Measurements: Instructor: Instructor

Faculty of engineering
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
Measurements
Instructor:
Dr. Mohamed Abdallah Bhlol
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Helwan University
Faculty of engineering
Mechanical Engineering Dept.
Measurements
Chapter 3
Static characteristics of
measurement system
elements
Dr. Mohamed Abdallah Bhlol
Topics
Characteristics of instruments
Static characteristics of measuring system
Environmental effects
General model of measuring system
Solved examples
Characteristics of Instruments
There are two types of characteristics of
instruments:
1) Static characteristics of instruments
2) Dynamic characteristics of instruments
 Static characteristics
Also called (steady state characteristics) which concerned
with the relationship between Input (I) and Output (O) of an
element in case of Input is constant or changing slowly.
The static characteristics are defined for the instruments

which measure quantities which do not vary with time.
Characteristics of Instruments
 Dynamic characteristics
The dynamic characteristic is the behavior of an element
facing sudden change in input value; the corresponding output
value will not change instantaneously to the new value.
The behavior of such a system, where as the input varies

from instant to instant, the output also varies from instant to
instant is called as dynamic response of the system.
These type of instruments are normally used for the

measurement of quantities that fluctuate with time.
Static Characteristics
The static characteristics of instruments are related with

steady state response.
The relationship between the output and the input when the
input does not change, or the input is changing at a slow
rate.
Determination of static characteristics is mostly done by

calibration.
The main static characteristics are:
Range
Span
Sensitivity
Linearity
Non Linearity
Hysteresis
Resolution
Error bands
Reproducibility
Environmental Effects
 Range:
The range is the minimum and maximum values of a
quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure.
The input range of the element is specified by the
minimum and maximum values of the input (i.e. IMin to IMax).
The output range is specified by the minimum and maximum
values of the output (i.e. OMin to OMax).
For example:
-For the pressure transducer shown
0 - 104 Pa Pressure 4 - 20 mA
Transducer
(Input) (Output) O
- The input range will be: from 0 to 104 Pa

- The output range will be: from 4 to 20 mA
 Span:
Span is maximum variation in input or output.
Input span = Imax - IMin
Output span = Omax - OMin
For example:
-For the pressure transducer shown
0 - 104 Pa Pressure 4 - 20 mA
Transducer
(Input) I (Output) O
- Input span = Imax - IMin =104 - 0 = 104 Pa

- Output span = Omax – Omin = 20 – 4 = 16 mA
Ideal straight line (ISL) :
Any element is said to be linear when the relationship
between the Input and the Output is a straight line.
By other words, the ideal element is attained when:

O=K.I
-Where:
- Input range= Imin : Imax
- Output range= Omin : Omax
- Input span = Imax - IMin
- Output span = Omax – Omin
Ideal straight line (ISL) :
O
The general form for the ideal
Omax
straight line will be as follow:
O ideal = K .I + a
Omin K
-Where:
K: Ideal straight line slope.
a Imin Imax
I
a: Ideal straight line Intercept.
O max O min O O min

K  slope  
I max I min I  I min
Example (1):
100 – 250oC 4 - 10 mV
Thermocouple
(Input) I (Output) O
Define Input and Output spans.

Find the Ideal straight line equation.
Solution:
•Input and Output spans
Input span = Imax - IMin = 250 – 100 = 150o C
Output span = Omax – Omin = 10 – 4 = 6 mV

Ideal straight line (ISL) :
1st find the slope:
O max O min 10  4
K  slope  
I max I min 250  100
o
 K  0.04mv / C
 O  0.04 I  a
To find the intercept use any couple of (Imin, Omin) or
(Imax, Omax) for substitution.
O max  0.04 I max a
10  0.04  250  a

 a  0mv
The ideal straight line equation:
 O  0.04 I  0
 Nonlinearity:
In many cases the ideal straight line equation can not
represent the Input-Output relation correctly so this
relationship is termed Non-linear equation.
O Ideal straight line = KI + a
N(I)
Actual line = KI + a + N(I)
I
 Nonlinearity:
N(I) : Is the Non-linearity at input (I).
N ( I )  actual line  ideal line
N ( I )  O ( I )  O ideal ( I )
 N ( I )  O ( I )  [ KI  a ]
 O ( I )  KI  a  N ( I )
 nonlinearity:
Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the maximum
non-linearity (N ˆ ) ; expressed as a percentage of full-scale
deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of span. Thus:
Nˆ
N̂
%N (I )  x100
O Max O Min
 Example (2):
Thermocouple has an Input-Output relationship of :

2 2 4 3
E (T )  38.74 T  3.319 10 T  2.07110 T
for the range 0 to 400 °C input. E = 0 µV and E = 20 869 µV
outputs.
Find nonlinearity E(T)

