The RCD Handbook: Beama Guide To The Selection and Application of Residual Current Devices (RCDS)

BEAMA RCD Handbook 10_19.
qxp_RCD Handbook 2018 24/10/2019 08:58 Page 1
Bringing
power to life.
THE RCD HANDBOOK

BEAMA GUIDE TO THE SELECTION
AND APPLICATION OF RESIDUAL
CURRENT DEVICES (RCDs)
October 2020
BEAMA RCD Handbook 10_19.qxp_RCD Handbook 2018 24/10/2019 08:58 Page 2
COMPANIES INVOLVED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS GUIDE
ABB Ltd
Tower Court; Courtaulds Way Schneider Electric Ltd
Foleshill Enterprise Park Stafford Park 5, Telford, Shropshire TF3 3BL
Coventry, West Midland,s CV6 5NX Tel: +44 (0) 1952 290029
Tel: +44 (0) 2476 368 500 Fax: +44 (0) 1952 292238
https://new.abb.com/uk www.schneider-electric.co.uk
Eaton Electric Limited

270 Bath Road, Slough, Electrium Sales Ltd (a Siemens Company)
Berkshire SL1 4DX Sharston Road, Wythenshawe
Tel: +44 (0) 8700 545 333 Manchester M22 4RA
Email: ukcommorders@eaton.com Tel: +44 (0) 161 945 3956
www.eaton.com/uk Fax: +44 (0) 8456 053114
www.electrium.co.uk
GreenBrook Electrical
62 West Road, Harlow,
Esssex CM20 2BG Timeguard Ltd
Tel + 44 (0) 1279 772772 Victory Park, 400 Edgware Road
www.greenbrook.co.uk London NW2 6ND
Tel: +44 (0) 20 8450 0515
Fax: +44 (0) 20 8450 0635
Email: helpline@timeguard.com
Hager Ltd www.timeguard.com
Hortonwood 50, Telford,
Shropshire TF1 7FT
Tel: +44 (0)1952 675 689
Email: Technical@hager.co.uk
www.hager.co.uk
Western Automation R&D

2 Atreus Place, Poolboy, Ballinalsoe,
Legrand Electric Ltd Co. Galway, Ireland H53 TD 78
Great King Street North, Tel: +353 (0) 90 9643359
Birmingham B19 2LF Fax: +353 (0) 90 9643094
Tel: +44 (0) 370 608 9020 Email: info@westernautomation.com
Fax: +44 (0) 345 600 6760 www.westernautomation.com
Email: powersales.uk@legrand.co.uk
www.legrand.co.uk
MK Electric
The Arnold Centre, Paycocke Road
Basildon, Essex SS14 3EA
Tel: +44 (0) 1268 563 000
Fax: +44 (0) 1268 563 064
Email: MK.Technical@Honeywell.com
www.mkelectric.com/en-gb
ABOUT BEAMA
BEAMA is the long established and respected trade association for the
electrotechnical sector. The association has a strong track record in the
development and implementation of standards to promote safety and product
performance for the benefit of manufacturers and their customers.
This Guide provides specifiers, installers and end users, clear guidance on the
selection and application of the wide range of RCDs now available.
This Guide has been produced by BEAMA’s Building Electrical Systems Portfolio
operating under the guidance and authority of BEAMA, supported by specialist
central services for guidance on European Single Market, Quality Assurance,
Legal and Health & Safety matters. BEAMA’s Building Electrical Systems Portfolio
comprises of major UK manufacturing companies.
Details of other BEAMA Guides can be found on the BEAMA website
www.beama.org.uk
DISCLAIMER
This publication is subject to the copyright of BEAMA Ltd. While the information herein
has been compiled in good faith, no warranty is given or should be implied for its use
and BEAMA hereby disclaims any liability that may arise from its use to the fullest extent
permitted under applicable law.
© BEAMA Ltd 2019

Copyright and all other intellectual property rights in this document are the property of
BEAMA Ltd. Any party wishing to copy, reproduce or transmit this document or the
information contained within it in any form, whether paper, electronic or otherwise
should contact BEAMA Ltd to seek permission to do so.
Acknowledgements
BEAMA would like to thank IEC, BSI and IET for allowing references to their standards;
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) for reference to their documents.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION 5
1.1 FOR THE NON-SpECIALIST 5
1.2 pRINCIpLES OF RCD OpERATION 6
1.3 RESIDUAL CURRENT DEvICES (RCDs) 7
2. EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITy 8
2.1 RISK OF ELECTROCUTION 8
2.2 TypES OF ELECTROCUTION RISK 8
2.3 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC SHOCK ON THE HUMAN BODy 8
3. ELECTRIC SHOCK pROTECTION 11

3.1 pRINCIpLES OF SHOCK pROTECTION 11
3.2 EARTHING SySTEMS 12
3.3 pROTECTION AGAINST DIRECT AND INDIRECT CONTACT 13
3.4 RCDs AND INDIRECT CONTACT SHOCK pROTECTION 14
3.5 RCDs AND DIRECT CONTACT SHOCK pROTECTION 15
3.6 RCDs IN REDUCED AND ExTRA-LOW vOLTAGE AppLICATIONS 15
3.7 RCDs IN ELECTRIC vEHICLE CHARGING 15
4. FIRE pROTECTION 16
4.1 BACKGROUND 16
4.2 pROTECTIvE MEASURES AS A FUNCTION OF ExTERNAL INFLUENCES 16
5. INSTALLATION RISKS 17
5.1 BACKGROUND 17
5.2 TypICAL RISKS 17
6. RCD SELECTION 18
6.1 RCD SELECTION CRITERIA 18
6.2 RCD SELECTION GUIDES 23
7. OpERATION AND MAINTENANCE 25

7.1 TESTING By THE END USER 25
7.2 TESTING By THE INSTALLER 25
7.3 TROUBLESHOOTING 26
7.4 DETAILED FAULT-FINDING IN RCD pROTECTED INSTALLATIONS 26
8. RCD CONSTRUCTION 28
8.1 vOLTAGE INDEpENDENT RCD 28
8.2 vOLTAGE DEpENDENT RCD 28
9. DETAILED FAULT-FINDING ON RCD pROTECTED INSTALLATIONS 29

9.1 MAINS BORNE TRANSIENTS AND SURGES 29
9.2 CApACITANCE TO EARTH 31
9.3 CABLES AND OvERHEAD LINES 32
9.4 NEUTRAL TO EARTH FAULTS 33
9.5 DOUBLE GROUNDING 33
9.6 CONCLUSIONS 33
10. ANNEx 34
10.1 FIRE pROTECTION – ExTRACT FROM DTI REpORT 34
10.2 REFERENCES 40
10.3 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 41
1
INTRODUCTION
the use of electricity is so much a part Most chapters begin with a section that To appreciate the importance of an RCD it is
of everyday life that it is often taken for is designed for the non-specialist or helpful to understand how much electrical
granted and the risks associated with end user. energy it takes to kill a human being. The
its use at home and at work are smallest fuse used in a normal electric plug is
When read in conjunction with BS 7671
underestimated or misunderstood. 3 Amps; it takes less than one twentieth of
Requirements for Electrical Installations
that current to kill an adult in less than one
Residual Current Devices (RCDs) are (The IET Wiring Regulations), the
tenth of a second.
electrical devices which afford a very guidance in this publication will
high degree of protection against the contribute to safe and reliable rcd operation
risks of electrocution and fire caused installations.
The operation of an RCD can be
by earth faults. However, they are not
There can be no doubt that RCDs give understood by taking an analogy from
a solution for all installation problems;
protection against electrocution and the water flowing in a central heating
it is therefore important to understand
can reduce the risk of fire arising from system.
what they can and cannot do.
insulation failure in the electrical
Furthermore, the different types of A leak may occur when the pipework is
installation. This level of protection can
RCDs available on the market can be damaged or punctured. In the same way
never be equalled by circuit-breakers or
confusing. a ‘leak’ of electricity can occur when the
fuses alone.
cable insulation in a circuit is faulty or
This publication has been produced by
damaged.
BEAMA Members for use by specifiers, 1.1 FOR THE NON-SPECIALIST
installers and end users, to give clear In a central heating system, the ‘flow’
guidance on the selection and Readers who are familiar with the role
pipe takes the water from the boiler to
application of the wide range of RCDs and operation of RCDs can skip this
the radiators; if the installation is sound
now available. Guidance is also given on section and move on to section 1.2.
the same amount of water will return to
the installation and maintenance of “what is an rcd?” the boiler as in Figure 1. However, if
RCDs, including many of the installation there is a leak, there will be less water in
conditions that cause ‘unwanted An RCD is a device that is designed to the return pipe than in the flow pipe. If
tripping’. provide protection against electrocution the system had flow detectors in the
or electrical fires by cutting off the flow flow and return pipes, these could be
of electricity automatically when it coupled to a valve so that the valve
senses a ‘leakage’ of electric current closed when the rate of flow in the
from a circuit. return pipe was less than that in the flow
pipe as in Figure 2.
Boiler Boiler
Pump Pump
Flow Flow
Detector 1 Detector 1
Valve Valve
Flow Flow
Detector 2 Detector 2
Radiator Radiator Leak
FIGURE 1 – hEALthy cEntrAL hEAtIng cIrcuIt. thE sAME FIGURE 2 – If thErE Is A LEAk, thErE wILL BE LEss wAtEr In thE ‘rEturn’
AMount of wAtEr fLows In thE ‘fLow’ And ‘rEturn’ pIpEs pIpE thAn In thE ‘fLow’ pIpE. thIs couLd BE usEd to trIp A vALvE.
THE RCD HANDBOOK BEAMA GUIDE TO THE SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF RESIDUAL CURRENT DEVICES (RCDs) 05
The rate of flow of water can be With an RCD, the line (brown) and neutral The basic principle of operation of the
compared with the current in an electrical (blue) conductors pass through the core RCD is shown in Figure 5. When the
circuit and the water pressure can be of a sensitive current transformer, see load is connected to the supply
compared with the voltage. When the line Figure 3, the output of which is electrically through the RCD, the line and neutral
and neutral currents are equal, the RCD connected to a tripping system. In a conductors are connected through
will not trip but when it senses that the healthy installation, the current flows primary windings on a toroidal
neutral current is less than the line current through the line conductor and returns transformer. In this arrangement, the
it will trip. through the neutral conductor and since secondary winding is used as a
these are equal and opposite the core sensing coil and is electrically
In both cases the leakage is detected
remains balanced. However, when a connected to a sensitive relay or solid
without measuring the leak itself. It is the
leakage of electric current occurs, as in state switching device, the operation
flow and return rates that are measured
Figure 4, the line and neutral currents are of which triggers the tripping
and compared. An RCD compares the line
no longer equal; this results in an output mechanism. When the line and
and neutral currents and switches off the
from the transformer which is used to trip neutral currents are balanced, as in a
electricity supply when they are no longer
the RCD and disconnect the supply. healthy circuit, they produce equal
equal.
and opposite magnetic fluxes in the
transformer core with the result that
there is no current generated in the
1.2 PRINCIPLES OF RCD OPERATION sensing coil. (For this reason the
transformer is also known as a ‘core
balance transformer’).
N SUPPLY N SUPPLY
RCD When the line and neutral currents are
RCD L L
not balanced, they create an out-of-
balance flux. This will induce a current
in the secondary winding which is
used to operate the tripping
mechanism.
It is important to note that both the

LOAD line and neutral conductors pass
through the toroid.
RCDs work equally well on single

phase, three phase or three phase and
neutral circuits, but when the neutral
is distributed it is essential that it
fIgurE 3 – IN AN RCD, THE LINE AND NEUTRAL fIgurE 4 – IF THERE IS AN EARTH FAULT THE passes through the toroid.
CONDUCTORS OF A CIRCUIT PASS THROUGH A NEUTRAL CURRENT WILL BE LOWER THAN THE
SENSITIVE CURRENT TRANSFORMER. IF THE LINE LINE CURRENT. THIS IMBALANCE PRODUCES AN
test circuit
AND NEUTRAL CURRENTS ARE EQUAL AND OUTPUT FROM THE CURRENT TRANSFORMER
OPPOSITE, THE CORE REMAINS BALANCED WHICH IS USED TO TRIP THE RCD AND SO BREAK A test circuit is always incorporated in
THE CIRCUIT
the rcd. typically, the operation of
the test button connects a resistive
load between the line conductor on
TEST BUTTON the load-side of the rcd and the
SENSING COIL supply neutral.
The test circuit is designed to pass a

SUPPLY
current in excess of the tripping
current of the RCD to simulate an
out-of-balance condition. Operation
of the test button verifies that the
RCD is operational. It is important to
note, therefore, that the test circuit
does not check the circuit protective
RELAY conductor or the condition of the
earth electrode.
All rcds should be checked at

regular intervals to confirm that the
fIgurE 5 – SCHEMATIC OF AN RCD rcd trips. As a minimum, a check
every six months is recommended.
06 THE RCD HANDBOOK BEAMA GUIDE TO THE SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF RESIDUAL CURRENT DEVICES (RCDs)
1.3 RESIDUAL CURRENT

DEVICES (RCDs)
RCCB pRCD
(Residual Current Operated Circuit- (portable Residual Current Device)
Additional types of devices:
Breaker without Integral Overcurrent A device comprising a plug, a residual
protection) current device and one or more socket- RCM
A mechanical switching device designed outlets (or a provision for connection). It (Residual Current Monitor)
to make, carry and break currents under may incorporate overcurrent protection.
A device designed to monitor
normal service conditions and to cause
CBR electrical installations or circuits for
the opening of the contacts when the
(Circuit-Breaker incorporating Residual the presence of unbalanced earth
residual current attains a given value
Current protection) fault currents. It does not
under specified conditions. It is not
incorporate any tripping device or
designed to give protection against A circuit-breaker providing overcurrent
overcurrent protection.
overloads and/or short-circuits and must protection and incorporating residual
always be used in conjunction with an current protection either integrally (an
overcurrent protective device such as a
RDC-DD
integral cBr) or by combination with a
(Residual Direct Current Detecting
fuse or circuit-breaker. residual current unit which may be
Device)
factory or field fitted.
RCBO A device to be used for Mode 3
(Residual Current Operated Circuit- Note:The RCBO and CBR have the same charging of Electric vehicles. rdc-
Breaker with Integral Overcurrent application, both providing overcurrent and
dds are intended to remove or
residual current protection. In general, an
protection) initiate removal of the supply to
RCBO is intended to be used by ordinary
A mechanical switching device designed (unskilled) persons and a CBR is intended to be electric vehicles in cases where a
to make, carry and break currents under used by skilled persons. RCBOs and CBRs are smooth residual direct current equal
more strictly defined by their relevant product to or above 6 mA is detected
normal service conditions and to cause
standards.
the opening of the contacts when the (Bs IEc 62955). the value of 6 mA
residual current attains a given value for smooth residual direct current
IC-CpD was chosen to prevent impairing the
under specified conditions. In addition it
(In-Cable Control and protective Device
is designed to give protection against correct operation of an upstream
for mode 2 charging of electric road
overloads and/or short-circuits and can rcd type A.
vehicles)
be used independently of any other
overcurrent protective device within its An rcd (≤ 30 mA) and control device
rated short-circuit capacity. integrated into a mode 2 charging cable
for electric vehicle charging.
SRCD (Bs En 62752:2016)
(Socket-Outlet incorporating a Residual
Current Device) MRCD
(Modular Residual Current Device)
A socket-outlet for fixed installations
incorporating an integral sensing circuit A device or an association of devices
that will automatically cause the comprising a current sensing means and
switching contacts in the main circuit to a processing device designed to detect
open at a predetermined value of residual and to evaluate the residual current and
current. to control the opening of the contacts of
a current breaking device.
FCURCD when an Mrcd is used in conjunction
(Fused Connection Unit incorporating a
with a Moulded case circuit Breaker
Residual Current Device)
(MccB) or Instantaneous trip circuit
A fused connection unit for fixed Breaker (IcB), either a shunt trip or under
installations incorporating an integral voltage release (uvr) may be used.
sensing circuit that will automatically
cause the switching contacts in the main
circuit to open at a predetermined value
of residual current.
NOTE:
An RCCB or an RCBO may be combined with an Arc Fault Detection
Device (AFDD) according to BS EN 62606.
2
EFFECTS OF
ELECTRICITY
2.1 RISK OF ELECTROCUTION 2.2 TYPES OF 2.3 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC

