Biomechanics Solutions

1. Comment about the stiffness and the strength of the materials

from the stress-strain curve given above?
Stiffness is about the inclination of the curve at elastic deformation stage which is expressed by
Young’s modulus (stress/strain). As Young’s modulus value increases, the curve becomes steeper
and the object becomes stiffer.

In the given graph it is clearly visible that the Young's modulus is highest for ceramic and lowest for
Cartilage. For all the other in between the two, the plot becomes less steep which represents
decrease in Young's modulus thus decrease in the stiffness.

On the other hand, it is not always true that. Depending on the variety of the terms of stiffness and
strength, some objects may be described as stiff and strong (steel, iron), while some are described
as stiff and weak (glass, copper). Fiberglass and silk are defined as flexible and strong, while spider
web and lead are defined as flexible and weak materials. The bone is a flexible and weak material as
well.

2. Write examples for tension, compression, bending, torsion and

shear loads in the locomotory system of the human body?
Tension: The primary load a muscle experiences is a tension load. When the muscle contracts it
pulls on the tendons at both ends, which stretch a little. So the tendons are under tensile stress.
A tendon or sinew is a tough, high-tensile-strength band of dense fibrous connective tissue that
connects muscle to bone.

Compression: Whether you are sitting or standing, certain structures in your body are
experiencing a compressive load. When you stand, gravity is “pulling down” on your body while
the reaction force of the floor is “pushing up” (for lack of a simpler way of putting it). So your
intervertebral discs and your sacroiliac joints are experiencing a compressive stress.

Torsion: Torsional loading, which we usually just call torsion, is when forces acting on a
structure cause a twist about its longitudinal axis. This is what happens in your spine when you
twist your body from side to side, for instance. When you bend laterally to pick up an object in
one hand there is a bit of torsion going on in the spine. Due to the facet joint orientation, the
lumbar spine is more susceptible to torsion than the thoracic which has more tolerance to
twisting.

Bending: When the spine flexes, the intervertebral discs undergo compressive stress on the
anterior side and tension on the posterior side.
 Shear: Two forces acting parallel to each other but in opposite directions so that one part of the
object is moved or displaced relative to another part. Shear causes two objects to slide over one
another. This results, of course, in friction. Every time you take a step, for example. As one leg
leaves the ground and the other leg takes all your weight this creates a shear stress in the pelvis
because the ground is pushing up on one side of the body through the supporting leg while
gravity is pulling down on the unsupported side.

3. Deduce a mathematical model for the tensional stress of a

uniform bar?

4. Distinguish the properties of Elastic, Anelastic, Viscoelastic, Plastic

and Hyperelastic materials?
 Elastic: The material recovers its initial shape after deformation.
 Anelastic: The material is close to elastic, but the applied force induces additional time-
dependent resistive forces (i.e. depend on rate of change of extension/compression, in addition
to the magnitude of extension/compression). Metals and ceramics have this characteristic.
  Viscoelastic: If the time-dependent resistive contributions are large, and cannot be neglected.
Rubbers and plastics have this property, and certainly do not satisfy Hooke's law. In fact, elastic
hysteresis occurs.
 Plastic: The applied force induces non-recoverable deformations in the material when the stress
(or elastic strain) reaches a critical magnitude, called the yield point.
 Hyperelastic: The applied force induces displacements in the material following a strain energy
density function

5. Differentiate elastic and viscoelastic materials with the help of

stress-strain curves?
Elasticity is the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence and to return to its original size
and shape when that influence or force is removed. Solid objects will deform when adequate
loads are applied to them; if the material is elastic, the object will return to its initial shape and
size after removal. This is in contrast to plasticity, in which the object fails to do so and instead
remains in its deformed state

viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics
when undergoing deformation. Viscous materials, like water, resist shear flow and strain linearly
with time when a stress is applied. Synthetic polymers, wood, and human tissue, as well as
metals at high temperature, display significant viscoelastic effects.

ELASTIC MATERIAL VISCOELASTIC MATERIAL

Elasticity is the ability of a body to viscoelasticity is the property of
resist a distorting influence and to materials that exhibit both viscous and
return to its original size and shape elastic characteristics when undergoing
when that influence or force is
deformation. Viscous materials, like
removed. Solid objects will deform
when adequate loads are applied to water, resist shear flow and strain
them; if the material is elastic, the linearly with time when a stress is
object will return to its initial shape and applied. Synthetic polymers, wood, and
size after removal. This is in contrast to human tissue, as well as metals at high
plasticity, in which the object fails to do temperature, display significant
so and instead remains in its deformed viscoelastic effects.
state

Elastic material do not have viscosity factor viscoelastic materials have a viscosity
factor
6. Model the time-dependent stress response of a biomaterial using
Maxwell’s approach?
7. List various theories of failure?
Theories of failure are essentially a set of failure criteria developed for the ease of design. In
machine design an element is said to have failed if it ceases to perform its function. There are
basically two types of mechanical failure:
(a) Yielding- This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the machine part
unsuitable to perform its function. This mostly occurs in ductile materials.

