ABSTRACT

In the boiler, the steam is generated by heating the feed water initially by oil firing (heavy
oil) in the combustion chamber and subsequently by the addition of pulverized coal
(lignite). The addition of the coal without monitoring the flame status leads to explosion of
the boiler. The design of the boiler involves the energy balance between the fire side and the
steam side parameters. The air to fuel ratio is the most important factor to achieve complete
combustion. The next monitoring point in the flue gas path is the temperature at the exit of
the boiler. Flames are generated in the furnace when fuel and air from separate conduits are
mixed up in the proper ratio. The flame temperatures are measured using thermocouples.
This gives the instantaneous values of the corresponding flame temperatures. Similarly the
flue gases are measured using the gas analyzers which are very expensive and prone to cold
end corrosion. Presence of excess oxygen in the flue gas ensures complete combustion. But
on the other hand, it also denotes the wastage of the fuel (coal) required to heat excess
oxygen. The flame colour varies with respect to the carbon content in the coal. Moisture
content of the coal is also very important as the calorific value of the coal directly depends
on the moisture content.

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 INTRODUCTION TO BOILER

A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated. The heated or vaporized fluid of

the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications Types of Boilers:

Based on Principle ofWorking:

1. Fire tube boilers

2. Water tube boilers

1. Fire tube boilers:

Fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases from a fire pass through one or more

tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred through

the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating steam. There

are Several Types of Fire tube Boilers, they are

➢ Cornish Boiler: This boiler has a long horizontal cylinder with a single large flue

consisting the fire

Figure 1: Cornish Boiler

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➢ Lancashire boiler: Same as Cornish boiler, this has two large flues compressing the fires. It

has three major constituents, double walled firebox, horizontal and cylindrical boiler barrel

consists with small flue tubes and smoke box provided with chimney for exhaust gases. They

are used in traction engines, portable engines and some other steam road vehicles

Figure 2: Lancashire Boiler

➢ Scotch marine boiler: This form of boiler uses large number of small diameter tubes. It

provides greater heating surface area for both weight and volume

Figure 3: Scotch Marine Boiler

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2. Water tube boilers:

Water tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water passes through the boiler where the tubes
are placed in combustion chamber. They are

➢ Babcock & Wilcox boiler: Babcock and Wilcox, this type has a single drum, with feed water

drawn from the bottom of the drum into a header that supplies inclined water-tubes. The water

tubes supply steam back into the top of the drum. Furnaces are located below the tubes and

drum

Figure 4: Babcock & Wilcox Boiler

➢ Yarrow: this type has three drums in a delta formation connected by water tubes. The drums

are linked by straight water tubes, allowing easy tube- cleaning. This does however mean that

the tubes enter the drums at varying angles, a more difficult joint to caulk. Outside the firebox,

a pair of 'cold-leg' pipes between each drum act as 'down comers'

Figure 5: Yarrow Boiler

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 ➢ Thorny croft: Thorny croft type features a single steam drum with two sets of water tubes

either side of the furnace. These tubes, especially the central set, have sharp curves. Apart

from obvious difficulties in cleaning them, this may also give rise to bending forces as the

tubes warm up, tending to pull them loose from the tube plate and creating a leak.

Figure 6: Thorny croft Boiler

Based on Design:

1. Packaged boiler
2. Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler
3. Stoker Fired Boiler
4. Pulverized Fuel Boiler
5. Waste Heat Boiler
6. Thermic Fluid Heater

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1. Packaged boiler:-

The packaged boiler is so called because it comes as a complete package. Once delivered to

site, it requires only the steam, water pipe work, fuel supply and electrical connections to be made

for it to become operational. Package boilers are generally of shell type with fire tube design so as to

achieve high heat transfer rates by both radiation and convection

Figure 7: Packaged Boiler

2. Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has emerged as a viable alternative and has significant

advantages over conventional firing system and offers multiple benefits – compact boiler design,

fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as

SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers include coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse &

other agricultural wastes. The fluidized bed boilers have a wide capacity range- 0.5 T/hr to over 100

T/hr

➢ Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion (AFBC) Boiler: Most operational boiler of this type

is of the Atmospheric Fluidized Bed Combustion. (AFBC). This involves little more than

adding a fluidized bed combustor to a conventional shell boiler. Such systems have similarly

being installed in conjunction with conventional water tube boiler

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➢ Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) Boiler: In Pressurized Fluidized Bed

Combustion (PFBC) type, a compressor supplies the Forced Draft (FD) air and the combustor

is a pressure vessel. The heat release rate in the bed is proportional to the bed pressure and

hence a deep bed is used to extract large amount of heat. This will improve the combustion

efficiency and sulphur dioxide absorption in the bed. The steam is generated in the two tube

bundles, one in the bed and one above it. Hot flue gases drive a power generating gas turbine.

