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宇都宮大学国際学部研究論集 2009, 第28号, 85−101 85

A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials

Andrew Reimann

The following study aims at exploring and positive understanding of the target language and
describing the type of cultural content found in English relevant communities. Presentation, how cultural
Language textbooks in Japan. Considering learner’ information is included, omitted or simplified.
s diverse language needs, it has become increasingly Practicality, including general factors determining
important that English as a Foreign Language be how cultural content is balanced to accommodate
taught with accompanying communication skills immediate, short term concerns such as teach-
including critical thinking, intercultural knowledge ability, marketability and relevance. By analyzing
and understanding as well as a heightened sense of various textbooks from both local and international
cultural awareness. For the purposes of this study, publishers, this study provides a representative sample
cultural awareness raising will be defined as any of materials, highlighting priorities, shortcomings
activity which actively seeks to engage learners and and methods for raising cultural awareness in Japan.
broaden their understanding, increase sensitivity Widdowson (2005) has criticized typical EFL texts
and promote flexibility and tolerance of otherness as failing to engage students while providing limited
and cultural diversity. As most language learning and unrealistic cultural information. He suggests
contexts are limited to the classroom environment and that teachers use the culture that already exists in
communication opportunities with members of the the classroom along with more authentic materials
target language community are few, it is essential that which will be of greater interest and relevance to the
texts and materials provide this missing element of students. Most teachers however are not trained to do
realism as accurately and objectively as possible. This this and still rely heavily on the text books for content,
has often been problematic especially when deciding inspiration and perspective. As a result it is quite
whose culture to represent, and how to present difficult to break the cycle and create materials with
cultural content without stereotypes or essentialist broader objectives and cultural content.
perspectives, while keeping information relevant and
interesting. Most textbooks are marketed for wide In considering the implementation of a viable
audiences and therefore tend to generalise in terms and appropriate cultural awareness raising method,
of skills, acceptable subjects, or cultural content. “To a primary concern involves the content, usage, and
market texts for any specific demographic in this goal of texts and materials. In the context of ELT in
context would be unprofitable.” (Oxford University Japan, materials developing and publishing is a vast
Press, Marketing Director 2008). industry and there are a plethora of textbooks and
related multimedia available for teachers and students.
In evaluating textbooks on their effectiveness in In the University context, few schools synchronize
this regard, the following areas will be considered: texts with goals or curriculum and lessons, content
Goals and outcomes, the extent to which content is and subsequent syllabi are typically modeled after the
used to raise cultural awareness or otherwise engage textbook without considering students, levels, needs
the students in a way that promotes interest and a or goals. Although textbook writers and publishers,
86 Andrew Reimann

in order to appear more innovative and flexible,

have embraced technology and adapted materials 1. Introducing target and learners specific culture is
and methods accordingly, including CD’s, DVD’s, not cost effective when publishers are marketing
downloadable content and media as well as extensive their books for the widest audience possible.
web support for teachers and students, efforts to Peter Viney an author of several textbooks used
modify texts to include more culturally sensitive and throughout Japan states that “Some books are
awareness raising content or methodology to coincide highly market-specific. But many textbooks are
with user’s evolving needs as speakers of English as an global, and you will find them being used in many
International Language, have been largely neglected, countries simultaneously. Some learners prefer a
other than at a superficial level (Stapleton 2000). book addressed to their particular problems, others
like to feel part of a global pattern. Most of the
In order to be relevant and capture the interests major adult courses used in Japan are also used in
of students, texts and materials are loaded with other countries. There are some odd patterns, but
references to iPods, blogging, hybrid cars and the reason that Japanese characters in books tend
other examples of the latest trends and technology. to meet Latin Americans is because of the sales
However, this, cutting edge innovation is largely pattern of books in American English.” ELT Think
limited to content as methods, for the most part, do Tank October 2000.
not reflect the changing times or the needs of students http://www.eltnews.com/features/thinktank/
(Takanashi 2004). English as a Global Language and 006_pv.shtml
Intercultural Communication are by no means new 2. Designing books which engage students and provide
concepts and have long been regarded as essential relevant and unbiased information is very difficult
components of language learning. Although these and time consuming requiring much more research
ideas have become quite popular in Japan over the past and piloting than usually carried out for standard
few years no serious advances towards incorporating textbooks.
them into viable cultural awareness pedagogy seem 3. Textbooks are designed primarily with teachers
apparent. The mythical native speaker’s language in mind, focus tends to be on simple and easily
and culture remain the benchmarks from which to comprehensible input which requires minimal
gauge proficiency and competence while the notion preparation or explanation by the teacher. It is after
of English as an international language with its many all the teachers who choose the textbooks and it
diverse cultures, forms and representations remains would be a fair assumption that teachers will select
elusive and abstract. Cultural references in textbooks a book which they are comfortable teaching over
are in fact mostly limited to titles, unit chapters and one that has cultural content with which they are
arbitrary content or tourist information. When culture not readily familiar.
is presented it is usually either biased, oversimplified 4. Students goals for language learning a varied and
or without a validating context. Shi (2000) studied diverse it would be equally useless to create a
40 texts used in College English classes in China and text geared towards an assumed target culture
found that all information was either selected from and designing culture general materials without
western publications or focused primarily on western understanding level, interests, background or goals.
content. The limited nature of cultural information
in Language is a general problem in the textbook Considering that most EFL materials are
publishing industry and there are several basic reasons predominantly skill based, eliciting largely irrelevant
for this which will be outlined and explained in the behavior out of context in order to prepare learners
following: to enter, interact with and ultimately communicate
 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 87

