Strength of Materials Basics: Stress (Intensity of Force)

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BASICS
The strength of a material is the ability of that material to withstand an applied stress without
failure. Different types of stress can be defined within this field like tensile stress, compressive
stresses beside shear stresses. In addition, materials could be failed by another types of failures like
fatigue stress, thermal stress and/or creep failure. These all within the so called the strength of
materials or mechanics of materials will be included to clarify how to deal with applied loads. Hence,
strength of materials is a subject which deals with loads, deformations and the forces acting on the
material.
STRESS (INTENSITY OF FORCE):

Stress is the internal resistance offered by a unit area of the material from which a member is
made to an externally applied load. Normal stress is determined using the following equation:
σ= Applied Load/Original Cross Section Area =P/A This has a unit of Pa or N/m2.
STRAIN:
Strain is the total deformation divided by the original length of the bar. Normal or
longitudinal strain is calculated using the following equation:
ε = Changing in length/Original length =ΔL/L°
ELASTICITY:
Elasticity (or stretchiness) is the property of a material that returns to its original shape after
the stress (e.g. external forces) that made it deform or distort is removed. The relative amount of
deformation is called the strain.
PLASTICITY:
Plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape
in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new
shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself. In engineering, the
transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called yield.
TOUGHNESS:
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing. Material toughness is defined as the amount of energy per volume that a material can
absorb before rupturing. It is also defined as the resistance to fracture of a material when stressed.
It can be seen that materials like ceramics have low toughness values in spite of they are so
strong. On the other hand, rubbers are tough materials as well as they are weak in terms of strength.
The area under the entire stress-strain curve from zero to rupture gives the so called modulus of
toughness which is the energy per unit volume necessary to rupture the material under the test.
BRITTLENESS:
A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant deformation
(strain). Brittle materials absorb relatively little energy prior to fracture, even those of high strength.
Breaking is often accompanied by a snapping sound. Brittle materials include most ceramics and
glasses
HARDNESS :
Hardness is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape
change when a force is applied.
FREE BODY DIAGRAM
The first step towards solving an engineering problem is drawing the free body diagram of the
element/structure considered.
At the beginning, a clear decision is to be made by the analyst on the choice of the body to be
considered for free body diagram.
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an object or
substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when a force is applied to it.
The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in the elastic
deformation region. As such, a stiffer material will have a higher elastic modulus.
λ= Stress/Strain
where lambda (λ) is the elastic modulus; stress is the restoring force caused due to the
deformation divided by the area to which the force is applied; and strain is the ratio of the change
caused by the stress to the original state of the object. If stress is measured in Pascal's, since strain is
a dimensionless quantity, then the units of λ are Pascal's as well.
Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object to deform along an
axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to
tensile strain. It is often referred to simply as the elastic modulus.
E = tensile stress / tensile strain = ζ / ε = F / A° / ΔL / L° = F L° / A° ΔL
Ductility:
Ductility is another important mechanical property. It is a measure of the degree of plastic
deformation that has been sustained at fracture.
Resilience:
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. The associated property is the modulus of
resilience, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to stress a material from an unloaded
state up to the point of yielding.
Stress Strain Curve:
Illustration of offset yield point.

1: True elastic limit
2: Proportionality limit
3: Elastic limit
4: Offset yield strength, usually defined at e=0.2%
S: Engineering stress
e: Engineering strain
A: Undeformed cross-sectional area
TENSILE TEST ON SPECIMEN:

Eliminating Bottlenecks in Production
The optimization of a drying process serves as a great first example where Rolandi’s team
developed a custom app to help solve a production workflow issue. This case centered on relocating
the manufacturing process of a small molecule drug substance from a contract manufacturing
organization (CMO) to Amgen’s plant in Singapore.
In the midst of this, drying operations—isolations performed by an agitated filter dryer (AFD)
in a process similar to the one shown in Fig. 1—were identified as potential bottlenecks in the
production facility. Naturally, a bottleneck can pose a substantial risk to meeting product demand, so
Rolandi and his team set out to model the drying operations and streamline the process.
Because the CMO used a different type of dryer for the rest three steps of the process, shown below
in Fig. 1, it lacked sufficient characterization data from these isolations to accurately model it and
identify the impact of changing operating conditions.

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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BASICS

STRESS (INTENSITY OF FORCE):

Illustration of offset yield point.

TENSILE TEST ON SPECIMEN:

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