The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration (steam and electricity) or combined cycle

power generation. The combined cycle operation (gas turbine & steam turbine) improves the

overall conversion efficiency by 5 to 8%

➢ Atmospheric Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion Boilers (CFBC): In a circulating system

the bed parameters are so maintained as to promote solids elutriation from the bed. They are

lifted in a relatively dilute phase in a solids riser, and a down-comer with a cyclone provides a

return path for the solids. There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the bed.

Generation and super heating of steam takes place in the convection section, water walls, at

the exit of the riser

Figure 8: Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler

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3. Stoker Fired Boiler

Stokers are classified according to the method of feeding fuel to the furnace and by the type

of grate. The main classifications are spreader stoker and chain-gate or traveling-gate stoker

➢ Spreader Stokers: Spreader stokers utilize a combination of suspension burning and grate

burning. The coal is continually fed into the furnace above a burning bed of coal. The coal

fines are burned in suspension; the larger particles fall to the grate, where they are burned in a

thin, fast- burning coal bed. This method of firing provides good flexibility to meet load

fluctuations, since ignition is almost instantaneous when firing rate is increased. Due to this,

the spreader stoker is favored over other types of stokers in many industrial applications

➢ Chain-grate or Traveling-grate Stoker: Coal is fed onto one end of a moving steel grate. As

grate moves along the length of the furnace, the coal burns before dropping off at the end as

ash. Some degree of skill is required, particularly when setting up the grate, air dampers and

baffles, to ensure clean combustion leaving the minimum un-burnt carbon in ash

Figure 9: Stoker Fired Boiler

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4. Pulverized Fuel Boiler

Most coal-fired power station boilers use pulverized coal, and many of the larger industrial

water-tube boilers also use this pulverized fuel. This technology is well developed, and there are

thousands of units around the world, accounting for well over 90% of coal-fired capacity

Figure 10: Pulverized Fuel Boiler

5. Waste Heat Boiler

Wherever the waste heat is available at medium or high temperatures, a waste heat boiler can

be installed economically. Wherever the steam demand is more than the steam generated during

waste heat, auxiliary fuel burners are also used. If there is no direct use of steam, the steam may be

let down in a steam turbine-generator set and power produced from it. It is widely used in the heat

recovery from exhaust gases from gas turbines and diesel engines

Figure 11: Waste Heat Boiler

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6. Thermic Fluid Heater

In recent times, Thermic fluid heaters have found wide application for indirect process

heating. Employing petroleum - based fluids as the heat transfer medium, these heaters provide

constantly maintainable temperatures for the user equipment. The combustion system comprises of a

fixed grate with mechanical draft arrangements The modern oil fired Thermic fluid heater consists of

a double coil, three pass construction and fitted with modulated pressure jet system. The Thermic

fluid, which acts as a heat carrier, is heated up in the heater and circulated through the user

equipment. There it transfers heat for the process through a heat exchanger and the fluid is then

returned to the heater. The flow of Thermic fluid at the user end is controlled by a pneumatically

operated control valve, based on the operating temperature. The heater operates on low or high fire

depending on the return oil temperature, which varies with the system load

Figure 12: Thermic Fluid Heater

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Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler :

The Project work is now coming to the main part i.e., Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler, where the Fluidized

beds suspend the solid fuels on upward-blowing jets of air during the combustion process. These Boilers are

more flexible than conventional plants in that they can be fired on coal and other fuels. Some of the Major

Components of the Fluidized Bed Combustion Boiler are:

1. Induced Draft Fan

2. Forced Draft Fan

3. Booster Fan

4. Coal Feeder

5. Mobrey

6. Chimney

7. Coal Crusher

8. Safety Valves

9. Stop Valve

10. Air Vent Valve

11. Blow down Valve

12. Feed Check Valve

13. Refractory

14. Level Indicators

1. Induced Draft Fan: - The Induced Fan is used to feed the hot products of the combustion

extracted from the Furnace when the fuel has burnt and feed to the chimney.

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2. Forced Draft Fan: - The heat used for generating the steam is obtained by burning fuel in a

furnace, or combustion chamber, but to do this Process, it requires the provision of air which

is provided by a forced- draught.

3. Booster Fan: - In Additional to the above two fans, one more fan is also available to

overcome the draught losses if the resistance was not anticipated when the plant was

originally designed. These are called as Booster Fan.

4. Coal Feeder: - The Coal feeder is used to feed the Fuel Continuously without any speed

variations to avoid the disturbances to the Boiler. These are equipped with dust collection

system to ensure pollution to remain under control.

5. Mobrey: - Mobrey Controls are a comprehensive range of magnetically operated water

isolating and sequential controls. They are designed to meet the requirements for automatic

on/off control of boiler feed pump, burner cut-out, high and/or low level alarm or any

combination. It also provides the Positive Purging of the Water Connection, float chamber

and Steam Connection.

6. Chimney: - A chimney is a structure for venting hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler,

stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or as

near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the

combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney, effect. The space inside a chimney is

called a flue. The height of chimneys plays a role in their ability to transfer flue gases

using stack effect, the dispersion of

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 pollutants at higher altitude helps to ease down its influence on surroundings. In the case of

aggressive output, the tall chimney allows particles to self-neutralization in the air before

they reach the ground.

