embracing omprehensive experiences of target culture in
ELT (English Language Teaching) might strengthen the engagement with global citizenships.
In addition, the previous studies suggesting the inclusion of target culture have claimed the
insertion of local context in ELT suffers from limitation. One of the central issue of such
inclusion deals with the dereliction to relate the English language to the cultures of other
countries and to develop worlwide links. Therefore, such constraint is solved by the inclusion
of global culture materials. In this context, language awareness must be oriented to the diversity
through which learners might overcome the barriers of linguistic and communicative
performances (Lourenço, Andrade, & Sá, 2017).
Yet, it is necessary to note that that the target culture inclusion in language teaching is
not limited to objects, facts and artefacts’, always handing out culture as steady, congruent
‘facts’ (Canale, 2016). It can not only promote peripheral comparisons between ‘our’ and ‘their’
cultures without promoting the diversity or evoking one’s criticality. In this regard, better
cultural inclusion should represent the culture of target language and other international culture
values or manner as well that subsequently notify and escalate the global citizenship attitude
(Davidson & Liu, 2018).
To add on, alongside the global citizenship, intercultural citizenship education and
multicultural values are another benefits of the target culture inclusion. As such, learning
referring to others, extensive acknowledgement developing with life experience and action
reflecting in personal changes or activities of a particular community at a range of global lamina

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and borderless should be a must (Baker, Fang, & Baker, 2020; Byram, 1993; Porto, 2017; Porto,
Houghton, & Byram, 2018;Setyono & Widodo, 2019) At this point, the inclusion of the target
culture in ELT classroom might develop social manner and a positive persepectives regarding
the global language community. In more practical sense, the learners should be taught the target
culture as they intend to socialize themselves with other people in this globe. Learning target
language essentially includes learning its culture as they are intimately related (Hajar, 2017).
Meanwhile, regarding the inclusion of local culture, previous findings have convinced
us that the use of local culture is quite more effective in ELT. Standing on sociocultural theory,
the learners’ social context is a vital aspect in learning English as the target language. Therefore,
cultures and experiences of the learners should be utilized in the process of teaching and
learning. Moreover, local cultures or contexts possess rightfulness which cannot be regarded as
marginal or minor status. Consequently, there is a must for materials or instructional practices
to take the locality into account which can assist and or facilitate learners in learning or
acquiring the target language. Aside from language learning and language acquisition, another
important consideration is the rejection (negative attitude) of the target language they learn as
they find unfamiliar context. Furthermore, English language is regarded as a lingua franca or
even more and should be contextualized where the people learn it (Hult, 2017; Jabeen & Shah,
Sayed, 2011).
Likely, ELT should ideally go to a context of factual life or local context in which
students are regulated. Then, language and schematic knowledge are learnt and constructed
socially and culturally banded (Hafner, 2015). In terms of schematic knowledge, he elaborates
that foreign language learners, for instance, are determined by their mother tongue’s culture.
He also assumed that students sometimes have pitfalls to comprehend the learning materials
due to the unfamiliar context such lexical and cultural items that are unfamiliar to them if
teaching target language utilizing target culture.
To be noted, adapting local culture in English Language Teaching is regarded as a way
of enhancing students’ mastery in English language and stirring good conducts. The more
teaching-learning process relies on local- authentic materials, the better values might have.
Employing local context, beside helping learners to understand and know what to say, it
unconsciously builds the learners’ good character The value contained in local culture is quite
natural and contextual for language mastery and character building.