It only requires a very small continuous
ELECTROCUTION RISK SHOCK ON THE HUMAN BODY
electric current – 40 mA (a twenty-fifth there are basically two different types Residual current devices with a tripping
of an amp) or more – flowing through of electrocution risk. current of 30 mA or less are now widely
the human body to cause irreversible used in all types of electrical installation
damage to the normal cardiac cycle The first type of electrocution risk
and provide valuable additional
(‘ventricular fibrillation’) or death occurs if insulation, such as the non-
protection against the risk of
(‘electrocution’). when somebody comes metallic covering around cables and
electrocution. To appreciate fully the
into direct contact with mains voltage leads, is accidentally damaged, exposing
correct application of these important
and earth, the current flowing through live conductors. If a person comes into
safety devices it is necessary to have
the body, is of the order of 230 mA (just contact with the ‘live’ and ‘earth’
some understanding of the
under a quarter of an amp). conductors there is a more serious risk
physiological effects of electric shock
because the current flowing to earth
on the human body.
Appropriate protection against serious will be insufficient to operate the fuse
injury or death calls for disconnection in or circuit-breaker. This is because The term ‘electric shock’ is defined in
a fraction of a second (40 ms or one the human body is a poor conductor BS 7671 as ‘A dangerous physiological
twenty-fifth of a second) at 230 mA. For of electricity. Consequently, fuses effect resulting from the passing of an
lower values of shock current, longer or circuit-breakers provide NO electric current through a human body
disconnection times may be acceptable PROTECTION at all against contact or livestock.’ The amount of current
but if disconnection takes place within with live conductors. flowing will determine the severity of
40ms fibrillation is unlikely to occur. the shock. Although the definition
If an RCD was installed, in this situation
includes the effects on livestock, this is a
‘High sensitivity’ RCDs, rated 30 mA or the current leaking to earth through the
rather special area and for the purposes
even 10 mA, are designed to disconnect body would cause an imbalance as
of this section only the effects on the
the supply within 40 ms at 150 mA and described in Section 1.2 and the RCD
human body will be considered.
within 300ms at rated tripping current would trip. Whilst not preventing an
to protect the user. ‘Medium sensitivity’ electric shock, the speed of operation The amount of current flowing through
devices, rated 100 mA or more will of the RCD will minimise the risk of the body under normal 50 Hz
provide protection against fire risks but electrocution. conditions will, in practice, depend on
will not provide full personal protection. the impedance (the effective resistance
The second risk occurs when the metal
of the body to the passage of electric
A fuse or circuit-breaker alone will not enclosure of electrical equipment or
current) of that person, including
provide protection against these effects. any metal fixture such as a sink or
clothing/gloves/footwear etc., and on
plumbing system accidentally comes
The actual nature, and effect of an the shock voltage. The majority of
into contact with a live conductor,
electric shock, will depend on many accidents involve simultaneous direct
causing the metalwork to become live.
factors – the age and sex of the victim, contact with live parts and earthed
In the UK a fuse or a circuit-breaker
which parts of the body are in contact, metal, so it can be assumed that the
normally provides protection against
whether there are other resistive shock voltage will be at full mains
this risk because all exposed metalwork
elements in the ‘circuit’, for example voltage. The value of body impedance
is connected to earth. In a correctly
clothing or footwear, if either of the is much more difficult to assess because
designed installation, the current
contact points is damp or immersed in it can vary enormously according to the
flowing to earth will be sufficient to
water etc. circumstances, the characteristics of the
blow the fuse or trip the circuit-breaker.
individual concerned and also the
It should be borne in mind that even
current path through the body. In most
with a 10 mA or 30 mA RCD fitted, a
situations, the current path will be from
person coming into contact with mains
hand to hand whilst very occasionally it
voltage will suffer an electric shock. The
may be from hand to foot or some
effects of such a shock will depend on
other part of the body. This is less
the specific circumstances, such as
common due to the wearing of shoes,
those identified above.
socks and other clothing.
In order to understand the wide quickly burn through the surface of the It can be seen from the above
variations in body impedances that can skin resulting in a significant drop in the descriptions that the effect of current
occur, the human body can be viewed external impedance. In the worst case passing through the human body is very
as a flexible container filled with scenario, a person receiving a shock at variable but it is generally accepted that
electrolyte, where the internal 230 V 50 Hz will experience a maximum electrocution at normal mains voltage is
impedance is reasonably constant at current flow of 230 mA through the usually the result of ventricular
approximately 1000 ohms. The wider central body area. This will have fibrillation. This condition is triggered by
variations come from the relatively high dangerous physiological results, the passage of electric current through
resistance at the two contact points on including electrocution. the region of the heart and is normally
the outside of the container (skin irreversible, unless expert medical
The effects of electric current passing
resistance). These, external impedances, attention is obtained almost
through the human body become
can be as high as several thousand immediately. The onset of fibrillation is
progressively more severe as the current
ohms depending on the state of the skin dependent on the magnitude and
increases. Although individuals vary
(wet or dry), contact area and contact duration of the current and the point in
significantly the following list is a good
pressure. Initial current flow can be the normal cardiac cycle at which the
general guide for alternating currents.
quite low but will start to increase shock occurs. For those wishing to
rapidly as even small currents will study the subject in greater detail this
relationship is documented in the
IEC TS 60479 series (Effects of current
Effects of different values of electric current flowing through the on human beings and livestock).
human body (at 50 Hz) Figure 6, which is based on IEC 60479,
shows the conventional zones of
0 – 0.5 mA 10 mA – 40 mA alternating currents (15-100 Hz); the
this current is below the level of severe pain and shock are current path from the left hand to feet
perception, usually resulting in no experienced as current increases. depending on the contact time and the
reaction. At currents over 20 mA the victim corresponding maximum break times
may experience breathing of RCDs with a sensitivity of 30 mA.
0.5 mA – 5 mA difficulties with asphyxia if current This illustrates why 30 mA RCDs are
Although there are no dangerous
flow is uninterrupted. reversible designed to operate within these
physiological effects, a current of
disturbance to heart rhythm and parameters and are recognized as
this order may startle a person
even cardiac arrest are possible at providing additional protection. It
sufficiently to result in secondary
higher values of current and time. should be noted that whilst RCDs
injury due to falling, dropping
provide additional protection, RCDs
items etc. 40 mA – 250 mA
will not prevent an electric shock.
severe shock and possibility of
5 mA – 10 mA non-reversible disturbances to the
this produces the same effect as
normal cardiac cycle, referred to as
above but, in addition, muscular
“ventricular fibrillation”, occur at
reaction may cause inability to let
this level. the possibility of
go of equipment. In general, the
fibrillation increases as current and
female body is more susceptible to
time increase. It is also possible to
this condition than the male. once
experience heavy burns or cardiac
current flow ceases, the victim can
arrest at higher currents.
let go.
Zone Boundaries Physiological effects
AC-1 Up to curve a Usually no reaction

AC-2 Curve a up to curve b Usually no physiological effects
AC-3 Curve b up to curve c1 Usually no organic damage to be expected. Likelihood of muscular
contractions and difficulty in breathing, reversible disturbances of
formation and conduction of impulses in the heart, including atrial
fibrillation and transient cardiac arrest without ventricular fibrillation
increasing with magnitude and time.
AC-4 Above curve c1 Increasing with magnitude and time, dangerous pathophysiological
effects such as cardiac arrest, breathing arrest and severe burns may
occur in addition to the effects of Zone AC-3:
Probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing up to about 5 %.
c1 – c2
Probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing up to about 50 %
c2 – c3
Probability of ventricular fibrillation above 50 %.
Beyond curve c3
FIGURE 6 – tIME/currEnt of ALtErnAtIng currEnt EffEcts (15 - 100 hz) on pErsons for currEnt
pAth corrEspondIng to thE pAssAgE froM LEft ArM Into fEEt And coMpArIson wIth LIMIts of
trIppIng tIMEs of rEsIduAL currEnt dEvIcE IΔn = 30 mA
The details so far have been greatly body impedance will generally be at its fibrillation occurs at a different current
simplified by assuming that normal lowest, with consequently high shock level. All these factors must be
environmental conditions apply and that currents. considered when making a choice of
the source of the electric shock is an RCD for special applications. Under
alternating current supply at 50 Hz. Frequencies of 15-100 Hz are these circumstances, the potential user
Under special conditions, for example considered to present the most serious is strongly recommended to consult the
when a body is immersed in water or in risk. At other frequencies, including manufacturer for appropriate advice.
close contact with earthed metal, the direct current, the threshold of
3
ELECTRIC SHOCK
PROTECTION
3.1 PRINCIPLES OF SHOCK Fuses and circuit-breakers provide the

first line of defence against indirect
PROTECTION contact electric shock. If the installation
protection of persons and livestock is correctly earthed (i.e. all the exposed
against electric shock is a fundamental metalwork is connected together and to
principle in the design of electrical the main earth terminal of the
installations in accordance with Bs 7671: installation) then an indirect contact
Requirements for Electrical Installations, fault will cause a very high current to
commonly known as The IET Wiring flow to earth through the exposed
Regulations. use of the correct earthing metalwork. This will be sufficient to
system is an essential part of this process. ‘blow’ the fuse or trip the circuit-
breaker, disconnecting that part of the
Electric shock may arise from direct installation within the time specified in
contact with live parts, for example BS 7671 and so protecting the user.
when a person touches a live conductor
that has become exposed as a result of Fuses and circuit-breakers cannot
damage to the insulation of an electric provide protection against the very
cable. Alternatively, it may arise from small electric currents flowing to earth
indirect contact if, for example, a fault through the body as a result of direct
results in the exposed metalwork of an contact. RCDs, provided they have been
electrical appliance, or even other selected correctly, can afford this
metalwork such as a sink or plumbing protection as described in the previous
system becoming live. In either case chapter. They also provide protection
there is a risk of an electric current against indirect contact under certain
flowing to earth through the body of installation conditions where fuses and
any person who touches the live circuit-breakers cannot achieve the
conductor or live metalwork. (See desired effect, for example where the
Figure 7). (The terms ‘direct contact’ earthing systems described above are
and ‘indirect contact’ have now been ineffective.
replaced in BS 7671 – see section 3.3
of this document.)
FIGURE 7 –dIrEct And IndIrEct contAct ELEctrIc shock
3.2 EARTHING SYSTEMS

For a full understanding of electric shock protection it is
necessary to consider the different types of earthing system
in use. BS 7671 lists five types as described below:
source of energy
L1 In this arrangement a single protective
L2 earth and neutral (pEN) conductor is used
L3
combined for both the neutral and protective
protective and
consumers’
neutral conductor functions, all exposed-conductive-parts
installations
PEN being connected to the pEN conductor. It
additional should be noted that in this system an
source earth RCD is not permitted since the earth and
source earth
neutral currents cannot be separated.
equipment in
installation
exposed-conductive-parts
FIGURE 8 –tn-c systEM
source of energy
L1
With this system the conductors for neutral
L2 and protective earth (pE) circuits are
L3 separate and all exposed-conductive-parts
N
are connected to the pE conductor.This
protective
consumers’ conductor (PE) system is the one most commonly used in
installations the UK, although greater use is being made
of the TN-C-S arrangement due to the
source earth difficulties of obtaining a good substation
equipment in
installation earth.
FIGURE 9 –tn-s systEM
source of energy
L1 The usual form of a TN-C-S system is
L2
where the supply is TN-C and the
L3
combined arrangement of the conductors in the
consumers’ protective and
neutral conductor installation is TN-S.This system is often
installations
PEN described as a protective multiple
additional earthing (pME) system. This is incorrect
source earth
since pME is a method of earthing.
source earth
equipment in
installation
FIGURE 10 –tn-c-s systEM
source of energy
L1 In a TT system the electricity supply
L2
L3
provider and the consumer must
N both provide earth electrodes at
appropriate locations, the two being
consumers’
installations electrically separate. All exposed-
conductive-parts of the installation are
source earth
connected to the consumer’s earth
equipment in electrode.
installation
installation exposed-conductive-parts installation

earth earth
electrode electrode
FIGURE 11 –tt systEM
source of energy
L1 Unlike the previous systems, the IT system
L2 is not permitted, except under special
L3
license, for the low voltage supply in the
earthing
impedance UK. It does not rely on earthing for safety,
consumers’ until after the occurrence of a first-fault,
installations
as the supply side is either completely
isolated from earth or is earthed through a
source earth high impedance.
equipment in
installation
installation exposed-conductive-parts installation