with members of specific target cultures. Many texts medium for providing language learners with
addressing cultural content are limited to offering examples of target language usage, cultural content
overt, “tourist culture” or teaching abstract and and information, however, most texts remain one
irrelevant facts which are often presented with bias and dimensional, biased and fail to engage the learner in
consequently do little more than reinforce stereotypes, any meaningful way. The modern student is used to
and exaggerate or misrepresent the culture (Kramsch. multitasking and interacting with easily accessible and
1993, Byram. 1997, Moran. 2001). “To date the relevant information characteristic of evolving media
teaching of culture largely consists of the passing on of such as blogs, online social networks, video games or
information regarding various dimensions of the target chat rooms (facebook, youtube or twitter). Teachers
culture, such as geography, education, food and drink, cannot compete with the cultural influences students
tourist highlights, politics, the economy, etc. “(Sercu. are exposed to outside the classroom teachers need to
2002:62). With regard to cultural content in TESL or feel that they are contributing to these influences not
TEFL, the majority of materials and texts are based competing with them. (Fenner 2001:51).Therefore,
on models of American Culture and are thus geared there is a greater need and challenge for texts to
towards developing a very limited, loosely defined and capture the learner’s interest with engaging content.
not necessarily appropriate brand of cultural awareness Méndez García (2005) in a study of intercultural
(Fenner 2001). Clarke and Clarke (1990) report that communication materials concluded that it is important
there is much stereotyping and bias in British EFL to acquaint the learner with the target language culture
materials especially in areas of gender, race, class, for the purposes of:
and religion. They conclude that Britishness seems ・enhancing students’ knowledge of the world
to be the standard, and cross-cultural perspectives in and their knowledge of foreign communities;
communication are deemphasized or denied. Although ・familiarizing them with the most salient
much has been written in criticism of such approaches behavioral patterns of the target societies;
and materials there are few suggestions on how to ・promoting attitudes of respect and tolerance;
improve methods, materials or models in a way that ・fostering reflection upon one’s own culture;
would lead to the development of an acceptable, ・emphasizing the relative role of one’s cultural
appropriate and viable pedagogy. In order to counter assumptions or developing real intercultural
balance the majority of center based materials being communication in an intercultural world.
plied on the expanding periphery of non-native
EFL contexts, Canagarajah (2002), has called for If students are able to master these skills, they
a rethinking of the publishing process which has will be much better equipped to take initiative and
teachers playing a key role in researching, developing responsibility for developing their own cultural
and implementing unique materials for their particular awareness raising strategies and actively engage and
environments. Considering the growing demand and interact with the cultures they encounter in the real
increasing need for more well rounded globally aware, world.
communicatively competent societies, relatively In order to determine, evaluate and describe the
little has been published on how best to achieve this. cultural information included in many EFL materials
Although trends have begun to lean towards further the following will report on a critical analysis and
exploring cultural content in language learning as “a comparison from a sample of representative, best
pedagogy of difference”, (Giroux 1993) this does not selling or popular EFL texts from 9 publishers, 4 local
indicate any kind of paradigm shift and much is left to and 5 international, actively creating materials for the
be explored. Japanese EFL context.
The EFL text book remains the dominant
88 Andrew Reimann

The following study examined examples of cultural to the following five criterion:
information in textbooks and evaluated them based on ・Goals: Skills, knowledge, understanding or
the following criteria: awareness. Systemic knowledge of the formal
properties of language like semantics and
1. Do the texts actively seek to engage the syntax or schematic knowledge like culture
students through language or cultural content? (Socially acquired knowledge) Widdowson
2. Do the texts offer an unbiased perspective of 1990
culture? ・Tasks: Active; Allows students to reflect,
3. Do the texts consider the learners culture? engage, process or synthesize cultural
4. Is there any connection or reference made to information Passive; Students are just subjected
the learners own culture in order to establish to arbitrary tourist information through
relevance? teacher centered passive learning, which they
5. Is culture used purely as a source of facts to cannot connect with in any meaningful way,
learn about or is it presented as stimulating not relevance or connection to their culture,
material which students can learn from? perspective or reality.
6. Do the texts further basic stereotypes or is ・Presentation: Intentional or unintentional, As
material presented objectively for students to content material only not specifically for raising
make their own discoveries and interpretations? awareness. As examples of culture for raising
7. What are the goals of the text books? What awareness In connection with learners realities
is the actual purpose of including cultural and cultures for relevance, Direct or indirect,
content? implied or stated
8. Are the goals of the text a linear approach to ・Perspective and Representation: Center or
developing native like proficiency or a more Peripheral, Biased, stereotypical, ethnocentric,
holistic approach to understanding the diverse or diverse
culture and communication styles of English as ・Cultural Artifacts: People, Objects, Places,
an international Language? Language, Activities

The EFL textbooks considered in this study were Method and Analysis
selected based on their representativeness of the most International Publishers: Conversation Texts
commonly used materials in Japan. These included a Text: Impact Series, R. Day and J. Yamanaka,
sample of texts from major publishers both local and Longman Asia, 1999/2008
international, A sample of texts which claim to raise One of the most popular and longest selling
cultural awareness or have such an implied meaning of the widely used Impact Series. This text aims at
in the title or texts which are purely skills based and stimulating discussion and critical thinking on “timely
do not intentionally include or actively seek to present topics” relevant to unspecified students. Although
cultural content, and a sample of texts which are aimed no clear cultural goals are stated, the topics provide
primarily at developing English Communication and underlying cultural awareness theme, as many
skills focusing on listening and speaking abilities of the characters have non western names and the
and exercises most commonly associate with the scenarios are often set in international venues. The
“conversation class.” introduction does claim to promote and understanding
Using the questions outlined above, this survey of diverse values, international English and Global
will organize analyze and described cultural content communication, however the methodology and content
and methodology by relating results and information remains dominantly western based.
 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 89

