A.Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials: F/A F/A
A.Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials: F/A F/A
Yield stress. Hooke's law is not valid beyond the yield point. The stress at the yield
point is called yield stress, and is an important measure of the mechanical properties
of materials. In practice, the yield stress is chosen as that causing a permanent strain
of 0.002 (strain offset, Fig. 6.9.)
The yield stress measures the resistance to plastic deformation.
The reason for plastic deformation, in normal materials, is not that the atomic bond is
stretched beyond repair, but the motion of dislocations, which involves breaking and
reforming bonds.
Plastic deformation is caused by the motion of dislocations.
Tensile strength. When stress continues in the plastic regime, the stress-strain passes
through a maximum, called the tensile strength (TS) , and then falls as the material
starts to develop a neck and it finally breaks at the fracture point (Fig. 6.10).
Note that it is called strength, not stress, but the units are the same, MPa.
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property
than the tensile strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed
beyond acceptable limits.
Ductility. The ability to deform before braking. It is the opposite of brittleness.
Ductility can be given either as percent maximum elongation max or maximum area
reduction.
%EL = max x 100 %
%AR = (A0 - Af)/A0
These are measured after fracture (repositioning the two pieces back together).
Resilience. Capacity to absorb energy elastically. The energy per unit volume is the
area under the strain-stress curve in the elastic region.
Toughness. Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. The energy per unit volume is the
total area under the strain-stress curve. It is measured by an impact test (Ch. 8).
7. True Stress and Strain
When one applies a constant tensile force the material will break after reaching the
tensile strength. The material starts necking (the transverse area decreases) but the
stress cannot increase beyond TS. The ratio of the force to the initial area, what we
normally do, is called the engineering stress. If the ratio is to the actual area (that
changes with stress) one obtains the true stress.
8. Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
If a material is taken beyond the yield point (it is deformed plastically) and the stress
is then released, the material ends up with a permanent strain. If the stress is
reapplied, the material again responds elastically at the beginning up to a new yield
point that is higher than the original yield point (strain hardening, Ch. 7.10). The
amount of elastic strain that it will take before reaching the yield point is called
elastic strain recovery (Fig. 6. 16).
9. Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation
Compressive and shear stresses give similar behavior to tensile stresses, but in the
case of compressive stresses there is no maximum in the curve, since no necking
occurs.
10.Hardness
Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local dent or scratch). Thus,
it is a measure of plastic deformation, as is the tensile strength, so they are well
correlated. Historically, it was measured on an empirically scale, determined by the
ability of a material to scratch another, diamond being the hardest and talc the softer.
Now we use standard tests, where a ball, or point is pressed into a material and the
size of the dent is measured. There are a few different hardness tests: Rockwell,
Brinell, Vickers, etc. They are popular because they are easy and non-destructive
(except for the small dent).
11.Variability of Material Properties
Tests do not produce exactly the same result because of variations in the test
equipment, procedures, operator bias, specimen fabrication, etc. But, even if all those
parameters are controlled within strict limits, a variation remains in the materials, due
to uncontrolled variations during fabrication, non homogenous composition and
structure, etc. The measured mechanical properties will show scatter, which is often
distributed in a Gaussian curve (bell-shaped), that is characterized by the mean value
and the standard deviation (width).
12.Design/Safety Factors
To take into account variability of properties, designers use, instead of an average
value of, say, the tensile strength, the probability that the yield strength is above the
minimum value tolerable. This leads to the use of a safety factor N > 1 (typ. 1.2 - 4).
Thus, a working value for the tensile strength would be W = TS / N.
B.MECHANISMS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION
While some materials are elastic in nature up point of fracture, many engineering materials like metals
and thermo-plastic polymers can undergo substantial permanent deformation. This characteristic
property of materials makes it feasible to shape them. However, it imposes some limitations on the
engineering usefulness of such materials. Permanent deformation is due to process of shear where
particles change their neighbors. During this process inter-atomic or inter-molecular forces and
structure plays important roles, although the former are much less significant than they are in elastic
behavior. Permanent deformation is broadly two type s plastic deformation and viscous flow.
Plastic deformation involves the relative sliding of atomic planes in organized manner in crystalline
solids, while the viscous flow involves the switching of neighbors with much more freedom that does not
exist in crystalline solids. It is well known that dislocations can move under applied external stresses.