earth electrode earth electrode
FIGURE 12 –It systEM
3.3 PROTECTION AGAINST which are between the points of designer to consider. The majority of
DIRECT AND INDIRECT contact. these require specialist knowledge or
supervision to be applied effectively.
CONTACT Indirect contact electric shock results
The most practical method for general
(in the context of this document) from contact with an exposed
use is a combination of protective
conductive part made live by a fault
It is a fundamental requirement of earthing, protective equipotential
condition and simultaneous contact
BS 7671 that all persons and livestock bonding and automatic disconnection
with earth potential. This is usually at a
are protected against electric shock in of supply. This method which provides
lower voltage.
any electrical installation. This is subject very effective protection when properly
to the installation being used with Protection against direct contact applied, requires consideration of three
reasonable care and having regard to electric shock (now defined as Basic separate measures by the circuit
the purpose for which it was intended. Protection in BS 7671) is based on designer:
When considering protection against normal common sense measures such
• Protective Earthing
electric shock, it is necessary to as insulation of live parts, use of barriers
understand the difference between or enclosures, protection by obstacles • Protective equipotential bonding
‘direct contact’ and ‘indirect contact’, or protection by placing live parts out of
• Automatic disconnection in the
which was first introduced by the 15th reach. As a result, under normal
event of a fault
Edition of the IEE Wiring Regulations in conditions it is not possible to touch the
1981 (See Figure 7). live parts of the installation or
protective Earthing requires all
equipment inadvertently.
Direct contact electric shock is the exposed-conductive-parts (generally
result of simultaneous contact by Protection against indirect contact metallic) of the installation to be
persons or livestock with a normally live electric shock (now defined as Fault connected to the installation main earth
part and earth potential. As a result the Protection in BS 7671) is slightly more terminal by means of circuit protective
victim will experience nearly full mains complicated hence a number of options conductors (cpcs).
voltage across those parts of the body are given in BS 7671 for the installation
The main earth terminal has to be ratings of overcurrent device. Reference method is required. It is in this situation
effectively connected to Earth. Typical should be made to the time/current that the RCD offers the most practical
examples of exposed-conductive-parts curves published in BS 7671 or by the solution because it has the ability to
manufacturers of protective devices. operate on circuits having much higher
include:
values of earth fault loop impedance.
• Conduits and trunking 3.4 RCDS AND INDIRECT The basis of RCD protection in this
• Equipment enclosures CONTACT SHOCK situation is to ensure that any voltage,
exceeding 50 V that arises due to earth
• Class I luminaires PROTECTION
fault currents, is immediately
• The casings and framework of Indirect contact protection by fuses or disconnected. This is achieved by
current using equipment circuit-breakers is dependent on circuit choosing an appropriate residual
earth fault loop impedances being current rating and calculating the
protective equipotential bonding
within the parameters laid down by BS maximum earth loop impedance that
minimises the risk of electric shock by
7671. Where these values cannot be would allow a fault voltage of 50 V. This
connecting extraneous-conductive-
achieved or where there is some doubt is calculated by using a simple formula
parts (generally metalwork that is in
about their stability, then an alternative given in BS 7671 Regulation 411.5.3.
contact with Earth) within the location,
to the main earth terminal of the
installation. This means that under fault
RA × IΔn ≤ 50 v
conditions the voltage that is present on
the metal casings of electrical
Where RA is the sum of the resistances of the earth electrode and the protective
equipment is substantially the same as
conductor connecting it to the exposed conductive part (in ohms)
that present on all extraneous-
conductive-parts. Theoretically, a IΔn is the rated residual operating current of the RCD (amps)
person or animal coming into Note: Where RA is not known it may be replaced by Zs.
simultaneous contact with the faulty
equipment and other earthed
Maximum values of Zs for the basic standard ratings of RCDs are given in Table 1,
metalwork will not experience an
unless the manufacturer declares alternative values.
electric shock because of the
equipotential cage formed by the
bonding. In practice, however, a small Rated residual operating current (mA) Maximum earth fault loop impedance
‘touch’ voltage will be present due to Zs (ohms) for U0 of 230 v
differing circuit impedances.
30 1667*
Automatic disconnection of supply is
most important for effective shock 100 500*
protection against indirect contact. It
involves ensuring that the faulty circuit 300 167
is disconnected within a specified safe
500 100
time following a fault to earth. What
constitutes a safe time depends on
many factors and those who require TABLE 1 – MAXIMUM EARTH FAULT LOOP IMPEDANCE (ZS) TO ENSURE RCD
detailed information on this should OPERATION IN ACCORDANCE WITH REGULATION 411.5.3 FOR NON DELAyED
RCDs TO BS EN 61008-1 AND BS EN 61009-1
consult the definitive documents, IEC
TS 60479 series and BS 7671 Regulation
411.3.2. Note 1: Figures for Zs result from the application of Regulation 411.5.3(i) and
When using an overcurrent protective 411.5.3(ii).
device e.g. a fuse or circuit-breaker, for Note 2: *The resistance of the installation earth electrode should be as low as
automatic disconnection, in order to practicable. A value exceeding 200 ohms may not be stable.
meet the requirements of BS 7671, it is Refer to Regulation 542.2.4.
necessary to ensure that these devices
can operate within a specified time in
the event of an earth fault. This is The use of a suitably rated RCD for indirect contact shock protection will permit
achieved by making sure that the earth much higher values of Zs than could be expected by using overcurrent protective
fault loop impedance is low enough to devices. In practice, however, values above 200 ohms will require further
allow sufficient fault current to flow. It is consideration. This is particularly important in installations relying on local earth
possible to calculate the appropriate electrodes (TT systems) where the relatively high values of Zs make the use of an
values using the published time/current RCD absolutely essential.
curves of the relevant device.
Alternatively BS 7671 publishes
maximum values of earth fault loop
impedance (Zs) for different types and
3.5 RCDS AND DIRECT protection of anybody who comes into current of 30 mA or less, can be
contact with the exposed live conductors. installed in the primary circuit to achieve
CONTACT SHOCK
The extra protection provided by RCDs is a 5 s disconnection time.
PROTECTION
now fully appreciated and this is In PELV, FELV and reduced low voltage
The use of RCDs with rated residual recognised in BS 7671 Regulation 415.1. systems an RCD can, if required, be
operating current of 30 mA or less are
It must be stressed, however, that the connected into the secondary circuit of
recognised as additional protection
RCD should be used as additional the transformer. This will provide
against direct contact shock. Regulation
protection only and not considered as a additional protection against electric
415.1.1 refers.
substitute for the basic means of direct shock under all conditions:
Direct contact shock is the result of contact shock protection (insulation,
persons or livestock inadvertently making • Shock protection if there is a failure
enclosure etc).
contact with normally live parts with one of the transformer and mains voltage
part of the body and, at the same time, appears on the secondary side
making contact with earth potential with 3.6 RCDS IN REDUCED AND
• Protection against indirect contact
another part of the body. Under these EXTRA-LOW VOLTAGE from the low voltage secondary
circumstances, the resulting electric APPLICATIONS voltage
shock will be at full mains potential and
the actual current flowing to earth will be In normal use, dangerous touch • Additional protection against direct
of the order 230 mA because of the voltages should not occur on electrical contact from the low voltage
relatively high body impedance involved. equipment intended for use with, and secondary voltage
It has already been shown in Section 2.3 supplied from, an extra-low (not
It must be remembered that, since a
that currents as low as 40/50 mA can exceeding 50 V AC) or reduced voltage
FELV circuit is not isolated from the
result in electrocution under certain (not exceeding 63.5 V to earth in three-
mains supply or earth, it presents the
circumstances. A 30 mA RCD will phase systems or 55 V to earth in single-
greatest risk from electric shock of all
disconnect an earth fault current before phase systems) source. Such circuits are
the levels at which fibrillation occurs are of the ELV methods.
known as:
reached. An RCD can also provide this additional
Separated extra-low voltage (SELV), in
The nominal rating of 30 mA has thus protection in a SELV circuit and its
which the circuit is electrically separated
become the internationally accepted electrical equipment but in this case a
from earth and from other systems.
norm for RCDs intended to provide double-fault condition, which need not
additional protection against the risk of protective extra-low voltage (PELV), as normally be considered, would have to
electrocution. SELV except that the circuit is not occur before the RCD could operate.
electrically separated from earth.
However, the rated operating current is Manufacturer’s guidance should always
not the only consideration; the speed of Functional extra-low voltage (FELV), an be sought when applying RCDs in extra-
tripping is also very important. If extra-low voltage system in which not low and reduced voltage applications,
ventricular fibrillation is to be avoided. all of the protective measures of SELV to confirm that devices will operate at
Examples of types of fault condition or PELV have been applied. these voltages. This is particularly
where the RCD can be of particular Reduced low-voltage system a important with respect to the test
benefit are listed in Chapter 5. voltage system in which all exposed- button since its correct operation
conductive-parts are connected to depends on the supply voltage.
One example is situations where basic
insulation has failed either through earth and protection against indirect
deterioration or, more commonly, contact shock is provided by automatic 3.7 RCDS IN ELECTRIC
through damage. An example of this is disconnection by overcurrent protective VEHICLE CHARGING
when a nail is driven through a partition device or RCD.
wall and penetrates a cable. This will Particular care must be taken in the
SELV, PELV and reduced low voltage selection of the type of RCD to be used
cause a first-fault condition due to failure
of the basic insulation. The result of this is system arrangements involve electrical in electric vehicle charging installations.
that there is now a strong possibility that separation of the final circuit normally
by means of a safety-isolating BS7671 does not permit the use of RCD
the nail will become live by contacting the
transformer. In normal use, the Type AC for this application.
live conductor. Any subsequent contact
by a person presents a risk of electrocution transformer prevents the appearance of Where RCDs are used, BS7671 requires:
or injury by direct contact. An RCD will any dangerous touch voltages on either
the electrical equipment or in the • RCD Type B; or
provide additional protection and
significantly reduce the risk of injury or circuit. Although extremely rare, a fault • RCD Type A and appropriate
death because it will trip when a occurring within the safety isolating equipment that provides
dangerous level of current flows to earth transformer may result in a dangerous disconnection of the supply in case
through the person in contact with the nail. touch voltage, up to the supply voltage, of DC fault current above 6 mA
This type of RCD protection is identical to appearing within the circuit or on the
the more common situation where a electrical equipment. Where additional NOTE 1: An example of appropriate
flexible cable is damaged (for example by protection against this risk is required, or equipment for detection of DC fault
a lawn mower) and exposes live in the case of a reduced low voltage current above installed
conductors. Here again the RCD provides system, an RCD with a rated residual
4
FIRE PROTECTION
4.1 BACKGROUND 4.2 PROTECTIVE MEASURES Research commissioned by the

AS A FUNCTION OF Department of Trade and Industry in
Electrical fires continue to be a 1997, established that a common source
significant issue in uk installations. EXTERNAL INFLUENCES of earth faults is surface tracking on
Electricity is major cause of accidental It is widely accepted that RCDs can insulation. The report confirms that
fires in uk homes with over 17,000 reduce the likelihood of fires associated currents as low as 50-100 mA have
electrical fires each year. fire statistics with earth faults in electrical systems, been found to be sufficient to cause
for 2017/18 identify that almost 23 % of equipment and components by limiting ignition and fire as a result of tracking
domestic electrical fires are caused by the magnitude and duration of current and that at these currents, an RCD rated
faulty appliances and leads. flow. to provide protection against electric
shock, would also have prevented
The 2017/18 fire statistics also The ability to provide additional ignition. Attention is drawn also to the
attribute 12 % of fires to electrical protection against the risk of fire is fact that minimising the presence of
distribution (wiring, cabling, plugs). recognised in BS 7671, for example: electrically conducting dust or liquids,
These statistics demonstrate that which may arise due to leakage or
• For protection against the risk of fire,
electrical fires occur and can cause spillage, can reduce the onset of surface
the RCD is required to disconnect all
injuries, deaths and damage or destroy tracking.
live conductors i.e. line and neutral.
significant amounts of property.
Electrical fires can be a silent killer • Regulation 422 defines the Again, in BS 7671, Chapter 42 sets
occurring in areas of the home that are precautions to be taken in requirements to prevent the wiring
hidden from view and early detection. ‘Installations where Particular systems and electrical equipment being
Risks of Danger of Fire Exist’. exposed to the harmful build-up of
Source: Department for Communities materials such as dust or fibre likely to
Regulation 422.3.9 requires, in TN
and Local Government, Fire Statistics present a fire hazard.
and TT systems, that wiring
2017/18.
systems, with the exception of
Household electricity supplies are fitted mineral insulated cable and busbar
with fuses or circuit-breakers to protect trunking systems, are protected
against the effects of ‘overcurrents’ against insulation faults to earth by
(‘overloads’ in circuits which are an RCD having a rated tripping
electrically sound and ‘short-circuit current not exceeding 300 mA.
faults’ due to contact between live
• Section 705 defines the particular
conductors in a fault situation.) RCDs
requirements that apply to
provide additional protection against the
‘Agricultural and Horticultural
effects of earth leakage faults which
Premises’. Regulation 705.422.7
could present a fire risk.
requires, for the protection against
fire, an RCD having a rated tripping
current not exceeding 300 mA.
ELECTRICITY IS MAJOR CAUSE

OF ACCIDENTAL FIRES IN UK
HOMES – OVER 20,000
ELECTRICAL FIRES EACH YEAR.
5
INSTALLATION RISKS
5.1 BACKGROUND Locations containing a bath or shower RCDs are not a substitute for good
These locations present a much higher wiring practice. However, correctly
It is clear that increased use of correctly risk because a wet body presents a installed RCDs will continue to provide
selected rcds, in addition to good much easier path for an electric current a high degree of protection against the
wiring practice, can reduce the effects to flow to earth. Consequently BS 7671 risks of electrocution and fire even
of electric shock and the possibility of prohibits the use of electrical when an installation deteriorates due
fire risk significantly. rcd protection equipment, other than shavers to poor maintenance or lack of
also provides an additional level of connected through an appropriate compliance with BS 7671.
protection where the wiring complies shaver supply unit, within 3 m of the
with Bs 7671 but the integrity of the bath or shower basin. Nevertheless,
wiring system has been damaged. tragedies have occurred as a result of
people using extension cables to supply
5.2 TYPICAL RISKS portable electrical appliances in these
Mechanical damage to cables locations.
The risk of people cutting through live
Fire risk associated with fixed electrical
cables is well known. Examples include
appliances
the following:
Faulty electrical appliances increase the
penetration of cable insulation in walls risk of fire. For example, fire can occur
and beneath floorboards. This is a when the insulation on an electric
common occurrence during DIy work in motor breaks down due to deterioration
the home. The main danger arises when or external damage.
someone comes into contact with live
This can result in the ignition of any
cables either directly or indirectly,
flammable material, including dust, in
resulting in an electric shock.
the vicinity of the non-insulated ‘live’
Cutting the supply lead or an extension parts.
lead with an electric lawn mower or
hedge trimmer. This is another Bad wiring practice
common occurrence and can result in Although all new and/or modified
either a serious electric shock or death installations must comply with the
when bodily contact is made with the current edition of BS 7671 it is possible
exposed live conductor. that a person may incorrectly erect or
subsequently incorrectly modify an
Trapped or poorly maintained installation.
extension leads. The effects here are
similar to those described above. Examples of the risks of electric shock
and fire resulting from incorrectly wired
vermin. It is surprisingly common for systems include the following:
mice and other vermin to chew through
cables, exposing the live conductors. • Inadequate earthing or bonding
In all the above situations, even if • Wires trapped during installation