7. Coal Crusher: - Most of „boilers‟ fuel is coal, so coal crusher is the main part for crushing

coal. We should make optimal design of a coal crushing system. In order to promote the

concept of coal particles and prefabricated. We use prefabricated, dry coal shed stacked, two

broken and three screening can be a fundamental solution to block coal bunker coal, the

furnace bed material quality degradation trends and improve coal preparation of system

reliability. So, the Coal Crusher relies on its unique advantages in a wide range of

applications in the boiler system.

8. Safety Valves: - A safety valve is a valve mechanism for the automatic release of a

substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system when the pressure or temperature

exceeds its preset limits.

9. Stop Valve: - A non-return stop valve in the Steam line is used to control the flow of Steam

to the desired output wherever required.

10. Air Vent Valve: - To remove the Air from the inner vessel of the boiler to feed the water

through feed check valve.

11. Blow down Valve: - This Valve is used to remove suspended solids present in the system

which are caused by feed water contamination, by internal chemical treatment precipitates,

or by exceeding the solubility limits of otherwise soluble salts.

12. Feed Check Valve: - A non-return stop valve in the feed water line. This may be fitted to the

side of the boiler, just below the water level, or to the top of the boiler.

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13. Refractory: - The main purpose of refractory material is used inside a boiler is to contain the

heat generated by burning of the fuel in the furnace. It is important that these materials have

insulating properties and are able to withstand high temperatures. Refractory material should

have sufficient mechanical strength and are able to expand and contract uniformly with

temperature change without cracking.

14. Level Indicators: - These Indicators are used to show the operator the level of fluid available

in the boiler, also known as a sight glass, water gauge or water column.

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 OPERATION OF BOILER

General Procedures:-

1. Check the levels of Feed Water Tank and it should be ¾ % and the feed water softness to be

checked every 4 hours of Operation, if exceed below mentioned parameters, regenerate the

water softener.

a. TDS should maintain below 100 PPM

b. Hardness should maintain below 5 PPM

c. pH should maintain between 8.5 to 9.5

2. Make sure no Excessive sound is coming from motors of fans or any other moving parts.

3. Make sure all the valves and joints are leak-proof.

4. Induced Draft Fan should maintain at 60 mm Wc, Furnace Draft should maintain within -2

to -5 mm Wc to avoid the Back Fire

5. Forced Draft should maintain minimum of 300mm Wc to avoid No Firing

and it can be up to 600mm Wc

6. Maintain the Feed Pump back Pressure 15 Kg/cm2

7. Blow down the boiler at regular intervals to maintain the below

mentioned parameters

a. TDS should maintain between 3500 to 4500 PPM

b. Hardness should maintain below 5 PPM

c. pH should maintain between 11 to 12

8. Blow down the Mobrey level Switch and the gauge glasses once in a shift

9. Drain the feed water pre-heating tank once in a shift to remove any particles that may have

settled down.

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 10. Ensure that fuel is properly sized. There should be no metal pieces, stones, etc in the fuel

11. Check that the bed height is at pre-set level. Operate the ash drain and adjust to set levels, if

level rises

12. Check whether the stack temperature is within desired range of given load. If higher check

for fouling o heat transfer surface or blockings of flue gas passages.

Start-up Procedure:-

1. Test the Boiler Feed Water for its suitability as per standard parameters.

2. Check that the soft water service tank is full.

3. Boiler Inner Vessel Water Level should be ½ to ¾%.

4. Ensure that the water filters and strainers are clean.

5. Air Vent Value should be Open.

6. Blown down Valve and Stop Valve should be Closed.

7. Charge the normal sand of particle size 0.5 to 1.5mm for husk, and prepare a sand bed just

touching the bottom point of tubes in the bed to make 8 inch deep bed of uniform level.

8. Close the main steam stop valve.

9. Close the ID damper (Manually) and FD fan dampers to minimum.

10. Open the fuel dampers (under the bunker) required for fuel firing.

11. Check and ensure that all other safeties are within acceptable limits and the water level is

enough.

12. Feed the Charcoal on the Bed manually and start Firing.

13. Sprinkle diesel or kerosene over the bed and ignite the charcoal.

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 14. After the Charcoal catches full fire then ON the ID & FD Fans and run them as per the

requirement.

15. After the Temperature is raised up to 5500C, the bed looks like bubbling lava and is ready

for charging fuel

16. Then Switch on the Coal Feed Conveyor to feed the fuel automatically.

17. After the Pressure reached 3 Kg/cm2, close the Air Vent Valve.

18. Adjust the Stop Valve as per the required by the User.

Shut-down Procedure:-

1. Stop Coal Feeding to the boiler.

2. Wait until the furnace temperature falls below 4000C

3. Switch off FD and ID Fan

4. Keep ash doors and ID fan damper full open to facilitate cooling by natural draught

5. Close the main steam stop valve and crank open the air vent valve. It is important to keep

the air vent open to prevent vacuum in steam drum.