Goals: Cultural awareness, critical thinking, speaking ranging from Luis, Keiko, Kan, Kwan, Mark, Susan,
and listening. Dr. Moon, Hye-Jin, Mali and Yeon-Suk without any
Text: Impact Topics, Unit: 9 The Boyfriend, Theme: reference to culture or significance of the name. Yet all
International Marriage characters seem to embody western values despite the
The goal of this unit is to stimulate thinking on intended intercultural atmosphere implied in an exotic
cross-cultural differences by highlighting certain, name. The only characters in fact with Japanese names,
problems and stereotypes which surface as a result Akira and Keiko, are put in a scenario so completely
of an intended international marriage. By providing un-Japanese in nature that the whole unit becomes
a dialogue on a thought provoking topic, the purpose nonsensical and ridiculous to Japanese students.
here is to motivate students to think in English and When Akira and Keiko kiss in front of the university
engage in conversation and discussion by sharing their library. By having Japanese characters performing
ideas and opinions on the subject. Sarah and her father actions which are strongly considered social and
are discussing her plans to marry her boyfriend Kimo. cultural taboos makes the topic lose its credibility and
None of the characters are given any cultural identity relevance. The students no longer take it seriously and
or orientation apart from Kimo who is, through his the motivation for discussion and reflection evaporates
non western name, somehow supposed to embody behind the only question which arises; Are they really
and arbitrary otherness. By assuming western, cultural Japanese? The effect of this is so great that it is not
values it is difficult for peripheral students to identify even possible to engage in a discussion on the origins
with the conversation, the characters or the situation. of values, or appropriateness.
The father flatly refuses Sarah’s wishes to marry by Similarly, In Unit 6, Housework, Kwan and Hye-
stating “Kimo is not one of us…” but fails to qualify Jin are an unmarried couple living together. They
such direct statements or anchor them with clues are having problems because Kwan refuses to do
from the students own culture. The text attempts to housework so Hye-Jin writes to a local newspaper for
be neutral and thus culturally appropriate or sensitive, advice. Although this may provide an opportunity to
however the nature of the conversation, the tone and analyze cultural differences in gender roles, despite
the register are obviously white, North American the characters both being from the same culture, it
and thus lose their relevance to students who have no skates over bigger hurdles like the acceptability
related experiences. It would be better if no cultural of living together before marriage or the airing of
assumptions were made and students were left to personal problems in a public forum. The magnitude
project their own images onto the characters and the of these widely held cultural taboos overshadows
situation by naming them and describing the scenario the main theme and causes the whole exercise to be
themselves. As it is this example only serves to further incomprehensible to most students.
any perceived dichotomy of us vs. them and despite Unit 3 of the same series is titled “Who needs the
its intention runs counter to any goals of cultural local language?” involves a discussion of two expat
awareness raising. men regarding learning a local language versus only
The only critical thinking, stimulating activity relying on English. Although the unit potentially offers
asks the students to decide and elaborate on which some perspective raising opportunities in considering
differences such as skin color, religion or language are the role of English as a global language and minority
the greatest barriers to human relationships. This is languages, the story does not go beyond the characters
particularly dangerous as it provides no opportunity for personal bias. Unfortunately no reference is made to
reflection or understanding and only serves to reinforce the cultures associated with the languages, cultural
any previously held reservations of otherness. nuances or communication differences. Considering
In subsequent units, characters have names that this is an EFL text, there is not even an example
90 Andrew Reimann

to support either case or promote the learning and discussion as well as learn from each other.
understanding of English. The unit concludes with Text: My First Passport, Angela Buckingham,
exercises titled “becoming international” these ask Oxford University Press, 2005
the students to hypothesize on the best way to become Among the most successful books in the passport
an international person by choosing statements they series, this text, subtitled “English for international
agree with such as; study culture and customs, learn communication,” is geared towards preparing students
language or make international friends. Unfortunately for experiences abroad. The goals in the introduction
these statements are so broad and obvious that they explicitly state that the focus is on survival English
do not allow for much reflection from the students. It for Japanese students interacting in a foreign culture
would be much more useful here if the information or welcoming foreign visitors to Japan. There are
and impetus for cultural learning came from the set themes and language functions such as asking
students. The final exercise has the students plan a trip directions, talking about food, customs or family and
to a country and is an ultimate example of promoting these are set in three different contexts, Hong Kong,
tourist culture and reinforcing stereotypes. By having Canada and Japan. The characters in the dialogues are
the students decide what they should bring, what all Japanese students interacting in various situations
they will eat and where they will stay based only on with members of their host family. The exercises are
their existing knowledge of a country. Each unit also mostly teacher centered activities requiring students to
contains a section called “Culture Corner” which is fill in blanks, listen to a dialogue and then practice the
intended to promote cultural learning by providing phrases while substituting various vocabulary words.
facts, statistics and other trivia about specific countries. Although there is cultural information included in
This information ranges from a list of percentages of the scenarios such as descriptions of the host families
men who do house work in various countries, how to house, routines, family structure and relationships,
say I love you in 10 different languages, to the top 10 there is no opportunity for the students to reflect on
problems people have learning a foreign language, these. Each unit follows essentially the same pattern
these are at best stereotypical and without context, of introducing and practicing language chunks to
references or qualifying information, misleading and be used in certain situations when travelling abroad
ambiguous. The units reviewed in this series have and is therefore, virtually indistinguishable from any
the potential for being strong instruments of cultural standard English phrase book. There is nothing in the
awareness raising by including interesting subjects and lessons to indicate an effort to promote international
themes for promoting reflection and critical thinking. English or cultural awareness. For a text that claims to
However the format, language and presentation fail provide survival skills for experience abroad there is
to engage students and in many cases even have the no provision made for the unexpected or unpredictable
opposite effect. A text of this type would be much characteristics of language and social interaction.
more successful if the information and scenarios were Students are led to believe that the phrases they
more authentic and the excises more open ended, in learn will be appropriate in the scenarios described
this way the students would be able to bring their own in the text however in reality this is highly unlikely.
realities to the lesson and thereby compare, contrast Flexibility in communication, negotiation of meaning
and speculate on the origin and reason behind certain and learning to be appropriate by observing, evaluating
cultural differences. This would also provide the and interacting are arguably the most important
realism and relevance required in cultural learning. If survival strategies for cross cultural communication.
the students are able to invest their own cultural values By failing to include these elements the text actually
and information into the process then they will be serves to limit the student’s awareness and ability
more motivated to actively participate in inquiry and to participate fully and successfully in any given,
 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 91