bodily contact does not occur, damage
• Insulation damaged during or after FAULTY ELECTRICAL
to the cable insulation can result in a
installation APPLIANCES INCREASE
fire risk which is significantly higher if
RCD protection is not used. • Bad system design THE RISK OF FIRE.
6
RCD SELECTION
this chapter is designed to help the against direct contact) This is ensured Table 2 aims to identify RCD use
specifier, installer and end user to when the minimum operating current of together with the benefits provided.
decide on the appropriate residual the RCD is no greater than 30 mA and However, before looking at Table 2
current protection. the RCD operates to disconnect the there are two other classifications of
circuit, within the specified time, in the RCD that need to be considered –
where it is intended to protect the
event of an earth leakage. general and time-delayed operation
whole or part of the fixed electrical
each having Type AC, A, F or B
installation by an rcd, expert advice Installation protection This is
characteristics.
should be sought. associated with devices that are used to
protect against the risk of fire caused by
Portable residual current devices 6.1.3 General and Time-Delayed RCDs
an electrical fault. RCDs which operate
(PRCDs) are available for use by the
at residual current levels up to and RCCBs to BS EN 61008: Specification for
non-specialist where normal socket-
including 300 mA provide this type of residual current operated circuit-
outlets are not protected by RCDs. They
protection. breakers without integral overcurrent
may be high sensitivity RCD adaptors,
protection for household and similar
which plug into the socket-outlet, or
6.1.2 Residual Current Devices (RCDs) uses (RCCBs) and RCBOs to BS EN
extension units which include a plug, a
61009: Specification for residual current
high sensitivity RCD and one or more
The term RCDs covers a range operated circuit-breakers with integral
socket-outlets.
overcurrent protection for household
of products some of which are
A PRCD is not part of the fixed electrical and similar uses (RCBOs) may be
listed below:,
installation and only protects the defined by the time they take to operate
equipment that is supplied through it. • rccB (residual current as follows.
operated circuit-Breaker without
It should be noted that BS 7671 Integral overcurrent protection)
Regulation 411.3.3 requires additional
protection by means of an RCD. • rcBo (residual current
operated circuit-Breaker with
In practice there may be specific Integral overcurrent protection)
protection issues which are not covered
in this handbook. For additional • srcd (socket-outlet
guidance regarding the suitability of a incorporating a residual current
particular RCD for specific applications device)
it is recommended that readers consult • fcurcd (fused connection unit
any of the BEAMA RCD manufacturers incorporating a residual current
listed at the beginning of this device) prcd (portable residual
publication. current device) WHERE IT IS INTENDED
• cBr (circuit-Breaker TO PROTECT THE
6.1 RCD SELECTION
incorporating residual current
CRITERIA protection) WHOLE OR PART OF
6.1.1 Sensitivity • Ic-cpd (In-cable control and THE FIXED ELECTRICAL
For every RCD there is normally a protective device for mode 2 INSTALLATION BY AN
choice of residual current sensitivity charging of electric road vehicles)
(tripping current). This defines the level
RCD, EXPERT ADVICE
• Mrcd (Modular residual current
of protection afforded. Protection is device) SHOULD BE SOUGHT.
divided into two broad categories:
personal protection (additional

protection of persons or livestock
It is not possible to achieve selectivity NOTE 2: For RCD Type F tripping is achieved
General RCDs operate with two S type RCDs in series. for residual pulsating direct currents
‘instantaneously’, i.e. they do not superimposed on a smooth direct current up
have an intentional delay in operation 6.1.4 Types AC, A, F and B RCDs. to 10 mA. This requirement verifies that a
and thus cannot be guaranteed to smooth direct current of up to 10 mA will not
‘discriminate’. This means that where Residual current devices may also be desensitise the RCD.
there are two or more general RCDs classified as Type AC., Type A, Type F
installed in series in an installation; and Type B as follows: RCD Type B: RCD for which tripping is
achieved as for Type F and in addition:
more than one device may trip in the
RCD Type AC: RCD tripping on
event of an earth leakage current. • for residual sinusoidal alternating
alternating sinusoidal residual current,
This would result in healthy circuits currents up to 1 kHz;
suddenly applied or smoothly
being disconnected even though the
increasing. • for residual alternating currents
initial fault occurred in a different part
superimposed on a smooth direct
of the installation. Selectivity is
symbol marked current;
essential in installations where it is on rcd:
important to ensure that a complete • for residual pulsating direct currents
system is not ‘shut down’, for superimposed on a smooth direct
RCD Type A: RCD tripping on
example in domestic installations to current;
alternating sinusoidal residual current
ensure that lighting and other circuits
and on residual pulsating direct current, • for residual pulsating rectified direct
are not disconnected if an earth
suddenly applied or smoothly current which results from two or
leakage occurs in a power circuit.
increasing. more phases;
Time Delayed RCDs provide
symbol marked • for residual smooth direct currents
selectivity in circuits where RCDs are
on rcd: whether suddenly applied or slowly
connected in series. It is essential to
increased independent of polarity.
install devices which incorporate a yp
time delay upstream of the general NOTE 1: For RCD Type A tripping is achieved
symbol marked
device, so that the device nearest a for residual pulsating direct currents on rcd:
fault will trip. RCDs with built in time superimposed on a smooth direct current up
delays should not be used to provide to 6 mA. This requirement verifies that a or
r
personal protection. smooth direct current of up to 6 mA will not
desensitise the RCD.
RCD Type F: RCD for which tripping is

achieved as for Type A and in addition:
For RCCBs complying with BS EN 61008
for composite residual currents,
and RCBOs complying with BS EN
whether suddenly applied or slowly NOTE 3: For RCD Type B, tripping is achieved
61009 the time delay feature is
rising intended for circuit supplied for residual pulsating direct currents
indicated by the letter ‘S’.
between phase and neutral or phase superimposed on a smooth direct current up
Selectivity is achieved between RCDs and earthed middle conductor; for to 10 mA or 4I△n, whichever is the greater.
when: residual pulsating direct currents
Care should be taken to avoid confusing
superimposed on smooth direct current.
• the upstream RCD is of selective type Type B RCD characteristics with type B
(type S or time-delayed type with circuit breaker instantaneous tripping,
appropriate time delay setting), and symbol marked particularly when considering RCBOs.
on rcd:
• the ratio of the rated residual Product standards for RCDs for use in DC
operating current of the upstream or supply sytems are currently under
RCD to that of the downstream RCD development.
is at least 3:1.
Bs 7671:2018 regulation 531.3.3
In the case of RCDs with adjustable states ‘different types of rcds exist,
rated residual operating current and depending on their behaviour in
time delay, reference shall be made to presence of dc components and
manufacturer’s instructions for frequencies. the appropriate rcd
selectivity. shall be selected.
TYPE AC, TYPE A, TYPE F

AND TYPE B RCDS ARE NOT
SUITABLE FOR USE IN DC
SUPPLY SYSTEMS.
In all cases equipment / appliance manufacturers instructions must be considered when

selecting the Type of RCD.
rcd Examples of type of equipment / load
Type AC Resistive, Capacitive, Inductive loads generally without any electronic components, typically:
• Immersion heater
• Oven/Hob with resistive heating elements
• Electric shower
• Tungsten & halogen lighting
Type A Single phase with electronic components, typically:

• USB socket outlets (unless specifically advised by the USB socket outlet manufacturer that Type AC
RCDs are suitable).
• Single phase invertors

• Class 1 IT and Multimedia equipment
• Power supplies for Class 2 equipment
• Appliances such as a washing machine that is not frequency controlled e.g. d.c. or universal motor
• Lighting controls such as a dimmer switch and home and building electronic systems LED drivers
• Induction hobs
• Electric Vehicle charging where any smooth DC fault current is less than 6 mA
Type A is also suitable for Type AC applications.
Type F Frequency controlled equipment / appliances, typically:

• Some washing machines, dishwashers and driers e.g. containing synchronous motors*
• Some air conditioning controllers using variable frequency speed drives
Type F is also suitable for Type AC and Type A applications.
Type B Three phase electronic equipment typically:

• Inverters for speed control
• UPS
• Electric Vehicle charging where any smooth DC fault current is greater than 6mA
• Photo voltaic
Power Electronic Converter Systems (PECS) typically:

• industrial machines
• cranes
Type B is also suitable for Type AC, Type A and Type F applications.
Type B+ Type B+ RCDs are not recognised in BS 7671 and do not have an international or harmonised (BS EN) standard.
* Manufacturer’s instructions should be taken into account.
power electronic converter pEC

device or part thereof for the purpose of electronic power conversion, including signalling,
measurement, control circuitries and other parts, if essential for the power conversion function
power electronic converter system pECS
one or more power electronic converters intended to work together with other equipment
For PECS, if a Type B RCD is required, the product will be marked with the symbol .
The instructions shall include a caution notice highlighting that where an RCD is used for
protection against electrical shock, only an RCD of Type B is allowed on the supply
side of this product.
TABLE 2 – APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF TyPES AC, A, B AND F RCDs
A Type AC RCD should not be fitted

upstream of a Type A, F or B RCD as the
load characteristics that the Type A, F or
B RCD has been selected for could
impair operation of the Type AC RCD.*
A Type F RCD should not be fitted
upstream of a Type B RCD as the load
characteristics that a Type B RCD has
been selected for could impair
operation of the Type F RCD.*
A Type A RCD should not be fitted

Wh
upstream of a Type F or B RCD as the
load characteristics that a Type F or B
RCD has been selected for could impair
operation of the Type A RCD.*
Type A
RCD
S
RCD Type A RCD Type A RCD Type B Type F
FIGURE 13 – ExAMpLE InstALLAtIon ArrAngEMEnt
* Note: Type AC, A or F RCDs may, when specifically declared as a suitable arrangement by the RCD
manufacturer, be fitted upstream of a Type B RCD.
DEVICE TYPE RCCB RCBO SRCD FCURCD PRCD CBR MRCD
Earth Leakage
Sensitivity mA (2)
Suitable for
Domestic Applications
Suitable for Industrial &

Commercial Applications
Suitable as a Main
Incoming Device (CU) (6) (6) (6) (6) (6)
Suitable as an Outgoing
Device in a CU, DB, PB N N
or SB (5,7)
Part of the Incomer

on a CU, DB, PB or
SB (5,7)
Provides Additional
Protection
Provides Protection
Against Electrical
Fire(8)
Protection to Socket
Outlets 20A or less
Fixed Wiring
Protection
Portable Appliance
Rated 20A or Less
Can be used to
Discriminate with
Instantaneous
Downstream Device
TABLE 3 – rcds for dIffErEnt AppLIcAtIons
Notes:
(1) Only if used in conjunction with suitable overcurrent protection (e.g. Fuse/circuit-breaker).
(2) 10 mA RCDs are associated with highly sensitive equipment and high risk areas such as school laboratories
and in hospital areas.
(3) yes provided 30 mA or less, but not normally used.
(4) With time delay.
(5) CU – Consumer unit to BS EN 61439-3.
(6) Must provide double pole isolation
(7) DB – Distribution Board; PB – Panel Board; SB – Switch Board
(8) For agricultural and horticultural premises, the RCD is required to disconnect all live conductors
6.2 RCD SELECTION GUIDES

The following selection guides are intended to help the specifier or installer decide on the most appropriate solution to
common installation arrangements.
6.2.1 Commercial/industrial system RCD protection options (figure 14)
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS
MAIN Earth fault protection

INCOMER (CB) associated with the
incoming circuit is
provided by CBR/MRCD.
MAIN
(Could also provide earth
SWITCHBOARD leakage monitoring system). For each stage of
the system:
Earth fault protection ENSURE
associated with the
incoming circuit is
EFFECTIVE
PANELBOARD provided by CBR/MRCD. SELECTIVITY
Individual outgoing ways
can be protected by CBRs.
DISTRIBUTION
Choose RCD protection
BOARD (DB)
in line with Figures 14-18.
OR CONSUMER
UNIT (CU)
FIGURE 14 –COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL SySTEM RCD PROTECTION OPTIONS
6.2.2 Sub distribution and final circuit RCD protection options (figures 15– 19)
DISTRIBUTION BOARD PROTECTION LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS

(DB) OR CONSUMER
UNIT (CU) Individual circuit protection eg: supplies RCD protection limited to
to outbuilding/portable equipment. one circuit only.
Personal protection provided if RCD Can be retro fitted at
is 30 mA. minimum cost.
RCCB
RCBO
PRCD
SRCD
FIGURE 15 – OUTGOING CIRCUIT RCD PROTECTION, SEPARATE FROM THE DISTRIBUTION BOARD
SPLIT LOAD CONSUMER PROTECTION LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS

UNIT (CU) OR DISTRIBUTION
BOARD (DB) WITH MAIN Commonly used to provide Fault on one of the RCD
INCOMING SWITCH – RCD protection to a group(s) protected circuits will trip out
DISCONNECTOR of circuits e.g. Socket-Outlets the supply to all associated
AND RCCB(S), TO PROTECT supplying portable equipment. RCD protected circuits.
A SPECIFIC GROUP(S) OF Installation partially RCD
Personal protection provided if protected.
CIRCUITS RCD is 30 mA.
FIGURE 16 –SPLIT LOAD PROTECTION (A)
SPLIT LOAD CONSUMER PROTECTION LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS

UNIT (CU) OR DISTRIBUTION
BOARD (DB) WITH MAIN Main incoming RCD will provide Installation is fully RCD protected.
INCOMING RCD AND protection to complete installation.
Main incoming RCD can be selected
(Typically 100 mA Time Delayed).
SECONDARY RCCB(S), TO to provide fire protection for the
PROTECT A SPECIFIC Intermediate RCCB(s) commonly complete installation.
GROUP(S) OF CIRCUITS used to provide RCD protection Intermediate RCCB can be selected to
to a group(s) of circuits e.g. provide additional protection on
Socket-Outlets supplying portable
high risk circuits.
equipment.
DB - RCCB/CBR Fault on one of the RCD protected
CU - RCCB Personal protection provided if circuits will trip out supply to all
RCD is 30 mA. associated RCD protected circuits.
Correct selection of devices for the

main incoming RCD and intermediate
RCCBs will provide selectivity
between devices.
FIGURE 17 – SPLIT LOAD PROTECTION (B)
PROTECTION LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS

SPLIT LOAD CONSUMER
UNIT (CU) OR DISTRIBUTION Main incoming Switch Installation is fully RCD protected.
BOARD (DB) WITH MAIN Disconnector to isolate all Fire protection and additional
INCOMING SWITCH circuits. 30m A RCDs protection provided for the
DISCONNECTOR AND will provide protection to complete installation.
RCCB(S), TO PROTECT A groups of circuits.
NUMBER OF SPECIFIC
GROUPS(S) OF CIRCUITS Personal protection and fire A fault on one circuit will cause
protection is provided to the upstream RCD to operate
all circuits. disconnecting the supply to all
circuits associated with that RCD.
Only a section of the installation
is affected.
FIGURE 18 – DUAL SPLIT LOAD PROTECTION (C)
DISTRIBUTION BOARD (DB) OR PROTECTION LEVEL CONSIDERATIONS