6. Allow fuel to burn off.

7. Blow down the boiler, membrane panel header, inbed header, Mobrey level switch and

gauge glasses under pressure.

8. The Blow down should be such as to maintain a TDS in a boiler to less than 3500 ppm.

9. Make sure that boiler is filled with water. Put off the main electric switch and close the

valves

10. Clean the boiler and its surroundings.

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Safety & Necessary Precautions while Operation of Boiler :-

1. Boiler House should have proper ventilation and lighting arrangement.

2. All electrical supply should be switched off and maintenance staff should ensure no supply

is available in the equipment.

3. Make sure the “UNDER MAINTENANCE” board and work permit system should be

introduced when entering into the furnace for maintenance.

4. Ensure proper earthing of all the electrical equipment.

5. Do not use nylon/Polyester clothing, during the operation and

maintenance of Boilers/Heaters.

6. None of the safeties and controls should be bypassed during the operation of boiler.

7. The fuel storage formalities and safety precaution need to be taken.

8. The Boiler house should be kept free from spillage of water/Oil.

9. All Hot Surfaces should be insulated properly.

10. Before opening the Pressure parts of the boiler, make sure the pressure is released

completely and the air vent valve is fully open and no discharge of vapour through the air

vent line.

11. Blow down pit should be made of concrete/MS and should be covered properly with

adequate venting arrangement.

12. Use leather hand gloves while working on hot surfaces.

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 MAINTENANCE OF BOILER

General and Preventive Maintenance:- The Performance of a Boiler depends on maintenance

carried out. The boiler, water pipelines, strainers, etc should be kept clean to maintain water flow to

boiler. The types of maintenance are General, Daily, Weekly, Monthly, Quarterly, Half-yearly and

Yearly.

General Maintenance:-

1. Refractory Maintenance:-

a. Check the condition of refractory after every 6 months. If any fallen bricks found,

replace immediately by proper shaped bricks.

b. Avoid door bangs to prevent refractory from breakage.

c. Avoid cold blast for cooling the furnace to avoid thermal shocks.

d. The mortar and pointing on hot surface of the furnace get damaged with use and need

frequent mending well in time.

2. Care of Idle Boilers:- During the Idle periods leads to onset of corrosion in the steam and

water spaces from which serious attack may develop during subsequent working periods.

Corrosion can start as a boiler is emptied and the attack will be high if pools of water are left

in boiler.

a. The Tube Surfaces should be properly cleaned.

b. Air should be blown to dry out the tubes and remove loose soot.

c. The Chimney stack should be either disconnected or the damper should be closed. A

tray of unsalted lime should be places in the furnace to keep fireside dry.

3. De-Scaling of Boiler:- To avoid scaling, ensure that always soft and properly dosed and

softened water is feed to boiler. De-scaling is not a

routine maintenance, as de-scaling shortens the life of boiler and tubes.

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 4. Blow down:- The object of Blow down is to maintain the level of TDS to Pre-determined

value. Blow down for this type of boiler should be given when concentration of total

dissolved solids (TDS) rises to 3000 ppm. Blowing down helps in removing sludge, loose

scale and other fine material that might accumulate in the boiler shell.

5. Economizer:- Cleaning the Economizer fire tube & remove Fly ash from tubes bottom for

Every 24 hours of Boiler running.

Daily Maintenance:-

1. Check the Softness of the water by carrying out the tests.

2. Make Blow down at regular intervals depending on feed water analysis.

3. Blow down the Mobrey level switch.

4. Blow down the gauge glasses.

5. Check fly ash and ensure timely ash removal.

Weekly Maintenance:-

1. Make sure the Panels are cleaned from outside and inside, free from dust

2. Regenerate the water softener, if the hardness is more than regeneration is required more than

once

3. Check the working of feed water pre-heater/de-aerator tank

4. Ensure that the gauge glasses are clean from inside and outside so that the water level is

clearly visible.

5. Check the working of Mobrey level switch. Ensure that the minimum and maximum water

levels are properly controlled.

6. Check the working of Safety valves by closing the main steam stop valve and other valves of

boiler and allow the steam to increase and the valve should open at set pressure and pressure

should drop on opening of it.