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By and large, the important role of culture in English Language Teaching (ELT) is
definetely disputed. Some have believed that target culture (TL) is of benefit to be included as
the consideration of global citizenship and cross-culture understanding. Yet, for those
concerning with local culture relies on the consideration of English as lingua franca and self-
identity. Besides, local culture along with its local (first) language is badly claimed helpful in
acquiring the target language.
Interestingly, different from the conflicting ideas mentioned, viewed from cognitive
perspective, inclusion of a target culture againsts students’ familiarity and experiential
knowledge. Therefore, it would be more beneficial and helpful as the materials rooted to their
prior or preparatory knowledge. Moreover, learners can be encouraged to study a target
language by provoking them to have a good attitude and build the self- reliance or confidence
toward the target culture by inserting or adapting a local context in teaching, (Chan, 2013). As
such, both local and target culture play important role in English Language Teaching.
To put it differently, English Language Teaching (ELT) should consider both local and
target cultural context. Students should be aware of their own local cultures enriching authentic
linguistic knowledge and social enactments as learning English (a target language), thereby
having a more meaningful learning. Meanwhile, there is a need to teach culture of the learnt-
target language to live in global community. The more we use both, the more powerfull our
teaching is and the better target language learners have. Moreover, it has been expostulated by
previous studies that learners do not need to rely on the English native speakers’ culture to
thrash out or negotiate meaning and communicate with other users of English. Effective L2
learners do not necessarily learn have to promote the whole target culture. Meanwhile, other
studies have highlighted that to make learners more global in terms of knowledge, ways of
thinking, social adaptation, they should be introduced with target culture. At this point, both are
acceptable in the context of teaching-learning English.
Along the line of this statement, regardless the pro and cons and or the strength and
weakness, to date, what is more important is the proportion or the balance in which target
culture and local culture is inserted. In this regard, as a target language teacher, he/she should
be more resourceful and knowledgable to place the instances of a target culture or local culture
in teaching. A balance and a proportional combination of localized and native-speaking, and
internationalised culture forms is a proxy or a choice to cope with the issue in question. What

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to teach needs to be context-based, yet it must invlove the global or target culture to scaffold,
facilitate learners’ intercultural performance and competence as well. The teacher should be
encouraged to use teaching materials or textbooks to make sure that his/her students are exposed
to global, target, and local cultural components.
By and large, inserting culture in the English Language Teaching (ELT) seems not an
easy job. There must be, to certain extent, a degree of conflict between what is global and what
is local in teaching-learning process. Yet, a mixture of the two in question while considering
the proportion of each and learners’ needs is essential. In this regard, it is very important to
have a class in the sense that the learners fell comfortable in mastering the target language
resulting from the teaching activities. Although, the inclusion of culture, whether target or local
culture in ELT is little bit challenging, the proportion of what and how to utilize them in
teaching-learning process might be an intermediary of this challenge. In addition, having
pointed out sociocultural theory supporting the context playing a vital role in teaching and
learning language, the employement of culture does not only involve the target culture but also
the local one following the needs of teaching and learning.
Leaving the context of target or local culture in teaching- learning process aside, another
important aspect to consider is the teaching itself. English Language Teaching language should
be regarded more as mediating students in learning than solely telling them a piece of
information. Therefore, teaching should be caaried out in such a way that it can result in
students’ active learning experiences. The employment of target and local context in teaching
English should be in balance and be carried out wisely to reach the result in question and to
have more powerfull and meaningful learners’ mind and character as well. Such consideration
of teaching might empower learners to think globally and act locally.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATION

The position of culture is a central issue in in English teaching-learning process. The
hottest issue is that the choice of target or local culture to be integrated. As such, previous
studies have found different findings. Some have agreed that the target culture must be
delivered for the learners with the consideration of global citizenship and interculture
competence of living in the global community. Differently, for those saying that local culture
needs to be inserted in teaching learning process relies on the consideration of English as a
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lingua franca, language acquisition, and national identity. Regardless the conflicting findings,
combination of the two in question might be better. In this respect, both are acceptable and can
be utilized in English Language Teaching. Then, As an English teacher, he/she must be more
resourceful and knowledgeable to know what and how to teach. Besides, he/she has to be able
in managing the proportion or balance of the two following the learners’ needs. A good
proportion of both is an intermediary of the conflicting findings.
More importantly, future research studies might be better and more benefecial to bring
closer to the integration of local culture into typography of national curiculum, textbooks along
with the assessment process. Briefly, the extent of culture embeded in national curiculum and
the teacher ways of doing assessment is more challenging issue to deal with. As such, the studies
might yield important aspects and broaden views of contextualizing the target language
teaching and learning.

BIO-PROFILE

Hieronimus Canggung Darong graduated from STIBA Malang in 2000. He got his master
degree from UNDIKSHA Singaraja Bali in 2012 and doctoral degree in the English education
department of Universitas Negeri Malang in 2020. His research interest includes discourse
analysis, language learning and teaching, and language and culture studies. Corresponding
email: hieronimusdarong@gmail.com

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