CONSUMER UNIT (CU) WITH
INCOMING MAIN SWITCH - Outgoing circuits with individually Installation is fully RCBO
DISCONNECTOR AND RCBO or CBR protection will protected. Fire protection and
INDIVIDUAL RCBO OR CBR operate without affecting other circuits. additional protection provided
PROTECTION ON OUTGOING for the complete installation.
CIRCUITS Personal protection provided if
RCBOs are ≤ 30 mA.
FIGURE 19 – THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE OPTION – INDIVIDUAL OUTGOING PROTECTION ON ALL WAyS
7
OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE
7.1 TESTING BY THE 7.2 TESTING BY THE button as described in 7.1 above. If the
INSTALLER RCD fails to trip, investigate in
END USER accordance with the ‘Trouble shooting’
All rcds should be tested at least once 7.2.1 Time/current performance test chart (Figure 20).
every six months to ensure that they BS 7671 requires a test independent of
are still operative. this can be carried the RCD test button facility to be 7.2.3 Insulation tests
out by the end user. It involves applied to ensure that the RCD satisfies When insulation tests are carried out on
operating the test device (normally a the disconnection times required for an installation, the applied voltage
push button) marked ‘t’ or ‘test’. fault and additional protection as should not exceed 500 V DC (RCDs are
this should cause the rcd to trip, detailed in Chapter 41. designed to withstand this voltage).
disconnecting the supply to the
protected circuit. reinstate the supply The test parameters detailed in Table 4 An RCD in circuit may affect insulation
by reclosing the device or pressing the are in accordance with the requirements resistance test results. It may be
‘reset’ button as appropriate. of the relevant product standards – necessary to disconnect RCDs for the
BS EN 61008 series 1 and BS EN 61009 purpose of these tests.
If the rcd does not switch off the series 1 which satisfy these
supply when the test button is pressed, requirements. 7.2.4 Earth loop impedance testing
the user should seek expert advice.
All tests must be performed with all Some earth loop impedance testers are
loads disconnected using an designed to inject an a.c. test current
appropriate calibrated test instrument through line and earth conductors of up
connected as close to the RCD as to 25 A. This current will trip all RCDs. To
possible. avoid tripping the device during the test
some instruments have the facility to test
7.2.2 Functional test with a 15 mA test current. Others use a DC
current to desensitise the RCD for the
Upon completion of the installation an
duration of the test however this type of
operational check of the RCD should be
tester only works on RCDs that are
undertaken by pressing the RCD test
sensitive to AC faults alone and does not
prevent many types of RCBOs from
Type Rated Rated Standard values of break time (s) and non-actuating time (s)
tripping. Type A, Type F and Type B RCDs
Current Residual at a residual current (IΔ) equal to: (designed to the product standards BS EN
Current 61008, BS EN 61009 and BS EN 62423)
In
I∆n I∆n 2I∆n 5I∆n
A
A or 0.25A will trip upon detection of the DC
General Any value Any value
desensitising current.
0,3 0,15 0,04 Maximum break times
Earth loop impedance figures for
S ≥25 >0,030 installations which contain RCDs sensitive
0,5 0,2 0,15 Maximum break times
to both AC and DC fault currents
Maximum non actuating (i.e. Type A, Type F and Type B devices),
0,13 0,06 0,05 times should be determined either by
calculation or by using a tester having a
TABLE 4 – STANDARD VALUES OF BREAK TIME AND NON ACTUATING TIME FOR test current below the device trip
ALTERNATING RESIDUAL CURRENTS threshold. Alternatively, test methods can
be used which will not trip the RCD. One
such method is to measure the earth fault
loop impedance on the supply side of the
RCD and add this to the value of the
combined resistance (R1+R2) on the load
side of the RCD. This method also checks
the continuity of the protective conductor.
7.3 TROUBLESHOOTING
7.3.1 Troubleshooting for the end user

In the event of a trip occurring on an below gives a simple guide to actions to
rcd it is most likely to be caused by a be taken to identify the source of the
fault in a piece of equipment supplied fault. If in doubt, consult a qualified
by a socket-outlet. the flow chart electrician.
RCD Trips
Switch off/Unplug all

appliances. Reset RCD.
No Plug in/switch-on
RCD TRIPS?
appliances one at a time.
Yes
No
RCD TRIPS? Next appliance
Switch off all MCBs/remove
all fuses. Reset RCD.
Yes
Last appliance reinstated
Switch on MCBs/replace has earth fault.
fuses one at a time. Submit appliance for repair.
No
RCD TRIPS? Next MCB/Fuse.
Yes
Last circuit switched-on

has earth fault.
Seek expert advice.
FIGURE 20 – TROUBLE SHOOTING FOR THE END USER
7.3.2 Troubleshooting for the electrical Load side (protected ‘downstream’ side • Too many items of current
contractor/instructed person of the RCD) using equipment containing
• Wrongly specified RCD filter circuits
Potential causes of unwanted tripping:
Supply side (upstream of the RCD) • Wet plaster / condensation • Excessive length of mineral
insulated cables
• Mains borne disturbance • No 'selectivity between
RCDs • Heating elements (e.g.
• Site machinery/plant cookers)
• Lightning strike • Crossed neutral on split load
board • Householder / DIy faults (e.g.
• Equipment or faults external nails/picture hooks)
to the installation e.g. cable • N – E fault
• Moisture ingress (appliances,
joints breaking down causing • High standing earth leakage sockets etc.)
sporadic unwanted tripping to currents caused by:
one or more premises, a fault in For assistance in faultfinding, a step-
• Surge Protection Devices
an adjacent installation by-step trouble shooting flow chart is
(SPDs)
given below.
7.3.3 Electromagnetic Specific EMC requirements for RCDs are by wireless communications (e.g. smart
Compatibility (EMC) detailed in BS EN 61543 which was first meters), resulting in unwanted tripping.
published in 1996, compliance with A solution to resolving the unwanted
RCD product standards have been
BS EN 61543 was mandatory from tripping is to replace the RCD according
developing over the past three decades,
April 2001. to the RCD and consumer unit
early versions of the product standards
manufacturer's guidance, where
did not include specific EMC testing of Products designed and manufactured
permitted.
RCDs. To meet the requirements of the prior to April 2001 may not comply with
EMC directive, RCDs were tested to the specific EMC requirements of BS EN
more general EMC requirements. 61543, such products may be affected
7.4 DETAILED FAULT-FINDING IN RCD PROTECTED INSTALLATIONS
TROUBLESHOOTING
RCD INSTALLATIONS
For intermittent
RCD TRIPS RCD DOES NOT TRIP
trips see list of when test button is pressed
will not reset
possible causes.
Correctly located in
terminals & tight? Use RCD test set
Correct polarity? etc. to test RCD
On TNCS supply
check for N to E
fault close to RCD
Check RCD connections
At rated residual At 5 x rated residual

Switch off all equipment tripping current tripping current
isolators. Remove all plugs Disconnect RCD
from socket-outlets. outgoing conductors
Reset RCD. (Note 1) Reset RCD.
No Yes
RESULT RESULT
OK OK
Yes Yes If trip time greater
RCD TRIPS RCD TRIPS No No than 40 ms disconnect
RCD test
ALL line and neutral
circuit fault
RCD faulty connections and retest
No No Change RCD at RCD terminals
Switch on all equipment Isolate distribution board

isolators and replace plugs one from all incoming live
at a time, until RCD trips conductors. Secure isolation.
Yes No
RCD TESTER RESULT
Note 3 OK OK
Disconnect circuits individually

Faulty equipment identified.
and test with 500 V insulation No Yes
Locate fault in equipment.
tester until faulty circuit
is found.
Retest with known RCD within
good RCD test set specification
Replace each circuit Pass Fail Trace and correct fault.