evolving communication scenario. The appendices of students, these examples do not provide anything to
the text do offer some grounding in the learners own learn from and will only serve to build up stereotypes
culture by translating and explaining critical elements and expectations of what people in such and such a
in Japanese as well as providing a section entitled country do. Again many of the characters have non
“my story” where the books characters reflect on their standard names such as Pilar and Jesus and these only
own experiences and how they learned from them. confuse and distract the students from the issues. The
The best example of this involves a student visiting arbitrary inclusion of non-western names without
an American family’s home and being surprised that, context or clarification does not provide the students
contrary to her expectations, everyone is asked to take with any useful cultural information. This text should
their shoes off before entering, as is done in Japan. The apply the same open ended approach to cultural
lesson she states here is that it is best to follow what awareness raising as it does to language learning, in
everyone else does or ask specifically how to behave this way students could engage the content from their
before assuming an action is appropriate. This type of own perspectives and creatively evaluate and adapt
exercise is an example of cultural awareness raising their communication strategies accordingly.
as it clearly demonstrates reflection on differences, Text: New Interchange, Cambridge University
reevaluation of previously held beliefs and active Press, Jack C. Richards, 1990/2005
learning from rather than about culture. The interchange series is a staple of the EFL
Text: World Link, Susan Stempleski, Thomson and textbook lineup, having been in print for almost 20
Heinle, 2005 years. The most recent edition stresses English for
World Link is a skill based text focusing on International Communication and differs from previous
developing English fluency with an international versions in its inclusion of cultural information and
flavor. The goals stated include vocabulary, more international scenarios. Most of the characters
grammar, listening comprehension, and autonomous are of different backgrounds with usually at least one
communication. Each unit follows a similar format a native speaker from the U.S. or U.K. In unit 5 Tell
starting with the introduction of a theme and some me about your family, Ryan from America and Soo-
key words followed by an activity asking students Mi from Korea are having a conversation on family,
to describe a picture and create a dialogue based on marriage, divorce and gender roles
the scenario depicted therein. For the most part the Students are asked to paraphrase the facts
activities are open ended and require students to think stated by each character in the dialogue (ie) What
using English in creative and realistic ways. In terms does Ryan say about families in the U.S.? The rest
of language learning such a method can be quite of the unit focuses on understanding statistics with
successful as the students are required to imagine a selected information on American family trends and
context and decide how to use language appropriately. overgeneralizations regarding other countries such as
The cultural aspects of this text are largely ignored in Australia 87% of married couples have children.
accept on an overt and trivial level designed to provide Whether true or not such a statement without context
the international “World Link” dimension alluded to in or qualification only creates an arbitrary image in
the book’s title. The examples of this included in unit the students mind regarding the target community,
6 Communication, consisted of a list of greetings in without understanding the circumstances involved or
varies countries, advice on what certain gestures mean evaluating, comparing or learning from the cultural
in different cultures and a set of pictures depicting information.
various people engaged in non-verbal communication The writing exercise which follows, encourages
actions. As these are all out of context and without students to reflect on cultural information. This section
qualifying information they are of limited use to the begins with a sample statement “In my country most
92 Andrew Reimann

people get married at age…” Such examples are nothing left for the students to think about or bring to
too general and abstract to be of any usefulness to the discussion. The subsequent exercises consist mostly
the student’s cultural or linguistic learning. Such an of multiple choice and fill in the blank activities and
exercise for the purpose of cultural awareness raising are cultural in content only. The focus is on language
should be less matter of fact and more open ended and vocabulary not on understanding or reflecting on
and subjective. Perhaps instead asking questions like; the communication theme. The final exercises follow
What are important family values and how do they the same pattern asking the students to match gestures
effect marriage trends? How and why might these be with their corresponding meaning and country. The
different cross culturally or individually? The final choices are seemingly arbitrary as there is nothing
section of the unit consists of a reading comprehension to link the trivia with any deeper understanding of
exercise on the changing American family. Here people, culture or communication. Canada, China,
students read vague statements from five Americans Japan and India are selected seemingly at random
regarding family matters and are asked to describe and the various gestures used in each country are
the different problems in each family. Although described as prescriptively as grammar rules. The final
this exercise requires reflection on the culture it is activity involves the students selecting a country and
biased in nature and does not provide an opportunity role playing a conversation using gestures as if they
for contemplation or objective comparison with the were from that country, the other students watch and
students own realities. Such activities are only useful try to guess which country is being modeled. Such an
if the cultural information comes from the students and activity runs the risk of trivializing cultural awareness
is evaluated within context in order to fully appreciate and objectifying manners, customs, values, and
and understand the causes, effects and interpretations communication styles as facts to be studied, practiced
which constitute awareness. and remembered. This text takes a structural, grammar
Text: J-Talk, Identity, Oxford University Press, translation style approach to teaching culture when a
(2000/2004) more open ended interpretative and flexible approach
This two book series of “communication across to learning from culture is required.
cultures” is a conversation style text that takes a The second text in the series Identity (J. Shaules,
more active approach to cultural awareness raising. H. Tsujioka and M. Iida 2004) is slightly higher in
The introductory J-Talk (L. Lee, K. Yoshida and S level and offers a more in-depth inquiry into culture
Ziolkowski 2000) text has obvious cultural themes, related topics. This edition similarly tries to actively
which are related to the students own culture and address cultural issues and raise awareness. The goals
explained using examples in Japanese. This is helpful are clearly stated as promoting discussion on cultural
for the students and allows them to think about and themes and the topics included range from Values,
reflect on issues, language and culture. However Communication Styles, Gender and Culture, Diversity,
the exercises and content are oversimplified and so Politeness and Global Community. At a glance this
extremely limited and arbitrary in nature that they fail text appears to be the ideal cultural awareness raising
to engage students on any deeper level. Unit 2, Kiss, tool and the content is well researched and presented.
Bow or Shake hands, directly addresses questions of If teachers are willing to skip the exercises and create
appropriates in cross-cultural communication. The unit their own plan for using the content in their classes
begins with an exercise asking students to interpret this text could be quite useful. However as with the
four pictures in terms of the gestures, situations previous text in the series, the activities are very
and relationships depicted. This would seem like a one dimensional and fail to engage the students or
worthwhile exercise for raising awareness except that encourage any critical inquiry or reflection. Unit 2
the suggested responses are provided and there is “Values”, aims at understanding the underlying aspects
 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 93