(b) Fracture- in this case the component tears apart in two or more parts. This mostly occurs in
brittle materials. There is no sharp line of demarcation between ductile and brittle
materials. However a rough guideline is that if percentage elongation is less than 5% then
the material may be treated as brittle and if it is more than 15% then the material is ductile.
 Maximum principal stress theory ( Rankine theory)

If one of the principal stresses σ1 (maximum principal stress), σ2 (minimum principal stress) or
σ3 exceeds the yield stress, yielding would occur.
In a two dimensional loading situation for a ductile material where tensile and compressive yield
stress are nearly of same magnitude
σ1 = ± σy
σ2 = ±σy
 Maximum principal strain theory (St. Venant’s theory)

Yielding will occur when the maximum principal strain just exceeds the strain at the tensile yield
point in either simple tension or compression. If ε1 and ε2 are maximum and minimum principal
strains corresponding to σ1 and σ2, in the limiting case

 Maximum shear stress theory ( Tresca theory)

Yielding would occur when the maximum shear stress just exceeds the shear stress at the tensile
yield point. At the tensile yield point σ2= σ3 = 0 and thus maximum shear stress is σy/2. This
gives us six conditions for a three-dimensional stress situation:
In a biaxial stress situation ( figure-3.1.4.3.1) case, σ3 = 0 and this gives

This criterion agrees well with experiment. In the case of pure shear, σ1 = - σ2 = k (say), σ3 = 0

and this gives σ1- σ2 = 2k= σy

This indicates that yield stress in pure shear is half the tensile yield stress and this is also seen in the
Mohr’s circle for pure shear.

 Maximum strain energy theory ( Beltrami’s theory)

 According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy absorbed at a point
per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield point.

From the above we may write ( ) y 2 2 σ 3 2 − ν =σ and if ν ~ 0.3, at stress level lower than yield stress,
yielding would occur. This is in contrast to the experimental as well as analytical conclusion and the
theory is not appropriate.

 Distortion energy theory( von Mises yield criterion)

Yielding would occur when total distortion energy absorbed per unit volume due to applied
loads exceeds the distortion energy absorbed per unit volume at the tensile yield point. Total
strain energy ET and strain energy for volume change EV can be given as:

Substituting strains in terms of stresses the distortion energy can be given as

 This theory agrees very well with experimental results and is widely used for ductile materials

8. With the help of a neat diagram of the hip joint discuss the
generic anatomy of joints in human body?
Cartilage. This is a type of tissue that covers the surface of a bone at a joint. Cartilage helps
reduce the friction of movement within a joint.
Synovial membrane. A tissue called the synovial membrane lines the joint and seals it into a
joint capsule. The synovial membrane secretes a clear, sticky fluid (synovial fluid) around the
joint to lubricate it.
Ligaments. Strong ligaments (tough, elastic bands of connective tissue) surround the joint to
give support and limit the joint's movement. Ligaments connect bones together.
Tendons. Tendons (another type of tough connective tissue) on each side of a joint attach to
muscles that control movement of the joint. Tendons connect muscles to bones.
Bursas. Fluid-filled sacs, called bursas, between bones, ligaments, or other nearby structures.
They help cushion the friction in a joint.
Synovial fluid. A clear, sticky fluid secreted by the synovial membrane.
Meniscus. This is a curved part of cartilage in the knees and other joints.
9. Draw a tree diagram that clearly demonstrates the classification
of various joints in the human body? Draw the schematic of
different types of synovial joints in the human body? Write at
least one example for each type of joint in the human body
(Preferably in a table)?
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10. With neat schematic diagrams demonstrate anatomical

terms of motion?
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11. How the Gate patters of Parkinsonism, Spastic cerebral
palsy, multiple sclerosis, spinal stenosis or herniated disc and
Progressive muscular dystrophy can be distinguished?
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12. Draw a neat diagram that clearly demonstrates various

phases of the Gait cycle?
13. Define the spatial and temporal Gait parameters based on
the figures given above?
14. Compare the clinical applications of Goniometers,
Pedobarographs and Force platforms?
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