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Monthly Maintenance: -

1. Repeat all the Maintenance Steps carried out in Daily Maintenance.

2. Drain the soft water tank. Clean it from inside and refill it with soft water.

3. Tighten the stuffing box of the pump, if necessary.

4. Clean silver contacts of relays with carbon tetra chloride or with paper, if required. (Emery

paper should not be used)

5. Tighten the screws connected wires to terminals strips, various relays, motors, controls, etc.

6. Ease the steam safety valves and reset.

7. Check and replace oil in gear boxes.

8. Check the condition of grate bars and replace damaged ones, if any.

9. Open the smoke chamber doors, take out the spirals and clean the tubes with brush (The

Brush must not be loose when inserted in tubes)

10. Check tension and alignment of ID and FD fan belts and bolts.

Quarterly Maintenance: -

1. Repeat all the Maintenance Steps carried out in Monthly Maintenance.

2. Drain and clean the feed water storage tank.

3. Clean the ID and FD Fan blades.

4. Lubricate the bearings of water pump, ID and FD fans.

Half-Yearly Maintenance: -

1. Repeat all the Maintenance Steps carried out in Quarterly Maintenance.

2. Check the condition of refractory wall of the combustion chamber.

3. Check all valves for leakages and lap them with lapping paste, if required.

4. Check the ducts and other joints for infiltration of fresh air.

5. Check the quantity of resin inside the water softener and top it up.

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Yearly Maintenance: -

1. Repeat all the Maintenance Steps carried out in Yearly Maintenance

2. Check and repair the insulation lining of boiler.

3. Clean various tanks and paint them.

4. Clean inside of the flue gas outlet.

5. Grease electric motors.

6. Check the membrane panel, its headers and tubes from outside for cleanliness and

clean if necessary.

7. Check the boiler tubes for cleanliness from inside and de-scale if required.

8. Check the condition of impellers and replace them, if necessary.

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 IMPROVING THE EFFECIENCY OF BOILER

Efficiency of Boiler:- Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of heat input

that is effectively utilized to generate steam. There are two methods of assessing boiler

efficiency.

1. The Direct Method:- Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is

compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel. This is also known as „input-output

method‟ due to the fact that it needs only the useful output (steam) and the heat input (i.e.

fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be evaluated using the formula

Boiler Efficiency = (Heat Output / Heat Input) X 100

Boiler Efficiency = {(Q X hg – hf) / (q X GCV)} X 100

Where:

Q – Quantity of steam generated per hour in kg/hr. hg – Enthalpy of

saturated steam in kCal/kg of steam. hf – Enthalpy of feed water in

kCal/kg of water.

q – Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.

GCV – Gross Calorific Value of the fuel in kCal/kg of fuel

2. The Indirect Method:- Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the

energy input. Indirect method is also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can be

arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100. The standards do not include blow

down loss in the efficiency determination process. A detailed procedure for calculating boiler

efficiency by indirect method is given below.

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The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:

➢ Loss of heat due to dry flue gas

➢ Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion air

➢ Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen

➢ Loss of heat due to radiation

➢ Loss of heat due to un-burnt Fuel

I. Heat loss due to dry flue gas

= (m×Cp×(Tf –Ta) × 100) / GCV of Fuel

II. Heat loss due to evaporation of water to H2 in fuel

= [9 H2 {584 + C p(Tf-Ta)} x 100] / GCV of Fuel

III. Heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel

= [M x {584 + C p (Tf-Ta)} x 100] / GCV of Fuel

IV. Heat loss due to moisture present in air

= [AAS × humidity factor ×Cp x (Tf -Ta) x 100] / GCV of Fuel

V. Heat loss due to un-burnt fuel in fly ash

= Total ash collected/kg of fuel burnt xGCV of fly ash x 100 / GCV of coal

VI. Heat loss due to un-burnt fuel in bottom ash

= Total ash collected/kg of fuel burnt xGCV of bottom ash x100 /GCV of coal

Boiler Efficiency = 100 - (I + II + III + IV + V + VI)

Where,

m – Mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel Cp –

Specific heat of flue gas

Tf – Flue gas temperature Ta –

Ambient temperature

H2 - kg of Hydrogenin 1 kg of fuel

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 M – kg of moisture in 1kg of fuel GCV –

Gross Calorific Value

AAS – Actual mass of air supplied

The Efficiency of Boiler by Direct Method is

Type of boiler : Coal fired Boiler 10 TPH

Quantity of steam (dry) generated : 6000 Kgs/hr

Steam pressure (gauge) / temp : 10 kg/cm2(g)/ 180°C

Quantity of coal consumed : 1230 Kgs/hr

Feed water temperature : 85°C

GCV of coal : 4100 kCal/kg

Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm2 pressure : 665 kCal/kg (saturated) Enthalpy of feed

water : 85 kCal/kg

Efficiency of Boiler = (6000 x (665-85) / 1230 x 4100) x 100

= (6000 x 580 / 1230 x 4100) x 100

= (3480000 / 5043000) x 100

= 69.01%

The Efficiency of Boiler by Indirect Method is m –

10.38 Kg

Cp –0.23 kCal/kg °C) Tf –

200 °C

Ta – 30 °C H2 –

0.03 Kg M –

0.31 Kg

GCV – 4100 kCal/kg

AAS – 10.07 Kg

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I. Heat loss due to dry flue gas