of human behavior, culture and communication by Hong Kong before the colony was returned to China.
highlighting what different people consider important. After listening students are asked their opinions,
The first exercise involves listening to a dialogue make predictions regarding missing information
between two students in London. Kijana an exchange and share their ideas on any cultural assumptions
student from Nairobi receives some bad news from connected with the main theme. In principle this is a
his family and informs his roommate Matt that he worthwhile activity however the amount and scope
well have to return to Kenya to manage the family of the questions is too limited to allow for much
business. Matt states that such demands are unfair meaningful consideration of the information presented.
and he doesn’t need to listen to what his family tells In the section on English in South-East Asia, Hong
him to do. Following this the students are asked to Kong, Singapore and Malaysia are highlighted. Each
check their comprehension and reflect on their own country is represented by a brief article that describes
values by imagining how they would react in a similar one of the unique features of the region or the people.
situation. This is a good activity except that all the There is no introduction or basic explanation of the
phrases and potential answers are predetermined and country in terms of geography, history, religion,
listed in a table. All the students need to do here is society or people. Such basic information would
check the answer which best matches their opinion. be helpful in providing background or the context
The only introspective or critical thinking activity has required for relevance and meaningful interpretation
the students elaborate on their preferences and choices and reflection. The reading on Malaysia for example
for the future and for leading a happy life. Again most is a short anecdote on arranged marriages, although
of the answers are provided and the amount students his is interesting it serves only to galvanize the
are able to contribute autonomously is limited. This is students into thinking that his may be the norm in
a clear example of text publisher’s efforts to produce Malaysia, whereas highlighting the diversity of the
more teacher friendly materials with easily presentable country may be more useful for an intercultural
examples and checkable answers. awareness perspective. Each section also provides a
Text: In the English speaking World, Macmillan brief overview of how English came to be part of the
Language House, (2003) culture which would make for interesting discussion
This comprehensive and highly internationally and comparison however there is no opportunity
oriented text claims to “encourage students to make for this and it is presented purely as trivia. The only
inter-cultural comparisons and share their opinions”. opportunity for reflection and discussion comes from
The book is basically a reading resource but also the curious nature of the articles which range in theme
provides some opportunity for listening and speaking. from war, business and politics to music, literature and
The premise of the text is to give a complete overview food. These are however only loosely connected to the
of the English speaking world by providing 20 short featured countries and it is not possible to learn about
essays written by people from the countries or regions the region or from the culture that is being described.
where English is spoken. Each essay offers some facts, Although this book is quite well researched
history, cultural information and perspective on the and organized it is designed for the widest possible
English language and the diversity of the people who audience. It is a text that could well be be used in
speak it. The text is very clearly organized with each the 20 regions of English speaking nations listed.
chapter presenting a short article, some quotes from The drawback of this marketing strategy is that
famous citizens and some comprehension questions students individual needs, cultures, learning styles and
regarding the content of the reading. Each section preferences are not considered and the books basic
concludes with a short listening activity which is format remains a generalized western methodology.
usually authentic, such as a radio broadcast from The text is teacher centered and does not really allow
94 Andrew Reimann

for the students to engage with the material or bring representation from five major publishers and are all
much of their own culture and experience to the texts which focus on either English for international
activity or lesson. The materials and content encourage situations, or directly on teaching intercultural
passive learning of information and are perhaps communication or cultural awareness.
better suited for self study. Although the content is Text: Culture in Action; Classroom Activities for
interesting it is mostly academic in nature and there Cultural Awareness, Y. Abe (etal.), Nan’un-do,
is little opportunity to engage in communication, 1998
or reflect on cultural information in a way that This text is one of the older selections
would serve to raise awareness. For this book to be compared in this study and was chosen as it is one
successful in this regard, it would need to be heavily of the only titles which directly focuses on raising
supplemented by student specific, teacher created cultural awareness. In this way the goals are very
materials that might motivate students to engage and straightforward and simple. Each unit presents a
reflect on the issues covered in connection with their theme of self inquiry which requires students to reflect
own realities. This would however defeat the purpose on a concept or question, hypothesize and generate
of having a textbook in the first place. information and ideas on a cultural value or artifact
and then share their opinions. The communicative
Local aspects are quite sparse limited to completing lists,
Locally published texts differ from those ranking categories or filling in blanks. In terms
published internationally in two fundamental ways, of content, unit one addresses the question “What
firstly they are designed and written for specific is culture?” Students hypothesize about this and
students in mind, they are often supplemented are then asked to imagine where they would take
with Japanese and tend to consider the learner’s a foreign visitor to Japan and why. Although this
communication styles and preferences. Secondly, in allows introspection and elaboration by considering
terms of content and style, they focus more on teacher foreign culture, students only have their own limited
centered methods, activities and skills which are easily knowledge of what a foreigners is and will therefore
tested. Also as resources are perhaps more limited than most likely over-generalize, oversimplify and reinforce
larger publishers, presentation and design is usually stereotypes through this type of exercise. Leading to
much simpler and conservative. Authors also seem answers like “I wouldn’t take an American guest to a
to have much more control over the final product tea ceremony because Americans don’t like to sit on
and editing is minimal. This further distinguishes the floor.” Unit two asks students to reflect on what
local textbooks in that there is a possibility to design it means to be Japanese. The question proposed is
materials solely for a specific demographic without “Who is more Japanese?” This is followed by a list of
consideration of any other conflicting agenda. qualities ranging from race, and place of birth to ability
Although a great advantage over larger publishers, this to read and write kanji. This may lead to appreciation
freedom without grounding and guidance can lead to and awareness of Japanese culture but will not prepare
loosely organized texts of low quality and with unclear or help learners with understanding others who are
outcome or goals. The challenge for local publishers different.
then is to balance these unique traits and design The cultural elements of this text focuses more
quality books which consider students and the learning on cultural theory and does not address any of the
environment, allow learners to engage the content and practical elements of communication or interaction
guide them towards a meaningful and achievable goal which are the main purposes of raising cultural
extending beyond the classroom into more autonomous awareness. The text would be much better if it
and lifelong learning. The texts selected here are included some interactive tasks and activities from
 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 95