500 V
after test. Reconnect circuit
TEST
Note 2
Note 1 N from neutral bar.
L switch off all CB’s or remove fuses.
Note 2 Minimum insulation resistance 2 MΩ.
Note 3 Some test sets are influenced by voltage and certain loads.
FIGURE 21 – TROUBLE SHOOTING FOR THE ELECTRICAL CONTRACTOR/INSTRUCTED PERSON
8
RCD
CONSTRUCTION
8.1 VOLTAGE
INDEPENDENT RCD G
TEST BUTTON
voltage independent rcds use the
energy of the earth fault current to trip
the mechanism directly. In this type of SUPPLY LOAD
rcd the output from the sensing coil L
operates a specially constructed
magnetic relay and so releases the rcd SENSING COIL
mechanism, independently of the
N
mains voltage.
TRIP
Voltage independent RCDs normally use RELAY
a polarised (field weakening) relay
construction. This operates by
cancellation of the permanent magnetic
flux (which holds the relay ON) by the
FIGURE 22 – VOLTAGE INDEPENDENT RCD DESIGN
excitation flux (produced by the fault
current). This can only occur in one
half-cycle of the AC supply because the
magnetic flux will be reinforced in the
other half cycle. Operating times can
vary from 20 to 120 ms at rated tripping
current.
8.2 VOLTAGE
DEPENDENT RCD
Voltage dependent RCDs generally
employ an electronic amplifier to
provide an enhanced signal from the
sensing coil to operate a trip solenoid or
relay (Figure 23). RCDs of this type are
defined as ‘voltage dependent ‘ because
they rely on a voltage source, derived
from the main supply, or an auxiliary
supply, to provide power to the
amplifier. The basic principle of
operation is, however, the same as
voltage independent RCDs. FIGURE 23 – VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RCD DESIGN
9
DETAILED FAULT-FINDING ON RCD
PROTECTED INSTALLATIONS BY
COMPETENT PERSONS
An rcd will detect and trip not only on It is important to ensure that there are It is often possible to obtain a
a line to earth fault and may also trip no time-switches, contactors etc. measurement of standing protective
automatically on a neutral to earth fault isolating any part of individual circuits conductor current in final and
depending on the design. the majority from the test equipment whilst the tests distribution circuits using a milliamp
of earth faults occur in appliances, are carried out. Care should also be clamp meter, the circuit live conductors
particularly portable appliances and taken to ensure that equipment will not being encircled by the jaws of the
their flexible cables. this means that in be damaged by the tests. instrument. With this test the instrument
many installations, faults can be located sees the same current as the RCD.
It is also important to disconnect or
easily by unplugging all appliances and
isolate current using equipment A high impedance neutral to earth fault
then plugging them in again. the rcd
wherever possible. Very often it is not may not pass sufficient fault current to
will trip when the faulty appliance is
practical to isolate lighting equipment, trip the RCD. From a safety point of view
reconnected.
in which case to avoid the equipment a neutral to earth fault with little or no
Faults on the fixed wiring are often being damaged by the test voltage, current flow through it does not present
caused by nails or screws driven lighting circuit’s line and neutral a danger. However, when any protected
between the neutral and earth conductors should be connected load is switched on, some of the load
conductors, reversed neutral and earth together for the duration of the test. For current will travel through the neutral to
connections or a neutral conductor other circuits line earth faults are earth fault; when the load current is
touching an earthed mounting box. relatively easy to find since the line large enough the RCD will trip. Because
Withdrawing a fuse or tripping a circuit- conductors can be isolated by the fault is load-dependent, tripping can
breaker in a final circuit does not withdrawing the fuse or by switching off appear to be random. Switching on a
normally interrupt the neutral and may the circuit-breakers. Each circuit should large load connected to another sub-
not prevent an RCD from tripping. Such then be tested separately and the faulty circuit that is healthy may still trip the
a condition could occur whilst altering circuit can then be identified. RCD. This is because part of the load
the circuit wiring. Cutting through a current may flow to earth through the
In the case of neutral to earth faults,
cable could cause the RCD to trip but neutral block and the neutral to earth
neutral conductors should be
this may not be noticed at the time and fault. The symptoms of a partial neutral
disconnected from the neutral bar one
during fault finding, the trip may not be to earth fault are very similar to
at a time and tested individually. The
associated with the cable being cut. unwanted tripping and are discussed in
faulty circuit will then be readily
more detail later.
The most effective way of testing for identified without necessarily
earth faults in the wiring or equipment is disconnecting all neutral conductors.
by measuring the insulation resistance Where RCBOs are installed load cables 9.1 MAINS BORNE
between line and neutral conductors should be disconnected from the TRANSIENTS AND SURGES
and earth using a 500 V d.c. insulation device.
Although the overall reliability of RCDs
resistance tester.
It might be assumed that any standing is excellent, in a number of cases
Before commencing insulation protective conductor current below the conditions can occur within an installation
resistance testing it is essential to ensure trip level of the RCD could be ignored. that can cause an RCD to trip when no
that the distribution board or consumer Unfortunately, this is not so because the apparent fault condition can be found.
unit is completely isolated from the RCD sensitivity is effectively increased to This type of unwanted tripping is often
supply voltage and all Overcurrent the difference between the RCD trip incorrectly referred to as ‘spurious’ or
Protection Devices (OCPDs) are current and the standing protective ‘nuisance’ tripping and can be a source of
isolated. conductor current. For example, an considerable frustration for a contractor
RCD with a rated residual operating who attempts to trace this elusive fault.
Safe isolation procedures must be current of 30 mA will have a typical trip However, once the reasons for unwanted
adopted and where necessary the current of 22 mA; if the standing tripping are understood, and it is realised
means of isolation should be protective conductor current is 10 mA it that it is attributable to the installation
secured. will only take an earth fault current of conditions and not the RCD, then a
12 mA to trip the RCD. This could lead methodical course of action will
to unwanted tripping. overcome the problem with a minimum
of effort.
Two main causes of unwanted tripping The blowing of a simple rewireable fuse Some types of discharge lighting (e.g.
can be identified: can also cause transients. One of the high-pressure sodium lamps and metal
pioneers of fuse technology, H.W. Baxter halide lamps) use external igniters,
• Transient surge currents between
(Electric Fuses, 1950) stated: “It is which produce a series of high voltage
phases or between phase and
noteworthy that, given sufficient pulses, which cease when the lamp
neutral within the installation
inductance, the peak voltage with a 10 starts. These pulses are of short duration
• A combination of supply network inch (copper) fuse wire reached 6000 V but range from 3 kV to 4.5 kV for high-
transient overvoltages, and (approximately 29 times the circuit pressure sodium lamps. Metal halide
capacitance to earth within the voltage).” lamps are ignited by applying 9 kV
installation pulses at 10 ms intervals for up to 7
It has been reported that overvoltages
seconds directly on to the lamp. The
9.1.1. Tripping due to surge currents of 6000 V can be reached with BS 1363
very large number of discharge lamps in
plug fuses used in inductive circuits. It
In theory, tripping due to surge currents use (particularly for street lighting)
would not be unreasonable (based on
between phases or between phase and makes it likely that this is a major source
Baxter’s research) to get a peak voltage
neutral should not occur but in practice of transient overvoltages.
of 2 kV from a two inch copper fuse
any magnetic device such as an RCD wire subjected to a prospective fault From the foregoing it will be seen that
will have leakage flux. If the load current current of 1.2 kA, or a peak voltage of unwanted tripping may be caused by
is large enough, this leakage flux will 1.1 kV from a two inch copper wire transient overvoltages in the mains
induce sufficient secondary current to subjected to a prospective fault current supply, originating from outside the
trip the RCD. For example, BS EN of only 400 A. installation.
61008-1 Clause 9.18 requires that an
RCCB should not trip when one second Although significant transients can arise The question of how these transient
surges of six times rated current flow. BS within an installation they would only overvoltages trip an RCD has not yet
EN 61009-1 requires that RCBOs do not occur under fault conditions. They been discussed. Transients can appear in
trip when subjected to 0.5 µs/100 kHz might, however, travel to other three possible forms:
ring wave with a current surge of 200 A. installations where they could cause
• Between phase and neutral and
Experience in the field has shown that unwanted tripping of an RCD.
of opposite polarity with respect
tripping due to surge currents is not the Discharge lighting can be a major to earth
major cause of unwanted tripping. source of transient overvoltages.
Discharge lighting is distinct from other • Between phase and neutral but
9.1.2. Tripping due to transient of the same polarity with respect
equipment in that high voltage pulses
overvoltage and capacitance to earth to earth
are produced deliberately to initiate the
A transient overvoltage can be defined discharge. Because of the inductive • Either on phase only or on
as a temporary surge, of limited energy, nature, and hence lagging power factor neutral only with respect to earth
caused by a sudden change in power of the control circuits of discharge
requirements. Sources of transient lamps, a capacitor is frequently used for Tests on installations, with transient
overvoltage include reactors of any power factor correction. This is surge suppression connected across
type, e.g. motors, transformers, connected directly across the supply phase and neutral, have shown no
contactors, power factor correction terminals of each lamp. The reduction in the amount of unwanted
capacitors etc. They are also caused by characteristics of discharge lamps and tripping.
arcing at switch, contactor, relay and their control gear also produce For a transient overvoltage to trip an
circuit-breaker contacts. considerable third harmonic current RCD, it must cause a current imbalance
It is known that lightning strikes can be (approximately 20 % of phase current). by either:
a source of unwanted RCD tripping. This is not reduced by the power factor
correction capacitor. As a result, the • Causing a flashover to earth due
K.M. Ward (‘Lightning Damped’,
percentage of third harmonic current is to breakdown of insulation or
Electron, 23 January 1979) stated: ”the
initial surge on an 11 kV line, due to a greater in a high power factor circuit
• Allowing sufficient high-
strike, may be of the order of 240 kV at than a low power factor circuit.
frequency earth leakage due to
the point of impact and will reach a When a discharge lamp is switched on, the capacitance to earth.
point two miles from the point of origin a surge of many times rated current (i.e.
If the former were happening, then a
in 3 µs by which time it will have fallen several hundred amps) may occur for
flashover from a low-energy transient
exponentially to some 140 kV.” several microseconds due to the
would be followed (at least in some
Some of these transient overvoltages charging of the power factor correction
cases) by a mains flashover. No
could be expected to be transformed capacitor. Alternatively, if no power
installations investigated so far have
down and would appear on the 230 V factor correction capacitor is included,
shown this type of damage.
mains. Hence, unwanted tripping can the opening of the supply switch will
occur some considerable distance (i.e. cause voltage surges of several kV.
several kilometres) away from the point Either situation can cause unwanted
of impact of a lightning strike. Ward also RCD tripping.
states that secondary distribution
systems may carry transient
overvoltages of up to 3.3 kV.
The capacitance to earth required to cause a current flow of 50 mA can be other British standards which are
calculated. Assuming an isolated pulse with a 50 µs rise time and a peak voltage relevant to earth leakage or rfI
of 1 kV, say: suppression, but which make no
reference to maximum allowable
earth leakage currents or
capacitance to earth, are:
1000
Xc 20000 Ω BS EN 62368-1:2014: Audio/video,
0.05 information and communication
technology equipment. Safety
requirements
1
Frequency = 5000 Hz BS EN 55011: Industrial, scientific
4 x 50 x 10-6 and medical equipment. Radio-
frequency disturbance
characteristics. Limits and methods
1 of measurement
C= = 1.6 nF
2π x 5000 x 20000 BS EN 55013: Sound and television
broadcast receivers and associated
equipment. Radio disturbance
characteristics. Limits and methods
of measurement
In practice, an isolated transient does with additional earth fault problems. These
not occur. There will be several hundred should be taken into account during the
such pulses and they may well have early design stage when MI cable and
peak voltages greater than 1 kV. The RCD protection are to be used together. All this means that there are no clear
cumulative effect of their fast rise times, guidelines limiting the amount of
Another major source of capacitance to capacitance to earth that a manufacturer
coupled with their fast repetition
earth is radio frequency interference (RFI) fits into his equipment. BS EN 60335-1
frequency, could produce sufficient
suppression components. It is common puts maximum limits on the 50 Hz, 230 V
earth fault current to trip an RCD if
practice to connect capacitors between protective conductor current for
sufficient capacitance to earth exists.
live and neutral, live and earth and neutral household appliances to 5 mA for
and earth. These capacitors are usually stationary Class 1 appliances with heaters
9.2 CAPACITANCE TO EARTH supplied on a single ‘delta-connected’ unit (e.g. cookers), 3.5 mA for motor operated
The capacitance of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.5 mm2 to the BS EN 60939 series of standards. Class 1 appliances, 0.75 mA for other Class
flat thermoplastic insulated twin and earth The BS EN 60939 series has no 1 appliances and 0.25 mA for Class 2
cable is approximately 150 pF per metre. It prescriptive requirements concerning appliances. BS EN 60598 place limits on
would not be unusual for a domestic maximum values of capacitance but the maximum protective conductor
installation to have 100 m of 2.5 mm2 covers safety and testing requirements in currents allowed in luminaires. BS EN
cable and 250 m of 1.0 or 1.5 mm2 cable, great detail. The capacitors in these filters 60335-2-90 covers the safety aspects of
which would result in a capacitance to should be Class y (i.e. a capacitor suitable microwave ovens and specify a maximum
earth of up to 52.5 nF. This would allow a for use on 230 V mains systems where protective conductor current of 1 mA.
standing protective conductor current of failure of the capacitor could lead to risk of
an electric shock (see BS EN 60939-2). The Electricity Safety, Quality and
11 µA/m or a cable leakage current of
Continuity (Amendment)
nearly 4 mA for the whole installation (at RFI suppression units, particularly those
230 V, 50 Hz). allowed in non-household appliances, Regulations 2009 (ESQCR) came into
could cause significant standing protective force on 6th April 2009. Effective from
The capacitance to earth of 2.5 mm2
conductor currents and will provide a path 31st January 2003 the Electricity Safety,
mineral insulated (MI) cable is higher,
for currents resulting from transient Quality and Continuity Regulations 2002
approximately 400 pF/m. This would allow
overvoltages. replaced the Electricity Supply Regulations
a standing earth leakage of 30 µA/m. A
1988. There are no requirements in the
commercial or industrial installation could The large value of neutral to earth ESQCR which specify any maximum
contain 500 m of cable, which could capacitance, allowed in permanently allowable value of protective conductor
result in a capacitance to earth of up to earthed equipment, would not normally current in an installation. Until 1988 the
200 nF. This would allow a standing cause a problem. It would become maximum allowable value of protective
protective conductor current of nearly 15 significant if transient overvoltages conductor current in an installation was
mA while providing a very low impedance occurred between neutral and earth. Also, given by the Electricity Supply Regulations,
path for any transient overvoltages. double pole switching would cause an 1937, and was limited to one ten-
The advantages of mineral insulated (MI) RCD to trip since up to full mains voltage thousandth part of the maximum current
cable over plastic insulated types are in no could suddenly appear across this to be supplied to the installation. The
way disputed, but the higher capacitance capacitance during switch off. (See relevant Clause (Clause 26) was referred to
of MI cable can present the contractor Section 9.3). in Regulation 13-9 of the 15th Edition of
the IEE Wiring Regulations. The 1937 Another significant fact is that, in general, function of cable length. Also, an
Regulations were replaced by the the characteristic impedance of a cable is overhead line behaves as a good aerial to
Electricity Supply Regulations 1988, since very much lower than that of an overhead radio-frequency signals and noise while an
when there has no longer been any line. Only a small fraction of any voltage underground cable, by both its nature and
limitation on protective conductor current surge that travels down a line would be location, is less susceptible to this type of
within the regulations for the supply of transmitted down an equivalent cable. For interference.
electricity. this reason equipment at the end of an
The foregoing analysis indicates that
overhead power line is sometimes
An installation is “deemed to comply” with unwanted tripping of an RCD is less likely
connected to the line by a short length of
the safety requirements of the regulations within installations supplied by
surge-minimising cable. A cable is, by its
for the supply of electricity if it complies underground steel-armoured cables, due
very nature, a good attenuator of transient
with BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical to the large inductance and capacitance
overvoltages.
Installations IET Wiring Regulations. of the cable, and more likely on
The distance between the installation and installations fed by overhead lines due to
BS 7671:2018 Regulation 531.3.2 states
the sub station will be significant since the the low capacitance of the line. The fact
that RCDs shall be selected and erected
amount of attenuation between the that TN-C-S cables are not generally steel-
such as to limit the risk of unwanted
installation and the transient overvoltage armoured, suggests that unwanted
tripping. In addition to other requirements,
sources (e.g. sub station transformers, tripping is more likely on TN-C-S
including sub-division of circuits, it also
street lighting, tap changers etc) will be a installations than on non TN-C-S systems.
limits accumulation of protective
conductor and/or earth leakage currents
to not greater than 30 % of the rated
residual operating current of the RCD.
Overhead Line Cable
9.3 CABLES AND
OVERHEAD LINES
Inductance (mH/mile) 1.8 to 2.1 0.8
There are indications that the problem of
unwanted tripping occurs more frequently Capacitance (µF/mile) 0.015 0.27 to 0.5
in installations supplied by overhead lines
than by those supplied by underground
TABLE 5 – APPROXIMATE VALUES OF INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE FOUND IN PRACTICE
concentric cable. An analysis of the
capacitance and inductance of these two
types of conductor shows that:
• The capacitance of a non-

armoured cable is significantly
greater than that of an equivalent
overhead line.
• The inductance of an overhead

line is greater than that of an
equivalent non-armoured cable .
Table 5 gives typical values of inductance

and capacitance for overhead lines and
cables obtained from the Electrical
Engineer’s Reference Book. They agree
with values, which can be derived from
other sources;
• The Calculation and Design of

Electrical Apparatus W. Wilson.
• The Switchgear Handbook,Vol. 2.
9.4 NEUTRAL TO EARTH 9.5 DOUBLE GROUNDING problem to be solved. Sections 7.3 and 9.2
FAULTS show that the effects due to protective
‘Double grounding’ is a phenomenon conductor currents can be quite complex.
Although neutral to earth faults do not which occurs when two earth faults – a
normally fall under the heading of phase to earth fault and a neutral to earth Capacitance to earth is frequently the
‘unwanted’ tripping, they can result in fault – occur simultaneously in a circuit cause of unwanted tripping and can easily
intermittent effects within an installation protected by an RCD. Where these earth reach significant levels due to the
that appear illogical and very similar to faults do not present large impedances, cumulative effect of cables and RFI
unwanted tripping. This is particularly true and therefore the earth fault current is suppression components. Limits on
where the neutral to earth fault limited, nothing out of the ordinary is likely protective conductor currents are no
impedance is significant or where the to happen. However, when the earth fault longer set by the electricity supply
installation is part of a PME (Protective impedance of both faults is significant, regulations (ESQCR Regulations 2009)
Multiple Earthing) TN-C-S system. This is then a situation can occur where the and BS 7671 does not set maximum limits
aggravated by the fact that it is difficult to phase to earth fault current can cancel the for installations. Protective conductor
electrically isolate parts of the neutral effect of the neutral to earth fault current currents and capacitance to earth limits
wiring of an installation. since the two currents flow in opposite set by British Standards are large enough
directions through the RCD. Furthermore, to allow a build-up of protective
The detection of a neutral to earth fault by ‘double grounding’ can render the RCD conductor currents among appliances,
an RCD depends on either: test circuit inoperative due to the neutral luminaires and RFI suppression
to earth fault current cancelling the effect components to a level that may trip an
• The existence of a neutral potential
of the test circuit current. RCD.
above earth caused by the voltage
drop along the neutral or ‘Double grounding’ phenomena rarely With the arrival of the EMC Directive, this
occur in practice. They virtually never lack of control has resulted in an increase
• The existence of a load connected
occur on non-TN-C-S systems due to the in the use of the protective conductor for
into the protected circuit. Part of
neutral to earth voltage. They have been functional purposes since electromagnetic
the load current then flows back
known to occur on TN-C-S systems but compatibility (EMC), and not the provision
via the earth return thus tripping
only when the systems were unloaded. of additional protection by RCDs, is the
the RCD. This load current will also
Problems have occurred on TN-C-S priority of equipment manufacturers. The
cause a voltage drop along the
installations during the commissioning objectives of good RFI suppression and of
neutral
stage where it is common for no load to earth fault protection create a conflict of
In a non TN-C-S system, the existence of be connected. interests, which have yet to be resolved.
such a neutral potential above earth is
Residual current devices from BEAMA
almost inevitable due to all the consumer 9.6 CONCLUSIONS manufacturers are designed to overcome
loads connected to that neutral. In a TN-
Confusion can be caused by the many of these problems.
C-S installation the neutral potential above
earth can depend on that one consumer combination of installation conditions that
load, due to the TN-C-S link. Therefore, in could lead to random tripping on TN-C-S
a TN-C-S installation with no load, or a installations. Often, the RCD is blamed for
very light connected load, an RCD cannot being “too sensitive”, “unreliable” etc.,
detect a neutral to earth fault. This can when it is the installation conditions which
also happen in a non-TN-C-S system are to blame.
where all consumers on the same neutral Where phase to earth and neutral to earth
are taking virtually no load or in an faults occur on the same circuit, it is easier
installation that happens to be close to the to locate the phase to earth fault first.
sub-station. In practice these last effects Tripping of the circuit-breakers or removal
are rare. of fuses in the sub-circuits can disconnect
Where the neutral to earth fault the live circuits easily. After elimination of
impedance is significant, then the earth the live to earth fault, the neutral to earth
leakage current will be insufficient to trip fault will be easier to locate.
the RCD. The fault may now be described In all cases, especially TN-C-S Systems, the
as ‘unwanted tripping’ since the detection effect of load current must be borne in
of this fault becomes totally load- mind. A heavy load should be applied to all
dependent and the RCD may trip at sub-circuits before assuming that all earth
random times. By itself this condition is faults have been eliminated.
not serious since, if no current is flowing,
the neutral to earth fault is not a danger Flowcharts for fault-finding on RCD
but as soon as a load is connected, and protected installations, are shown in
the earth leakage current reaches a section 7.3 (Figs. 20 and 21). They include
dangerous level, the RCD will trip. The all the possible faults discussed in this
user or installer may be baffled by all these section. They provide a logical approach
effects and will often describe the fault as to diagnosing an earth fault and their
spurious or nuisance tripping. careful use should allow any earth fault
10
ANNEX
10.1 FIRE PROTECTION – these provisions for fire safety are When electrical conductors are subject
EXTRACT FROM DTI REPORT supplemented by overcurrent and to arcing or overheating and are
sometimes earth leakage protection adjacent to insulation the chemical
the following information is extracted devices in the supply installation. processes of combustion can occur as
from the department of trade and follows:
Industry report residual current For Class II appliances under normal
devices; added value for home safety conditions, no earth fault current path • An initial heating of the insulation
by kind permission. It forms the basis will be involved and no added – the resulting temperature
for the information in section 4 and protection against fire would be increase will be rate dependent
underlines the role of rcds in fire expected if an RCD was used. on the amount of heat
prevention. For Class I appliances, RCDs would be generated, the specific heat of
expected to provide closer protection the product mass, the thermal
10.1.1 The Incidence of Fires in and limit the duration of current flow conductivity of the material and
Household Electrical Appliances and energy transfer to insulation in the the latent heats of fusion and
event of fault currents to earth and vaporisation where these
Table 6 gives details of the average thereby reduce risk of fire ignition. In procedures occur.
annual number of fires to which fire the list of appliances shown in Table 6, • Degradation and decomposition
brigades are called and which have Class I appliances predominate. of the material.
been identified as associated with
faults in electrical appliances (Fire 10.1.2 Electrically Induced Fire Ignition
• Flame ignition – this depends on
statistics UK). and propagation
the availability of oxygen, the
Product safety standards seek to Fires in electrical wiring systems and flash points of the materials and
minimize the risk of fire ignition and to electrical equipment are usually the their limits of flammability.
ensure that if fire ignition does occur result of arcing or overheating
then the fire is contained. In practice, associated with current carrying
conductors.
Average incidence of fires