= (m×Cp×(Tf –Ta) × 100) / GCV of Fuel

= (10.38 x 0.23 x {200-30} x 100) / 4100

= (10.38 x 0.23 x 170 x 100) / 4100

= 9.89%

II. Heat loss due to evaporation of water to H2 in fuel

= [9 H2 {584 + C p(Tf-Ta)} x 100] / GCV of Fuel

= [9 x 0.03 {584 + 0.23(200-30)} x 100] / 4100

= [0.27 {584+39.1} x 100] / 4100

= 16823.7 / 4100

= 4.1%

III. Heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel

= [M x {584 + C p (Tf -Ta)} x 100] / GCV of Fuel

= [0.31 x {584 + 0.23(200-30)} x 100] / 4100

= [0.31 x 623.1 x 100] / 4100

= 4.71%

IV. Heat loss due to moisture present in air

= [AAS × humidity factor ×Cp x (Tf -Ta) x 100] / GCV of Fuel

= [10.07 x 0.204 x 0.23 x (200-30) x 100] / 4100

= [10.07 x 0.204 x 0.23 x 170 x 100] / 4100

= 1.95%

V. Heat loss due to un-burnt fuel in fly ash

= Total ash collected/kg of fuel burnt xGCV of fly ash x 100 / GCV of coal

= 0.1x0.0863 x 452.5 x 100 / 4100

= 0.09%

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 VI. Heat loss due to un-burnt fuel in fly ash

= Total ash collected/kg of fuel burnt xGCV of bottom ash x100/GCV of coal

= 0.9x0.0863 x 800 x 100 / 4100

= 1.51%

Efficiency of Boiler = 100 - (I + II + III + IV + V + VI)

= 100 – (9.89+4.1+4.71+1.95+0.09+1.51)
= 100 – 22.25
= 77.75%

How to Increase the Efficiency of Boiler:- The Efficiency of the Boiler can be improve

by using the below mentioned Technique‟s

1. Condensate Recovery System

2. Economizer

3. Pre-Heater

4. Coal Intensifier

5. Good Maintenance Practices

6. Minimizing of Losses

➢ Dry Flue Gas Loss

➢ Fuel Moisture Loss

➢ Blow Down Losses

1. Condensate Recovery System: It is an attractive method of improving your Boiler plant‟s energy
efficiency by Collecting the Heat and Condensate Recovery from Steam Traps and return to the boiler.
Condensate steam traps will be located within the Plant, inside Process Units as well as in
interconnecting Pipe lines to provide opportunities for recovering sensible heat as well as de-
mineralized grade Boiler make-up water. Recovery schemes can be engineered in-house. Pumping of
flashed steam condensate can be achieved through commercially available steam pressured pumps,
which offer energy benefits as compared with motor driven pumps

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 Returning hot condensate to the boiler makes sense for several reasons. As more condensate is
returned, less make-up water is required, saving fuel, makeup water, and chemicals and treatment
costs. Less condensate discharged into a sewer system reduces disposal costs. Return of high purity
condensate also reduces energy losses due to boiler blow down. Significant fuel savings occur as most
returned condensate is relatively hot, reducing the amount of cold makeup water that must be heated
A simple calculation indicates that energy in the condensate can be more than 10% of the total steam
energy content of a typical system. The heat remaining in the condensate at various condensate
temperatures, for a steam system operating, with makeup water

hc= enthalpy of condensate at 180°F = 150 Btu/lb

hm= enthalpy of makeup water at 90°F = 60 Btu/lb hs= enthalpy of
Let:
steam at 10 Kg/Cm2 = 665 Btu/lb
Heat remaining in condensate (%): = (hc – hm)/ (hs – hm) x 100
= (150 – 60)/ (665 – 60) x 100
= 14.87%

Quantity of Make-up water through condensate Recovery System = 9000 Liters Annual Water,
Sewage savings
= (Rate of Makeup Water/Liter x Quantity of Makeup Water + Rate of Effluent treatment/Liter x
Quantity of Makeup water) x Boiler Running Days/year
= (0.08 X 9000 + 1.98 X 9000) x 355
= Rs 65, 81,700.

Figure 13: Condensate Recovery System

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2. Economizer: A feed water economizer reduces steam boiler fuel requirements by transferring heat from

the flue gas to incoming feed water. Boiler flue gases are often rejected to the stack at temperatures more

than 200°F to 160°F higher than the temperature of the generated steam. Generally, boiler efficiency can

be increased by 1% for every 6°C reduction in flue gas temperature. By recovering waste heat, an

economizer can often reduce fuel requirements by 5% to 10% and pay for itself in less than 2 years. The

waste heat in the flue gas was recovered by installing an economizer, which transfers waste heat from

the flue gases to the boiler feed water. This resulted in a rise in feed water temperature by about 26ºC

3. Pre-Heater: The Air Pre-Heater reduces steam boiler fuel requirements by sending the Hot air to the

Furnace which leads to completely burning of fuel and stabilize the temperature. The air heater design

using either rotating heat transfer surface or rotating air distribution hoods predominates for utility air

heating applications. The air heater arrangement may consist of one, two, three, or four air heaters,

depending on the size of the unit and the degree of fuel flexibility desired

Figure 14: Economizer and Pre-Heater System

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 Quantity of fuel gases = Fuel supply rate x Flue gas quantity Quantity

of recovered heat in the flue gases

= Quantity of fuel gases x Cp x (Tf-Ta)

Where,

Average quantity of steam generated : 6000

Average flue gas temperature : 2000C
Average steam generation/kg of fuel : 4.87 kg
Feed water inlet temperature : 90ºC
Fuel supply rate : 20.5 kg/hr

Flue gas quantity : 10.38 kg/kg of fuel

Annual Operating Hours : 8520 hr

Quantity of fuel gases = 20.5 x 10.38

= 212.79 kg/hr.