specific examples geared towards eliciting more in the blank or simple yes/no exercises. In concept this
practical skills. As an interesting supplement for book could be very useful but requires a section which
advanced learners this book is ideal however on allows students to expand their thinking and extend
any other level the information provided is mostly information and concepts to the real world. Unit one
irrelevant and inaccessible to students without an which asks the question “What is culture? Provides
international background or experience with which to some common and vague definitions such as shared
compare and contrast. values, beliefs and behaviors but this is obvious and
What is missing in this text is the perspective doesn’t help to enlighten the learners with respect
of “other” everything is grounded in or taken from to understanding culture. The examples provided
Japanese culture and there is no possibility for are similarly vague with statements like “Americans
comparison or development of awareness. Students are well know individualists.” and “Norwegians are
are prompted to learn about and question their own strongly dislike standing out…” There is no context
culture but without countering examples there is no or qualifying information and therefore this material
possibility for growth in an international sense nor true serves only to crystallize stereotypes of perceived
reflection or cultural appreciation. Although the book national differences and actually hinders the cultural
does not try to stereotype or simplify other cultures, awareness process that would otherwise be one of the
it in effect homogenizes all Japanese which is equally main goals of teaching intercultural communication.
counterproductive. Students are left thinking Japan and Text: Understanding Culture, D. Hough (etal.),
Japanese culture are one paradigm and the rest of the Kinseido, 2003
world is different. This runs counter to the initiative This text follows a similar trend as the previous
of a cultural awareness pedagogy. If the teacher is two examples in that it proposes to develop cultural
required to provide this missing perspective then the understanding and in that is mostly structural and
purpose of having a textbook is questionable. analytical in its approach. A fundamental difference
with this text is the focus on real communication in
Text: Intercultural Communication, K. Kitao, the form of dialogue as opposed to reading of pure
Shohakusha, 2003 text. Unit one begins with the standard question
As with the previous text this title focuses on “What does culture mean to you?” Here however
cultural content. The goal of this resource is however instead of providing an arbitrary or academic answer,
ambiguous as it is designed as a reader and the theme a conversation between two students discussing this
of culture is purely arbitrary and appears to have question is modeled. The students in the dialogue give
been added as an afterthought. The focus of the text their opinion, disagree and try to think of a common
is speed reading and comprehension. In this regard, ground to reconcile their differences in opinion.
content is irrelevant as the extent of inquiry and Although the characters are Japanese in name, the
reflection is purely structural. The content material is dialogue, tone, manner and nature of the conversation
however interesting in that it simplifies the research of is obviously American or western in nature. The
intercultural communication pioneers Edward Hall and characters provide some examples of what culture
Geert Hofstede with clear examples. Students learn may or may not be and then simply decide to agree
about cultural dimensions, communication styles, that culture is just shared customs, values and beliefs.
collectivist, individualist and high and low context At this point the text begins to follow the standard
dimensions however they are not encouraged to reflect pattern of structure, testable skills and teacher centered
on these concepts or apply them to either themselves learning. The exercises that follow the dialogue
or a different culture. Student interaction is limited to include a translation into Japanese a comprehension
comprehension questions, true or false questions, fill check and several cloze type vocabulary building and
96 Andrew Reimann

matching activities. From this it becomes clear that commonly held stereotypes that most people already
the goal of the text is not what is implied by the title know and associate with Canada. The content also
“Understanding Culture.” as there is no opportunity fails to prepare students for real communication with
at all for the students to engage with the material or Canadians or, illustrate the diversity of the population.
provide any of their own ideas or information on the Communication is treated as a difficulty highlighting
topic. This is especially surprising given that the theme the typical problems Japanese are expected to have
is; What does culture mean to you? Nevertheless, regarding decision making, travel and interaction with
the book is not designed to provide any insight into foreigners. This does not show students how they
culture or communication and is written as a purely may overcome these difficulties or explain why they
skill based text geared towards developing vocabulary might occur but seem to serve only as entertainment
and reading comprehension. or to create the “Canadian” atmosphere implied by the
For cultural awareness purposes, it would have book’s title. The activities are similarly of a structural
been useful to have the students interact with the nature and consist of vocabulary building and reading
material and each other by either; acting out the comprehension exercises. As with previous texts,
dialogue, perhaps changing certain parts or including there is no opportunity for critical thinking, evaluation
their opinions using the dialogue as a framework, or reflection on the content or cultural information.
reflecting on the content as it relates to their knowledge The students are presented with images of culture as
of Japan and other countries, speculating as to the dynamic as the random vocabulary words featured
accuracy or validity of the information, brainstorming in each scenario. In this way the material becomes
some other ideas or generally engaging with the very dry and unrealistic, serving only to reinforce the
material in a deeper and more meaningful way. expectations of travelling abroad rather than prepare
Text: Canadian Holiday, L. Yoffe (etal.), Ikubundo, them for the unexpected.
2000 It would be much more beneficial if learners
This text differs from other domestic publications discovered through Midori that if they went to
in that it is purposely designed to prepare students Vancouver that; their host families may not be of white
for travel and interaction with a specific target Anglo-Saxon heritage but perhaps Sikh, Lebanese
culture. There is a story that unfolds throughout the or Korean, there are many languages spoken besides
book which follows the main character, a Japanese French and English and if they were to walk around
University student named Midori, as she prepares to downtown, no one would look at them and assume
visit Canada and subsequently interacts with a variety they were tourists. It is after all the challenging of
of different Canadians during her travels. The content commonly held assumptions and preconceptions that
is in dialogue form highlighting Midori’s Canadian is cultural awareness.
experiences as she converses with people like Pierre,
Renee and Bruce to find out about Canada. Although Conclusion
the communication is realistic in that it provides a
context and some relevance as many students will The majority of texts reviewed in this survey,
likely make similar excursions, the content is quite fall short in meeting the specifications required for
arbitrary and boarders on stereotypical. Much of effective cultural awareness raising, highlighted at
the interaction is prescribed language that could be the outset. Although several titles do address some
found in any English text book published anywhere of the criteria, the combination of these elements,
in the past 30 years. There is very little cultural more so than the inclusion of any one of the parts are
information other than references to geography or what foster and develop optimal intercultural inquiry,
climate. Such facts tend to be common knowledge or awareness and understanding. Considering the eight
 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 97