attended by the fire brigades Probable Construction
Appliance Type
attributed to faults in appliances Class
Washing machines 1747.00 I
Blankets, bedwarmers 640.00 II
Other 477.00
Electric cooking appliances 445.00 I
TV 368.00 II
Dishwashers 320.00 I
Tumble/Spin drier 305.00 I
Electric water heating 263.00 I
Refrigerators 253.00 I
Electric space heating 234.00 I

Lighting 183.00 I II
Central heating 76.00 I
Other wiring 52.00
Irons 16.00 I
Plugs, socket switch 16.00
TABLE 6 – AVERAGE ANNUAL NUMBER OF FIRES IN THE UK ATTENDED By FIRE BRIGADES WHERE
THE FIRES ARE ATTRIBUTED TO FAULTS IN ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES, LIGHTING OR WIRING
Product safety standards will generally In the tracking test, if a current of 500 test solution, a track across the
require low flammability materials to be mA or more flows for at least two insulation between adjacent conductors
used where insulation is touching or seconds in a conducting path between developed at a current of 80 mA. As the
supporting electrically live parts. the electrodes on the surface of the current increased to 90 mA, the track
However, even low flammability fire specimen, or if the specimen burns, the glowed red and a yellow flame ignited
resistant plastics can support material has failed the test. along the track. The flame height was
combustion if a high temperature is approximately 8 mm. The current levels
Although the test is designed to be used
maintained for a sufficient length of observed in these tests indicate that a
only for comparative purposes, it is clear
time. Materials classified as low 30 mA RCD would have interrupted this
that if the final results of the test are
flammability may also support a local process before flame ignition. In a
representative of the long term effects
flame for a short time. To avoid flame second similar experiment with a 30 mA
of normal levels of pollution on the
spread, it is important that designs allow RCD in circuit, it was not possible to
tracking resistance of materials, and the
adequate separation between these develop a track between the conductors
spacing between the test electrodes is
materials and other high flammability or to cause flame ignition.
representative, then an RCD with a trip
materials which may be present. Flame
current of 500 mA would provide Some household detergent fluids have a
propagation sometimes occurs as a
suitable protection against fire for high conductivity compared with the
result of distortion or melting of plastic
materials which pass the test. RCD standard test fluid used in the tracking
parts which allows them to come into
protection would only be effective for test. Tests were carried out using one
contact with, or to drop onto, a heat
tracking paths to earth and not for common fluid which has a conductivity
source.
tracking paths between phase and of approximately five times that of the
BS 7671:2018, the IET Wiring neutral supply conductors. standard tracking test fluid. Using a
Regulations, recommend the use of liquid having a higher conductivity
AFDDs conforming to BS EN 62606 as a 10.1.4 Surface Tracking Induced by would be expected to accelerate the
means of providing additional Fluid Contamination of Insulation onset of tracking failure.
protection against fire caused by arc
The tracking test is designed to simulate The current levels measured in these
faults in AC final circuits. See BEAMA
the long term effects of surface tests were in the range 8-84 mA. It was
Guide to AFDDs.
contamination and moisture on the observed that the nature of the solution
tracking resistance of insulation. appeared to play a more dominant role
10.1.3 RCD protection Against Fire
However, the test can also provide an in the failure process in these tests
Induced by Surface Tracking Across
insight into the effect of fluid than when the standard test solution
Insulation
contamination on insulation and the was used. During the tests, a pink
Surface tracking is a common cause ability of RCDs to halt or prevent coloured flame 2 mm high was
of insulation failure. It arises from the tracking. observed, apparently associated with
growth of conducting paths at the decomposition of the fluid.
A diagram of the tracking test
surface. These may be due to
configuration and operation are shown It is clear from the tests carried out, that
conducting deposits from the
in Section 10.1.6 if contamination by conductive fluid
atmosphere and the presence of
bridges insulation between a supply
moisture. When the path carries enough During a standard tracking test it can be
conductor and earth, and produces a
current, it will become thermally established that the liquid conductivity
high conductivity path, then this is likely
unstable resulting in a permanently in the first phase gives a current of the
to trip an RCD having a sufficiently low
conducting state. The action is order 2-5 mA. In the second phase,
trip current level. However, if the
progressive and ultimately a conducting surface discharge activity occurs at
resistance of the fluid is such that
path will bridge the insulation. current levels of the order 2-5 mA.
heating will cause evaporation at
When discharge activity ceases, the
Surface tracking can occur at voltage current levels below the threshold for
current is of the order of 2 mA. When
levels well below the intrinsic RCD operation, then tracks can form.
the liquid is present, the current flow
breakdown strength of the dielectric.
would be sufficient to trip a 30 mA or The above tests suggest that RCDs can
An established track between two
100 mA RCD. In the period where be sensitive enough to trip due to the
conductors can produce local
surface discharge activity occurs prior presence of conductive fluid
temperatures sufficient to ignite
to a low resistance tracking path being contamination, spillage or spray in
flammable vapour released from the
established, an RCD would not be appliances as a result of earth current
insulation by the heating produced in
expected to act to completely eliminate flow and may arrest the progress of
the track or adjacent materials.
deterioration of the surface and the tracking before flame ignition occurs. If
The rate of growth of tracks in practice formation of incipient tracks. appliances may be subject to fluid
is slow until a conducting path has been contamination of insulation, for example
Further tests have been made to
established. A standard test has been due to deterioration of seals in
determine the current levels needed to
developed to compare the resistance to appliances or spillage, RCDs can provide
cause flame ignition by tracking. A
surface tracking of different materials in protection at current levels where
sample of a printed circuit board having
a short time span. The test is detailed in overcurrent protection would not be
a good resistance to tracking was used
BS EN 60112 (See Section 10.1.6). expected to operate.
for these tests. Using a standard tracking
10.1.5 Electrical Equipment Faults and line, line to neutral and line to earth) and transformer may be connected to earth
Fire Hazard Limitation series arcs (arcing within one of the and, in the event of a failure to earth, an
conductors). Unlike a circuit breaker RCD can provide protection by limiting
In this section, consideration will be
which detects overloads and short the current flow and the consequent
given to the role which RCDs and
circuit currents and RCDs which detect heating effect.
overcurrent protection devices can play
current imbalance, an AFDD utilises
in reducing the risk of fire associated
electronic technology to analyse the 10.1.5.4 Switch and Relay Contacts
with potential faults in home electrical
signature (waveform) of an arc to
wiring systems and components Failures of contacts may occur due to
differentiate between normal arcing and
common to different types of electrical weak springs, contact arcing, spark
arcing faults. Upon detection of an
household appliances. erosion and plating wear. Failures due to
arcing fault, the AFDD disconnects the
contamination can also occur. Surface
final circuit from the supply. Further
10.1.5.1 Wiring Installations and deposits, particularly carbon or ferrous
details can be found in the BEAMA
Equipment particles, cause electrical failures and
Guide to AFDDs.
insulation breakdown. High resistance
The major fire risks in fixed installations
contacts often due to the deposition of
are overheating of connections and 10.1.5.2 Motors
non-conducting or semiconducting
sustained arcing. Modern PVC insulated
The principal causes of fire ignition in material at the contact surfaces will
wiring, if properly installed, can be
motors are arcs or sparks igniting cause local overheating which may
expected to outlast the lifetime of the
insulation or nearby flammable material. result in fire. These faults will not be
property. The wiring must be protected
Such events can occur when the motor detected by overcurrent or RCD
against short-circuit or sustained
winding short-circuits or grounds or protection devices.
overcurrent by the use of fuses or
when the brushes operate improperly.
overcurrent circuit-breakers. Also, the Where contamination or tracking across
Overheating can occur when the
current rating of the circuit must not be insulation provides a conductive path to
ventilation is restricted or the motor is
exceeded in the event that the circuit is earth, RCDs can offer additional
stalled. Bearings may overheat because
later extended. protection.
of improper lubrication. Sometimes
In the event of overheating of excessive wear on bearings allows the Vibration will accelerate mechanical
connections, neither overcurrent rotor to rub on the stator. The individual deterioration of contacts and other
devices nor RCDs would protect against drives of appliances of many types moving components.
fire ignition unless a secondary event sometimes make it necessary to install
occurred such as contact with another motors in locations and under 10.1.5.5 Internal Wiring and
conductor which might produce a high conditions which are injurious to motor Connections
overcurrent, or contact with an earthed insulation. Dust that can conduct
electrically such as brush material may There are two types of faults in electrical
conductor.
be deposited on the insulation, or wiring. These are open circuit faults,
Surface tracking may occur in wiring deposits of textile fibres may prevent where a conductor has parted, and
installation accessories such as normal operation and obstruct cooling short-circuit faults where a conducting
distribution boxes, switches and socket- vents. path exists between one conductor and
outlets due to environmental pollution another conductor or earth. A fault can
and moisture. Condensation is likely to Motors may be provided with be a combination of both an open
occur particularly in areas such as overcurrent protection to limit circuit fault in a conductor and a short-
cellars and where wiring is routed into overheating should the motor stall or circuit fault.
buildings. An established track can fail to start. In addition, an
overtemperature cut-out may be Open circuit faults, such as poor wiring
produce a localised temperature
provided. RCDs can provide additional connections due to contact ageing, are
increase sufficient to ignite flammable
protection in respect of fault currents to an important cause of local overheating
vapour released from the insulation as a
earth when basic insulation between the and are unlikely to be detected by RCDs
result of heating produced in the track.
windings and an earthed housing or over current protection devices.
Whereas an RCD should provide some
becomes contaminated by dust, cracks Arcing which results from conductor
protection against tracking between the
or fails due to, for example, thermal failure in a flexible cord, although
phase or neutral conductors and earth,
stress, mechanical stress or ageing. potentially a fire hazard, will not be
no protection would be provided
detected by RCDs or overcurrent
against a phase to neutral track.
10.1.5.3 Transformers protection devices unless a short-circuit
Overcurrent devices would not provide
fault exists at the same time due to, for
protection against fire ignition by The primary cause of fire with
example, the broken end of the
surface tracking.RCD protection would transformers is overheating of
conductor piercing the insulation.
also operate in respect of earth leakage conductors and insulation. Fusing is
AFDDs provide protection against series
currents due to damaged insulation on provided to prevent overheating under
and parallel arcing (see section 10.1.5.1)
wiring conductors in metal conduit and overload fault conditions and may be
at entry points in metal wall boxes. supplemented by overtemperature Connections will be sensitive to factors
cut-outs. such as load cycling, the initial integrity
Arc Fault Detection Devices (AFDDs) are
of the contact interface, vibration,
designed to detect parallel arcs (line to In many applications, parts of the
mechanical disturbance, the effect of
environmental contamination and 10.1.5.6 Heating Elements reducing the risk of fire in electrical
growth of tarnish films at the contact equipment, they will not respond to
Heating elements may have an earthed
interface. Where connections are made many of the failure modes likely to
sheath. RCDs will provide early warning
to components, surface tracking may initiate fire ignition. Particular problems
of breakdown of insulation and will also
occur as a result of conductive surface arise in detecting overheating of
detect pin holes in sheathing when used
deposits and moisture. Under these connections and in-line wiring faults
to heat water.
circumstances where the tracking is to which are a common cause of fires,
an earthed surface, protection may be 10.1.5.7 Summary however AFDDs provide protection
provided by an RCD. against series and parallel arcing (see
From the above considerations, it is section 10.1.5.1). The role RCDs can play
clear that although RCDs and in providing additional protection is
overcurrent devices have a role in illustrated by Table 7.
Potential RCD Over current Over temperature