Quantity of recovered heat in the flue gases

=Quantity of fuel gases x Cp x (Tf -Ta)

= 212.79 x 0.23 x (200-30)

= 212.79 x 0.23 x 170

= 8320.08 kCal/hr.

Annual savings = 8520 x 30

= Rs 255600

4. Coal Intensifier: Coal Intensifier is used for burning of Coal completely. The Coal Intensifier is added

with the fuel while entering into the bunker for burning of fuel up to 99%. By adding the Intensifier the

black smoke will also be controlled. By using the Intensifier the Fuel can be saved up to 1%

Quantity of fuel saved by hr = Rs 12

Annual Savings = 8520 x 12

= Rs 102240.

30
5. Good Maintenance Practices: The Maintenance of the Boiler play very keen role on the efficiency.

I. Steam Traps: By maintaining the steam traps we can The key functions of steam traps are

increase the economy of fuel in all steam-use systems and is one of the major efficiency

opportunities which can yield surprising results

➢ Traps that are open, meaning those draining steam and condensate, result in loss of energy and

direct loss of condensate (the purest form of water) and significant economic loss as boiler

operating costs increase.

➢ Traps that are closed, or become blocked, result in reduced heating capacity of steam heating

equipment, and direct loss of production, which is undesirable

II. De-Scaling: Scale formation inside the boiler is an important problem. It leads to several other

problems such as corrosion and pitting, decrease in overall heat transfer efficiency and choking

inside the tubes. All these results in

➢ The Decrease in the efficiency of the boiler

➢ Increased fuel consumption

➢ Decreased steam generation

➢ Risks of boiler accidents and unexpected shutdowns

To avoid the above mentioned activities we are using the de-scaling compound mixed in the feed

water. By doing this we will get the following benefits

➢ Peak heat transfer efficiency is obtained

➢ Minimized fuel consumption through peak heat transfer

➢ Peak steam output

➢ No corrosion or pitting

➢ Reduces coil/tube failures and unscheduled shutdowns

➢ Protective oxide film is formed over bare metal surfaces

➢ Brings down the overall risks of boiler accidents

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 III. Softening of Feed Water : To avoid the unwanted breakdowns of the boiler the chemicals will be

used for the softening of the feed water

➢ Oxygen Scavenger: It removes last traces of the dissolved oxygen from the boiler feed water to

help preventing oxygen pitting inside the Boiler

➢ De-foamer: It helps in reducing the carryover and foaming in Boiler

➢ Scale Inhibitor: It protects from corrosion & pitting inside the boiler and condenser by

decomposing O2 & CO2. It is highly effective anti-scalant that prevents scale formation, which

improves heat transfer efficiency.

➢ pH Booster: It acts as an alkalinity builder and maintains pH 9.0 – 12.0 in the blow down

water.

By using the above mentioned we can get the peak heat transfer efficiency and can reduce the

energy losses.

IV. Thermal Losses: The Thermal losses of the Boiler can be reduced by good maintenance of

Insulation over the pipelines and other accessories of Boiler.

➢ To Reduce Heat Losses

➢ To Provide Weather Proofing

➢ Heat Losses from Un-Insulated surface is given in Table.2

➢ Heat Losses from Insulated surface is given in Table.3

6. Minimizing of Losses: There are several losses on the boiler that can be minimized using the

below mentioned

I. Dry Flue Gas Loss: Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe or

channel for conveying exhaust gases from the Furnace

and are exhausted to the outside air. Flue gases are produced when fuel

is combusted in an industrial furnace. The Flue gas can be utilized by converting the hot flue gas to

the inlet of the Economizer and the Air Pre-Heater to attain Efficiency and to minimize the losses.

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 II. Fuel Moisture Loss: Fuels are constantly exchanging moisture with the surrounding air. During

periods of high humidity and precipitation there is a net gain in fuel moisture. However, when the air

is dry, with low humidity, fuels are giving up more moisture to the air than they receive. Several

factors influence the rate of moisture exchange between fuels and the air. If the moisture content in

the atmosphere remained constant for a period of time, the fuels and the air would eventually achieve

equal vapor pressures. This we call equilibrium moisture content, which occurs when there is no net

gain or loss of moisture between fuels and the surrounding air. This can occur in small, fine fuels, but

rarely occurs in larger fuels, as the time required to reach equilibrium in larger fuels is much longer.