points used for evaluation, very few texts provided publishers tend to focus on structures and any
either an opportunity for reflection or relating cultural cultural content is typically used as information
elements back to the students own culture or even a or reading material to practice and learn
means for the students to expand on the content and language structures such as vocabulary and
extend it to experiences in the real world in a way reading comprehension.
that would promote cultural awareness. From the 6. Do the texts further basic stereotypes or is
eight questions proposed for evaluation, the following material presented objectively for students to
conclusions can be made. make their own discoveries and interpretations?
1. Do the texts actively seek to engage the students Most texts do nothing to dispel previously
through language or cultural content? Many held beliefs and stereotypes and many texts
texts have goals aimed at engaging the students indirectly reinforce the notion that Japanese
with interesting an relevant language and have a natural difficulty in international
content however much of this is out of context situations because cultures are so different
and ambiguous. The approach of presentation and unique. Students are encouraged towards
and inquiry of exercises and activities is acceptance rather than inquiry.
often too limited and one dimensional for 7. What are the goals of the text books? What
deeper understanding or self motivated and is the actual purpose of including cultural
autonomous learning. content? The goals and purpose for including
2. Do the texts offer an unbiased perspective cultural content tends to be varied. In the case
of culture? Several texts do try to maintain of international publishers several texts actively
an unbiased or neutral perspective of culture seek to help learners understand cultures.
however the methods underlying culture such However with the local publications the goals
as communication styles and values tend to be remain structural and the inclusion of cultural
heavily western based. content is for the most part arbitrary.
3. Do the texts consider the learners culture? 8. Are the goals of the text a linear approach to
Most texts do not consider the learner’s developing native like proficiency or a more
culture as this would be unfeasible in terms of holistic approach to understanding the diverse
marketability for international publishers and culture and communication styles of English
undesirable for many local publishers who as an international Language? None of the
have obligations to meet specific requirements texts considered in this study had goals far
for teacher centered materials and assessment reaching enough to be of any help in answering
criteria. this question. Most materials remained either
4. Is there any connection or reference made to teacher or classroom centered and were not
the learners own culture in order to establish directly open to more autonomous learning
relevance? Establishing relevance does not outside of the classroom. The nature of cultural
seem to be a high priority for justifying content. awareness raising requires that much of the
Reference to learner’s cultures is usually in the enquiry and learning continue outside the
form of translation or allusion to an expected classroom.
difference or stereotype.
5. Is culture used purely as a source of facts to For the most part, the texts reviewed did not
learn about or is it presented as stimulating actively engage students. Cultural content and
material which students can learn from? materials were generally presented out of context and
Many texts especially those produced by local without any representative or anchoring information
98 Andrew Reimann

which the students could use to gain relevance from students’ perceptions of their new culture and their
their own culture and experiences. Most characters in ability to acculturate and succeed. Consequently,
dialogues and stories, although either culturally neutral careful examination of materials is necessary in order
or with an intentional international image, all possess to maximise empowering learning experiences and
characteristics, communication styles, values and reduce negative and confusing influences created by
attitudes which are of a stereotypical western, North biased content. “Texts can be seen as representing the
American nature. This is perhaps the most critical personal voice of culture”. (Fenner 2001:50)
failure in these texts to raise cultural awareness. A common problem in text books in Japan is
According to Takanashi 2004, T.E. Hall, Hofstede, that they are too prescriptive in nature. Most texts are
communication styles, orientations, high-low context crammed with exercises and explanations designed
collectivism, tatema/hone, uchi/soto play a strong role to be teacher friendly and avoid the problem of
in effecting classroom and English communication in running out of materials to teach. However this runs
general these need to be considered and accommodated counter to awareness raising goals and notions of
if students are to actively participate in activities communicative language teaching. For a student
and engage with the content and subsequent cultural centered and controlled book which would foster
information. Forced dialogue in the classroom without autonomy and encourage student to actively engage
a topic that the learners can engage in dies out quickly. with the content, simple is best. Texts need to be much
Without personal involvement, it is doubtful whether more open-ended and flexible. Much of the content
the learners acquire the skills that they need. (Ricoeur and ideas should come from the students and many of
1992). these activities would be more effective if the students
Campbell (2000) argues that schools and had the freedom to do what they wanted with them.
teachers play an important role in preparing students Kramsch (1998) defines people’s imagination as one
for cultural pluralism. They do so by presenting a layer of culture and this layer can be accessed by using
curriculum that reflects multiple perspectives on issues stimulating texts. Text book writers and publishers
as well as diverse life experiences, both favourable should not be reluctant in producing materials with
and unfavourable, and by empowering students to lots of blank space. Awareness raising activities
identify the missing, misconstrued and misrepresented cannot be teacher centered or controlled. Therefore the
voices. If teachers are so inclined and have extra ideal text in considering this would merely provide a
preparation time these examples offer and opportunity theme, some questions for stimulation and a task. Any
to analyse and explore the culture of the textbook. explanation would need to be case by case or limited
Discussing the types of bias, the reasons behind to elaborating on cultural information or guiding
inclusion or exclusion of cultural information and students in making connections to their own culture.
perhaps a critical comparison of reality This will raise EFL writers should try to build conceptual bridges
awareness of students own cultural learning strategies between the culturally familiar and the unfamiliar in
and allow them to actively consider the materials order not to give rise to conflicts in the learner's 'fit' as
and culture they are exposed to and the effect it has he or she acquires English. Such bridges can be built,
on their communication ability. According to Ndura among other ways, through the use of comparisons
(2004) students must be made aware of textbook as techniques of cross-cultural comprehension or the
biases and their effect on their learning process, self- exploitation of universal concepts of human experience
image and society. Instructional materials play the role as reference points for the interpretation of unfamiliar
of cultural mediators as they transmit overt and covert data. (Alptekin 1993).
societal values, assumptions and images. Thus, they According to Honna (2000) English textbooks in
have the power to positively or negatively influence Japan have long been deficient in the type and amount
 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 99