Cumulative movement of dislocations leads to the gross plastic deformation. At microscopic level,
dislocation motion involves rupture and reformation of inter-atomic bonds. The necessity of dislocation
motion for ease of plastic deformation is well explained by the discrepancy between theoretical strength
and real strength of solids, as explaine d in chapter-3. It has been concluded that one-dimen sional
crystal defects dislocations plays an important role in plastic deformation of crystalline so lids. Their
importance in plastic deformation is relevant to their characteristic nature of motion in specific
directions (slip-directions) on specific planes (slip-planes), where edge dislocation move by slip and
climb while screw dislocation can be moved by slip and cross-slip. The onset of plastic deformation
involves start of motion of existing dislocations in real crystal, while in perfect crystal it can be
attributed to generati on of dislocations and subsequently their motion. During the motion, dislocations
will tend to interact among themselves. Dislocation interaction is very complex as number of dislocations
moving on number of slip planes in various directions.
When they are in the same plane, they repel each other if they have the same sign, and annihilate if they
have opposite signs (leaving behind a perfect crystal). In general, when dislocations are close and their
strain fields add to a larger value, they repel, because being close increases the potential energy (it
takes energy to strain a region of the material). When unlike dislocations are on closely spaced
neighboring slip planes, complete annihilation cannot occur. In this situation, they combine to form a
row of vacancies or an interstitial atom. An important consequence interaction of dislocations that are
not on parallel planes is that they intersect each other or inhibit each others motion. Intersection of two
dislocations results in a sharp break in the dislocation line. These breaks can be of two kinds:
(a)A jog is break in dislocation line moving it out of slip plane.
(b)A kink is break in dislocation line that remains in slip plane. Other hindrances to dislocation motion
include interstitial and substitutional atoms, foreign particles, grain boundaries, external grain surface,
and change in structure due to phase change. Important practical consequen ces of hindrance of
dislocation motion are that dislocations are still mova ble but at higher stresses (or forces), and in most
instances that leads to genera tion of more dislocations. Disloc ations can spawn from existing
dislocations, and from defects, grain boundaries and surface irregularities. Thus, the number of
dislocations increases dramatical ly during plastic deformation. As further motion of dislocations
requires increase of stress, material can be said to be strengthened i.e. materials can be strengthened
by controlling the motion of dislocation.
Mechanisms of plastic deformation in metals
Plastic deformation, as explained in earlier section, involves motion of dislocations. There are two
prominent mechanisms of plastic deformation, namely slip and twinning.
SLIP
It is the prominent mechanism of plastic deformation in metals. It involves sliding of blocks of crystal
over one other along definite crystallographic planes, called slip planes. In physical words it is analogous
to a deck of cards when it is pushed from one end. Slip occurs when shear stress applied exceeds a
critical value. During slip each atom usually moves same integral number of atomic distances along the
slip plane producing a step, but the orientation of the crystal remains the same. Steps observable under
microscope as straight lines are called slip lines. Slip occurs most readily in specific directions (slip
directions) on certain crystallographic planes. This is due to limitations imposed by the fact that single
crystal remains homogeneous after deformation. Generally slip plane is the plane of greatest atomic
density, and the slip direction is the close packed direction within the slip plane. It turns out that the
planes of the highest atomic density are the most widely spaced planes, while the close packed
directions have the smallest translation distance. Feasible combination of a slip plane together with a
slip direction is considered as a slip system.
n a single crystal, plastic deformation is accomplished by the process called slip, and sometimes by
twinning. The extent of slip depends on many factors including external load and the corresponding
value of shear stress produced by it, the geometry of crystal structure, and the orientation of active slip
planes with the direction of shearing stresses generated. Schmid first recognized that single crystals at
different orientations but of same material require different stresses to produce slip. The dependence of
various factors has been summarized using a parameter critical resolved shear stress,
where P
angle
angle between normal to the slip plane and the tensile axis
corresponds to the comparable distortion of the individual grains by means of slip. Although some grains
may be oriented favorably for slip, yielding cannot occur unless the unfavorably or iented neighboring
grains can also slip. Thus in a polycrystalline aggregate, individual grains provide a mutual geometrical
constraint on one other, and this precludes plastic deformation at low applied stresses. That is to initiate
plastic deformation, polycrystalline metals require higher stresses than for equivalent single crystals,
where stress depends on orientation of the crystal. Much of this increase is attributed to geometrical
reasons.
A fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of
stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement
discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface of
displacement, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops
tangentially to the surface of displacement, it is called a shear crack, slip band, or dislocation.[1]
Fracture strength or breaking strength is the stress when a specimen fails or fractures.
The word fracture is often applied to bones of living creatures (that is, a bone fracture), or to
crystals or crystalline materials, such as gemstones or metal. Sometimes, in crystalline materials,
individual crystals fracture without the body actually separating into two or more pieces. Depending
on the substance which is fractured, a fracture reduces strength (most substances) or inhibits
transmission of light (optical crystals). A detailed understanding of how fracture occurs in materials
may be assisted by the study of fracture mechanics.
In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture. In brittle crystalline
materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of tensile stress acting normal to
crystallographic planes with low bonding (cleavage planes). In amorphous solids, by contrast, the
lack of a crystalline structure results in a conchoidal fracture, with cracks proceeding normal to the
applied tension.
The theoretical strength of a crystalline material is (roughly)
Looking closely, we can see that sharp cracks (small ) and large defects (large ) both lower the
fracture strength of the material.
Recently, scientists have discovered supersonic fracture, the phenomenon of crack motion faster
than the speed of sound in a material.[4] This phenomenon was recently also verified by experiment
of fracture in rubber-like materials.
In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation (necking) takes place before fracture. The terms
rupture or ductile rupture describe the ultimate failure of tough ductile materials loaded in tension.
Rather than cracking, the material "pulls apart," generally leaving a rough surface. In this case there
is slow propagation and an absorption of a large amount energy before fracture.[citation needed]
In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is
the progressive and localised structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic
loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much less than the
strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit.
Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are
above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the stress concentrators such as
the surface, persistent slip bands (PSBs), and grain interfaces.[1] Eventually a crack will reach a
critical size, the crack will propagate suddenly, and the structure will fracture. The shape of the
structure will significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated
local stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets will
therefore increase the fatigue strength of the structure.
Creep behavior of a material is studied using creep test. In creep test, the tensile
specimen is subjected to a constant load or stress at a constant temperature. Most creep
tests are conducted at constant load in analogous to engineering application, whereas
creep tests at constant stress are necessary for understanding of mechanism of creep.
During the creep test, strain (change in length) is measured as a function of elapsed time.
Creep test data is presented as a plot between time and strain known as creep curve.
As shown in the above figure, upon loading the specimen, there is an instantaneous
deformation (0) that is mostly elastic. Actual creep curve follows this elastideformation.
Based on the variation of creep rate with time, creep curve is considered to be consists of
three portions, each of which has its own distinctive strain-time feature. After initial rapid
elongation, 0, the creep rate decreases continuously with time, and is known as
primaryor transient creep. Primary creep is followed by secondary or steadystate or
viscous creep,
which is characterized by constant
creep rate. This stage of creep
is often the longest duration of the three m
odes. Finally, a third stage of creep known as,
tertiary creep
occurs that is characterized by increas
e in creep rate
It is suggested that during primary creep, mate
rial strain hardens thus increases its creep
resistance. Constant creep rate during seconda
ry creep is believed to be due to balance
between the competing processes of strain hardening and recovery. The average value of
creep rate during the secondary
creep is called the minimum
creep rate. Third stage creep
occurs in constant load tests
at high stresses at high temper
atures. This stage is greatly
delayed in constant stress tests. Tertiary cr
eep is believed to occur because of either
reduction in cross-sectional area
due to necking or internal void formation. Third stage is
often associated with metallurgical changes su
ch as coarsening of precipitate particles,
recrystallization, or diffusional change
s in the phases that are present.
For metallic materials most creep tests are c
onducted in uni-axial tensile mode. However,
uni-axial compression tests are us
ed for brittle materials to avoid stress amplification and
corresponding crack propagation.
For most materials creep pr
operties are independent of
loading direction.
The minimum creep rate is the most importa
nt design parameter derived from the creep
curve. It is the engineering design parameter
that is considered for
long-life applications,