Item
Faults Added Protection Protection Cut-out
Motors Surface contamination of RCD’s will trip at low values of earth leakage Will respond to overheating Will respond to overheating
insulation: current due to: if the motor fails to start, caused by lack of ventilation
carbon tracking. tracking or contamination; cracks or faults in provided the operating or conductor overheating
insulation caused by thermo-mechanical current is set close with while running.
stress or mechanical damage; arcs or sparks running current.
when the motor winding short-circuits or
grounds or when brushes operate improperly.
Transformers Surface contamination of Where there is a failure of insulation between Fusing is usually provided to Over temperature cut-outs
insulation: overheating. the primary winding and earth, RCD prevent overheating under may be fitted.
protection will operate. fault conditions.
Switch and The rating and performance RCD’s can provide protection where tracking Needed for live-neutral fault
Relay Contacts characteristics are not or contamination provides a conductive path protection.
& Controls suited to the duty-cycle. to earth.
Tracking or contamination.
Heating Pin holes in metal sheathing RCD’s will provide an early indication of Needed to protect against
Elements of mineral insulated breakdown of insulation. live-neutral insulation failure.
elements allowing moisture Note. Certain elements may not be sealed by
to penetrate. design and at switch on, significant levels of
earth leakage current can occur due to
moisture ingress.
Wiring Open circuit faults on RCD’s will detect any loose wires which Required to prevent
flexible cords. Short circuit contact an earthed surface. They will also overheating in the event of a
due to insulation damage. detect insulation damage in metal conduct. fault, insulation damage and
live-neutral failure.
Connections Vibration loosening. RCD’s will detect connections loosened by Will protect against high
Mechanical disturbance: for example, vibration which come free and current live-neutral or
deterioration of contact touch earthed surfaces. live-earth contact if
interfaces and overheating. the connection becomes
connections not free.
dimensioned in respect of
their heating.
Wiring May be subject to RCD’s will respond to condensation leading

Accessories condensation in humid areas to liquid build up in enclosures and tracking
which are subject to wide across insulation.
temperature fluctuations.
Contacts can overheat, due
to vibration, poor insulation
or surface oxidation.
Electronic Contamination Local protection in the form May be appropriate for some
Circuits of fusing is appropriate. components.
TABLE 7 – POTENTIAL FAULT CONDITIONS FOR CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
10.1.6 The Comparative Tracking Index insulation between two conductors on

Test (BS EN 60112) a printed circuit board (gap 3 mm) and
a voltage applied between the
conductors. When the voltage applied
ELECTROLYTE was 80 V, bubbles were seen to form at
the electrode interface with the fluid.
DISPENSING
The measured current was 4.2 mA. At
NEEDLE 10 V the liquid evaporated.
In a second test at 250 V, the

phenomena observed were similar to
those in a conventional tracking test rig.
Scintillations were observed as the liquid
evaporated and eventually a track
formed which extended approximately
4 + 0.1mm halfway across the insulation. The
PLATINUM current measured was 37 mA.
ELECTRODE 60° A second drop was applied at the same
position on the insulation. Further tracks
SPECIMEN formed and the current level increased
to 65 mA. On the fourth drop, the
current increased to 80 mA and a track
FIGURE 24
was formed between the conductors.
As the current increased to 90 mA, the
track glowed red and a yellow flame
ignited along the length of the track.
The flame height was approximately
8 mm. The current observed in this
The diagram above shows the tracking 10.1.7 practical Tests on Surface
experiment allows the inference that an
test configuration. The tracking test Tracking Induced by Fluid
RCD with a trip current of 30 mA would
operates as follows: Contamination of Insulation and
have interrupted the process before
RCD protection
a) A standard contaminant liquid having flame ignition occurred. An RCD with a
a conductivity of 2.4 Siemens is fed 10.1.7.1 Background trip current of 300 or 500 mA would not
as a single drop to fall between the have been effective.
two electrodes which are set to a Using standard tracking test equipment
the liquid conductivity in the first phase In a second similar experiment with a
test voltage,
gives a current between the electrodes 32 mA RCD in circuit, tracks were
b) The heat developed by the passage of the order of 100 mA. In the second formed but it was not possible to ignite
of current through the liquid phase, surface discharge activity is the material. Nine attempts were made.
evaporates the liquid and heats the associated with currents of the order A factor in this experiment was that only
specimen. 2 - 5 mA. When discharge activity ceases, a small quantity of liquid could be
the current is of the order of 2 mA. applied between the conductors to
c) In the final stages of evaporation,
Clearly, when the liquid is present the avoid causing the RCD to trip.
discharges can be observed on the
current would be sufficient to trip a 30
surface of the insulation which are household liquid solution
mA RCD. However, during the discharge
known as scintillations and these Some detergent fluids have a high
period before the establishment of a low
create sites which develop into a conductivity compared with the
resistance tracking path, an RCD would
tracking path. Different materials will standard test fluid used in the tracking
be insensitive to the level of current
require a different number of drops test. A test was carried out using one
needed to prevent deterioration of the
of the test solution or a different test common fluid which has a conductivity
surface of the insulation.
voltage to produce tracking sufficient of approximately 5 times that of the
to form a sustained conduction path 10.1.7.2 Tracking tests standard tracking test fluid.
between the electrodes.
Further tests at ERA have been made to A drop of solution was applied to the
The test is continued to 50 drops of the assess the effects of contamination of insulation between two conductors of
test solution. A failure has occurred if a insulation by conducting fluids and the the printed circuit board (gap 3 mm) and
current of 500 mA or more flows for at effectiveness of RCD protection in a voltage applied between the tracks.
least 2 s in a conducting path between preventing fire ignition by tracking. When the voltage applied was 40 V,
the electrodes on the surface of the bubbles were seen to form at the
specimen, thus operating an standard test solution electrode interface with the fluid. The
overcurrent relay; or if the specimen A 0.01 ml drop of the standard tracking current measured was 8 mA. Within a
burns without releasing the relay. test solution was applied to the time of the order of seconds, the
bubbles spread to form a central path high conductivity was the presence of bridge insulation to earth and produce a
between the printed circuit board the fluid or its effect in maintaining a low conductivity path, this is likely to trip
conductors. continuous conductive path along the an RCD. However, where the film
track. Examination of the specimen after resistance is such that heating will cause
In a second test at 250 V, the
the test suggested that the fluid played a evaporation, tracks will form below the
phenomena observed were similar to
dominant role in the failure process threshold for RCD operation. RCDs will
those in a conventional tracking test rig
rather than the intrinsic properties of the provide no protection against tracking
with scintillations occurring as the liquid
printed circuit board insulation. or fire ignition when live to neutral
evaporated and eventually a track
insulation is bridged unless there is an
between the conductors was A third test was made to establish the associated path to earth.
established. The order of current progress of events with a 30 mA RCD in
observed during the test were 8-84 mA. circuit. In the presence of a drop of the The above test shows that high
Following complete evaporation of the fluid across the insulation, the RCD sensitivity RCDs will trip when the
liquid and the cessation of discharge tripped due to the high conductivity of presence of conductive fluid
activity, the resistance between the the fluid. With less liquid present, contamination spillage or spray in
printed circuit board conductors was scintillations occurred and the RCD did appliances results in earth current flow.
measured as greater than 400 MΩ. not trip. Following a second application In such cases, the RCD may arrest the
During the test, a pink coloured flame 2 of the liquid, tracking developed across progress of tracking before flame
mm high was observed apparently the insulation. A period followed in ignition of insulation occurs. Although
associated with decomposition of the which the track glowed red then the only a limited amount of testing has
fluid. The currents involved in this RCD tripped to halt the process. been carried out in the present work, it
experiment suggest that RCD operation is clear that RCDs have the potential to
would have interrupted the process. It is clear from the tests that if reduce the incidence of fire due to
However, the dominant cause of the contamination by conductive fluid can surface tracking.
10.2 REFERENCES
10.2.1 Documents to which reference is made in this Guide IEc 60479: Effects of current on human beings and livestock
Bs 4293: Specification for residual current-operated circuit- IEc 61140: Protection against electric shock – Common
breakers (Superseded by BS EN 61008 series) aspects for installations and equipment
Bs 7671: Requirements for Electrical Installations. IET Wiring IEc 62955: Residual direct current detecting device (RDC-
Regulations Eighteenth Edition DD) to be used for mode 3 charging of electric vehicles
Bs En 55011: Limits and methods of measurement of radio

10.2.2 Other relevant documents not specifically
disturbance characteristics of industrial, scientific and
mentioned in the text
medical (ISM) radio-frequency equipment
IEt guidance notes
Bs En 55013: Sound and television broadcast receivers and
associated equipment. Radio disturbance characteristics. health and safety Booklet hsr25: Memorandum of
Limits and methods of measurement Guidance on the Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
Bs En 60065: Audio, video and similar electronic apparatus.

10.2.3 Associated Directives and Statutory Regulations
Safety requirements
Electricity Supply Regulations 1988. Replaced by: The
Bs En 60112: Method for the determination of the proof and
Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity (Amendment)
the comparative tracking indices of solid insulating materials
Regulations 2009
Bs En 60335-1: Specification for safety of household and
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989
similar electrical appliances. General requirements
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974
Bs En 60335-2-90: Specification for safety of household
and similar electrical appliances. Particular requirements. European Directives
Commercial microwave ovens The Low Voltage Directive (LVD) (2014/35/EU)
Bs En 60598: Luminaires
The Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Directive
Bs En 60939: Passive filter units for electromagnetic (2014/30/EU)
interference suppression – Part 1: Generic specification
Bs En 60939: Passive filter units for electromagnetic

interference suppression – Part 2: Sectional specification:
Passive filter units for which safety tests are appropriate
– Test methods and general requirements

interference suppression – Part 2-1: Blank detail
specification – Passive filter units for electromagnetic
interference suppression – Filters for which safety tests are
required (assessment level D/DZ)

interference suppression – Part 2-2: Blank detail
specification – Passive filter units for electromagnetic
interference suppression – Filters for which safety tests are
required (safety tests only)
Bs En 60947: Specification for low-voltage switchgear and

controlgear
Bs En 61008 series: Residual current operated circuit-

breakers without integral overcurrent protection for
household and similar use (RCCBs).
Bs En 61009 series: Residual current operated circuit-

breakers with integral overcurrent protection for household
and similar uses (RCBOs).
10.3 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Circuit-breaker DB – Distribution Board
A device capable of making, carrying and breaking normal An assembly containing switching or protective devices (e.g.
load currents and also making and automatically breaking, fuses, circuit-breakers, residual current operated devices)
under pre determined conditions, abnormal currents, such associated with one or more outgoing circuits fed from one
as short-circuit currents. or more incoming circuits together with terminals for the
neutral and protective circuit conductors. It may also include
Residual Current signalling and or other control devices. Means of isolation
r.m.s. value of the vector sum of the instantaneous values of may be included in the board or may be provided separately.
the currents flowing through the main circuit of the RCD.
pB – panelboard
RCD – Residual Current Device An assembly containing switching or protective devices (e.g.
Mechanical switching device or association of devices circuit-breakers or fusegear typically in accordance with BS
designed to make, carry and break currents under normal EN 60947-2 and/or BS EN 60947-3) associated with one or
service conditions and to cause the opening of the contacts more outgoing circuits fed from one or more incoming
when the residual current attains a given value under circuits together with terminals for the neutral and
specified conditions. protective circuit conductors. It may also include residual
current protection systems, signalling and or control
Note: See Section 1.3 for definitions of different types of
devices. Means of isolation may be included in the board or
residual current device.
may be provided separately.
EFR – Earth Fault Relay

Switchboard
A device incorporating the means of detection of an earth
An assembly of switchgear with or without instruments.The
fault current, of comparison of its value to the earth fault
term however, does not apply to groups of local switches in
current operating value and of giving a signal to an
final circuits.
associated switching device to open the protected circuit
when the earth fault current exceeds this value. Relays can
Class I Equipment
be directly connected or fed from a separate toroid.
Equipment which relies on connection of exposed-
Note: Although not necessarily an RCD, this type of device is conductive-parts to a protective (earth) conductor in the
used in conjunction with other devices to provide protection fixed wiring of an installation, in addition to basic insulation,
of the total installation against the effects of high earth fault for protection against electric shock.
currents.
Class II Equipment
CU – Consumer Unit Equipment in which protection against electric shock does
(may also be known as a consumer control unit or electricity not rely on basic insulation only, but in which additional
control unit). safety precautions such as supplementary insulation are
provided in the absence of any means of connecting
A particular type of distribution board comprising a type exposed-conductive-parts to a protective conductor.
tested coordinated assembly for the control and distribution
of electrical energy, principally in domestic premises. It will
normally incorporate manual means of double pole isolation
on the incoming circuit and an assembly of one or more
fuses, circuit-breakers, residual current operated devices,
signalling and or other control devices.
Rotherwick House
3 Thomas More Street
London E1W 1YZ
www.beama.org.uk

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What is an RCD and what are its main functions?

What is an RCD and what are its main functions?

What companies were involved in preparing this guide?

What companies were involved in preparing this guide?

BEAMA RCD Handbook 10_19.

qxp_RCD Handbook 2018 24/10/2019 08:58 Page 1

THE RCD HANDBOOK

COMPANIES INVOLVED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS GUIDE

Eaton Electric Limited

Western Automation R&D

© BEAMA Ltd 2019

3. ELECTRIC SHOCK pROTECTION 11

7. OpERATION AND MAINTENANCE 25

9. DETAILED FAULT-FINDING ON RCD pROTECTED INSTALLATIONS 29

Radiator Radiator Leak

It is important to note that both the

RCDs work equally well on single

The test circuit is designed to pass a

All rcds should be checked at

1.3 RESIDUAL CURRENT

2.1 RISK OF ELECTROCUTION 2.2 TYPES OF 2.3 EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC

Zone Boundaries Physiological effects

AC-1 Up to curve a Usually no reaction

3.1 PRINCIPLES OF SHOCK Fuses and circuit-breakers provide the

FIGURE 7 –dIrEct And IndIrEct contAct ELEctrIc shock

3.2 EARTHING SYSTEMS

FIGURE 8 –tn-c systEM

FIGURE 9 –tn-s systEM

FIGURE 10 –tn-c-s systEM

installation exposed-conductive-parts installation

FIGURE 11 –tt systEM

installation exposed-conductive-parts installation

FIGURE 12 –It systEM

4.1 BACKGROUND 4.2 PROTECTIVE MEASURES Research commissioned by the

ELECTRICITY IS MAJOR CAUSE

In all the above situations, even if • Wires trapped during installation

personal protection (additional

RCD Type F: RCD for which tripping is

TYPE AC, TYPE A, TYPE F

In all cases equipment / appliance manufacturers instructions must be considered when

rcd Examples of type of equipment / load

Type A Single phase with electronic components, typically:

• Single phase invertors

Type A is also suitable for Type AC applications.

Type F Frequency controlled equipment / appliances, typically:

• Some air conditioning controllers using variable frequency speed drives

Type F is also suitable for Type AC and Type A applications.

Type B Three phase electronic equipment typically:

Power Electronic Converter Systems (PECS) typically:

* Manufacturer’s instructions should be taken into account.

power electronic converter pEC

TABLE 2 – APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF TyPES AC, A, B AND F RCDs

A Type AC RCD should not be ﬁtted

A Type A RCD should not be ﬁtted

RCD Type A RCD Type A RCD Type B Type F

FIGURE 13 – ExAMpLE InstALLAtIon ArrAngEMEnt

DEVICE TYPE RCCB RCBO SRCD FCURCD PRCD CBR MRCD

Suitable for Industrial &

Part of the Incomer