of international content included. In comparison to communities and the world?

other countries, texts in Japan tend to focus primarily ・Do the lesson materials encourage the
on language structures and avoid the inclusion of any students to take charge of their lives and
context or cultural information. This is largely a result actively participate in the transformation
of examination practices, the requirement for language of their world into one that is inclusive,
to be quantifiable on a paper test and the experience equitable and just?
and qualification of most non-native English teachers ・Prepare supplementary teaching materials
many of whom are uncomfortable teaching more ・Teachers need to expose these issues, uncover
abstract elements of language and culture. In recent relevant biases and actively engage the
years, to counter this, there has been a move to students in reflective and critical discussions
make materials more global. As a result many texts of alternative perspectives and answers to
are saturated with cultural information without perplexed questions.
consideration of accuracy, purpose, presentation or ・Listen to the students and absorb their unique
practicality. Takanashi (2004) furthers this by stating experiences into the lesson.
that most materials are developed without considering
Japanese learning styles and methods used for References
presenting content and eliciting responses are in direct Alptekin, C. (1993), Target-language culture in EFL
conflict with the student’s fundamental learning and materials. ELT Journal, Vol. 47, No. 2. Oxford
communication styles. Fenner (2001:54) proposes University Press.
that, unless there is knowledge and understanding of Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercul-
both cultures, there is no dialogue between the two and tural communicative competence. Clevendon:
it is difficult to obtain the necessary outside and critical Multilingual Matters.
perspective of one’s own culture as well as the target Campbell, D.E. (2000) Choosing Democracy: A Prac-
one, which must be a requirement for intercultural tical Guide to Multicultural Education (2nd edn).
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Canagarajah, A. S. (2002). Globalization, methods and
Considerations and Strategies for overcoming bias practice in periphery classrooms. In D. Block, &
in textbooks: D. Cameron (Eds). Globalization and language
・Teachers need to increase their awareness of teaching. Routledge:London.
the various types of bias and their effects on Clarke, J & Clarke, M, (1990). Stereotyping in TESOL
students’ perceptions and learning experiences. materials, in Harrison, B. (ed.). Culture and the
・Critically examine instructional materials Language Classroom. Honk Kong: Modern Eng-
・What are the short-term learning outcomes of lish Publication and the British Council.
the lesson? Fenner, A. B. (2000), “Cultural awareness”, in Fenner,
・What are the long-term positive and/or A. B. and Newby, D (eds.), Approaches to mate-
negative outcomes of the lesson? rials design in European textbooks: implementing
・What are the hidden messages contained in principles of authenticity, learner autonomy, cul-
the lesson materials? tural awareness. Strasbourg: Council of Europe
・How do the lesson materials empower the Publishing.
students to become responsible citizens? Fenner, A. B. (2001), “Dialogic interaction with liter-
・How do the materials empower the students ary texts in the lower secondary school class-
to critically examine their life experiences room”, in Fenner, A. B. (ed.), Cultural awareness
and their relationships with others in their and language awareness based on Dialogic in-
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 A Critical Analysis of Cultural Content in EFL Materials 101

EFL 資料における文化の扱いへの批判的考察

アンドリュー ライマン

要約
この調査は EFL 資料における文化的な内容の検討である。言語学者の様々な目的を考えると、言語自
体だけではなく、多文化理解や批判的考察などのコミュニケーション能力も教えることが徐々に重要に
なってきた。

言語学習機会が教室に限られている上、目標言語の母国語者との触れ合いが少ない。そのため、教科書
や資料が現実性がないというこの欠陥を補うことが重要である。ただし、どちらの文化をどんな様に見
せるかは困難な問題である。特にステレオタイプを避け、かつ文化を未身近で面白く見せることが難し
いと考えられる。殆どの教科書と資料はより広い読者を対象としており、コミュニケーション能力や文
化的な文脈を一般化する傾向がある。

よく、EFL 資料における文化への言及は章や本のタイトルや観光情報に限られている。さらに、文化は
簡単化されすぎ、正当な文脈のない偏見に基づいたものである。

このよう文化の狭い扱いがテキスト出版社産業の一般的な問題であるいくつかの理由をこの論文で述べ
る。

EFL 環境に影響を及ぼしている海外と国内の出版社の人気の EFL 資料を分析し、批判的な検討と比較を

行う。
（2009 年 6 月 3 日受理）