Solution:
O max O min 20869  0

K    52.17 V / oC
I max I min 400  0
Solution:
Oideal  52.17T  a
At Tmin = 0 and Emin = 0 a  0
Oideal  52.17T
 N (T )  O (T )  [ KT  a ]
2 2 4 3
 N (T )   13 .43T  3 .319  10 T  2 .071  10 T
 Linearity:
Linearity is defined as the ability of an instrument to
reproduce its input linearly.
Linearity is simply a measure of the maximum deviation of

the calibration points from the ideal straight line.
 Sensitivity (S):
Is the rate of change in Output (O) with respect to the Input (I).
Mathematically: dO d
S  [ KI  a  N ( I )]
dI dI
dO d
S   K  0  [ N ( I )]
dI dI
For ideal straight line N(I) = 0
dO
S ideal  K
dI
 Hysteresis
Is the difference in Output (O) value for same Input value
(I) while measuring one time in decreasing sequence and
another in increasing sequence.
O Omax
H ( I )  O( I )   O( I ) 
Decrease
^
H : is the max. H (I) … Max.
Hysteresis
Max. Hysteresis as a % of
H(I)
(full scale deflection f.s.d.) is: Increase
Hˆ
% H (I )  x 100 Imax I
O Max O Min
Resolution:
Is the Smallest value of Input (I) can produce a change in
the Output (O).
Any element affected by the O

resolution effect has an Input –
Output relation with no smooth
line as previous. The resolution IR
effect will be as a stair-like
shape.
IMin IMax I
IR is the value of the
resolution.
Resolution:
The resolution as a percentage of [F.S.D.]
I R
%  I R x100
I Max  I Min
For example:
- For the simple optical
encoder shown. Each time the
shaft rotates ¼ of a revolution,
a pulse will be generated. So,
this encoder has a 90°
resolution.
Error bands:
Due to the complex O
Ideal Line
interaction between the Error
bands
effect of non-linearity,
resolution and Hysteresis
actions, it is difficult to Oideal +h
quantify each individual -h
effect.
I
The manufactures of
I
measurement elements
defined the performance
of such elements in terms
of error bands.
Error bands:
For any Input (I) the Output actually will be in range of ( h)
of the Output of its ideal straight-line.
Reproducibility
It is the closeness of agreement among repeated

measurements of the output for the same value of the
input, made under the same operating conditions over a
period of time.
Perfect reproducibility signifies that the given readings

that are taken for an input, do not vary with time.
Environmental effects
Environmental effects:
Actually the Output (O) depends not only on the Input (I),
but also on the surrounding environmental effects such as:
1) Ambient temperature
2) Atmospheric pressure
3) Relative humidity
4) Voltage supply…etc
Any change in the above conditions will be considered as

an environmental effect in the Output-Input relationship.
The environmental Input has two main types:
1) modifying input (Im):
Change the linear sensitivity Im0
of the element by amount of O Environmental
deviation depending on the effect
value of modifying Input of Im, Im=0 Ideal
while Im = (Zero) at standard No effect
conditions. Slope [K]
Slope [K + Km Im]
The change in linear I
sensitivity is:
From S = K  S = (K + Im . Km)
The environmental Input has two main types:
2) interfering input (Ii):
Im0
Change the intercept of the O Environmental
element by amount of effect
deviation depending on the
value of interfering Input of Ii, Im=0 Ideal
while Ii = (Zero) at standard No effect
conditions.
a + KI Ii
The change in intercept is:

From a  (a + Ii . Ki) I
a
General model of measuring system
If hysteresis and resolution effects are not present in an
element but environmental and non-linear effects are, then the
steady-state output O of the element is in general
given by the following equation:
O  ( K . I )  a  N ( I )  ( K m . I m ).I  K i . I i
Ideal Line Non-Linearity Modifying Interfering

O  ( K  ( K m . I m )). I  ( a  K i . I i )  N ( I )
New Slope New Intercept Non-Linearity
The Figure below shows this equation in block diagram

form to represent the static characteristics of an element.
Im Ii
Km
Ki
I Km.Im.I
Ki.Ii
I K.I + + +
I K O
+ + +
N(I)
a
N()
I
General model of element

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Faculty of engineering

Mechanical Engineering Dept.

Static characteristics of measuring system

General model of measuring system

1) Static characteristics of instruments

2) Dynamic characteristics of instruments

The static characteristics are defined for the instruments

The behavior of such a system, where as the input varies

These type of instruments are normally used for the

The static characteristics of instruments are related with

Determination of static characteristics is mostly done by

- The input range will be: from 0 to 104 Pa

- Input span = Imax - IMin =104 - 0 = 104 Pa

By other words, the ideal element is attained when:

O max O min O O min

Define Input and Output spans.

Output span = Omax – Omin = 10 – 4 = 6 mV

O max  0.04 I max a

10  0.04  250  a

O Ideal straight line = KI + a

N ( I )  actual line  ideal line

Thermocouple has an Input-Output relationship of :

Find nonlinearity E(T)

O max O min 20869  0

Linearity is simply a measure of the maximum deviation of

Any element affected by the O

It is the closeness of agreement among repeated

Perfect reproducibility signifies that the given readings

Any change in the above conditions will be considered as

The change in intercept is:

Ideal Line Non-Linearity Modifying Interfering

New Slope New Intercept Non-Linearity

The Figure below shows this equation in block diagram

General model of element

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