➢ The fuel loss can be minimized by storing the fuel at place where moisture content is low

➢ The latent heat loss due to boiling of water in the fuel can be reduced by using the

condensate recovery system

III. Blow down Losses: Blow down is a necessary task in boiler operation intermittently reducing the

concentration of solids in the boiler. How much blow down is necessary depends on the quality of

the feed water, the use of the life steam, and the quality of the make-up water. In practice we see a

blow down of 0 % to 15 % of feed water. The consequence of too much blow down is increased fuel

consumption. Too little blow down also increases fuel consumption.

➢ By Using the Condensate Recovery water the make up water the blow down can be minimized

as it‟s hardness is almost 0 ppm.

➢ By Using the Softening of Feed Water Techniques also the Blow down can be minimized

33
 Table:1 – Steam Calculation Table
Specific Specific enthalpy of Specific enthalpy of Latent heat of
Absolute Boiling volume Density liquid water steam vaporization Specific
pressure point (steam) (steam) (sensible heat) (total heat) heat
(bar) (oC) (m3/kg) (kg/m3) (kcal/kg) (kcal/kg) (kcal/kg) (kJ/kg)
0.02 17.51 67.006 0.015 17.54 605.15 587.61 1.8644
0.03 24.1 45.667 0.022 24.12 608.02 583.89 1.8694
0.04 28.98 34.802 0.029 29 610.13 581.14 1.8736
0.05 32.9 28.194 0.035 32.91 611.83 578.92 1.8774
0.06 36.18 23.741 0.042 36.19 613.24 577.05 1.8808
0.07 39.02 20.531 0.049 39.02 614.46 575.44 1.884
0.08 41.53 18.105 0.055 41.53 615.53 574.01 1.8871
0.09 43.79 16.204 0.062 43.78 616.49 572.72 1.8899
0.1 45.83 14.675 0.068 45.82 617.36 571.54 1.8927
0.2 60.09 7.65 0.131 60.06 623.35 563.3 1.9156
0.3 69.13 5.229 0.191 69.1 627.07 557.97 1.9343
0.4 75.89 3.993 0.25 75.87 629.81 553.94 1.9506
0.5 81.35 3.24 0.309 81.34 631.98 550.64 1.9654
0.6 85.95 2.732 0.366 85.97 633.79 547.83 1.979
0.7 89.96 2.365 0.423 89.99 635.35 545.36 1.9919
0.8 93.51 2.087 0.479 93.56 636.71 543.15 2.004
0.9 96.71 1.869 0.535 96.78 637.92 541.14 2.0156
1 99.63 1.694 0.59 99.72 639.02 539.3 2.0267
1.1 102.32 1.549 0.645 102.43 640.01 537.59 2.0373
1.2 104.81 1.428 0.7 104.94 640.93 535.99 2.0476
1.3 107.13 1.325 0.755 107.29 641.77 534.49 2.0576
1.4 109.32 1.236 0.809 109.49 642.56 533.07 2.0673
1.5 111.37 1.159 0.863 111.57 643.3 531.73 2.0768
1.5 111.37 1.159 0.863 111.57 643.3 531.73 2.0768
1.6 113.32 1.091 0.916 113.54 643.99 530.45 2.086
1.7 115.17 1.031 0.97 115.42 644.64 529.22 2.095
1.8 116.93 0.977 1.023 117.2 645.25 528.05 2.1037
1.9 118.62 0.929 1.076 118.91 645.83 526.92 2.1124
2 120.23 0.885 1.129 120.55 646.39 525.84 2.1208
2.2 123.27 0.81 1.235 123.63 647.42 523.78 2.1372
2.4 126.09 0.746 1.34 126.5 648.36 521.86 2.1531
2.6 128.73 0.693 1.444 129.19 649.22 520.04 2.1685
2.8 131.2 0.646 1.548 131.71 650.03 518.32 2.1835
3 133.54 0.606 1.651 134.1 650.77 516.68 2.1981
3.5 138.87 0.524 1.908 139.55 652.44 512.89 2.2331
4 143.63 0.462 2.163 144.43 653.87 509.45 2.2664
4.5 147.92 0.414 2.417 148.84 655.13 506.29 2.2983
5 151.85 0.375 2.669 152.89 656.24 503.35 2.3289
5.5 155.47 0.342 2.92 156.64 657.23 500.6 2.3585
6 158.84 0.315 3.17 160.13 658.13 498 2.3873
6.5 161.99 0.292 3.419 163.4 658.94 495.54 2.4152
7 164.96 0.273 3.667 166.49 659.69 493.2 2.4424
7.5 167.76 0.255 3.915 169.41 660.37 490.96 2.469
8 170.42 0.24 4.162 172.19 661 488.8 2.4951
8.5 172.94 0.227 4.409 174.84 661.58 486.73 2.5206
9 175.36 0.215 4.655 177.38 662.11 484.74 2.5456
9.5 177.67 0.204 4.901 179.81 662.61 482.8 2.5702
10 179.88 0.194 5.147 182.14 663.07 480.93 2.5944
11 184.06 0.177 5.638 186.57 663.38 477.35 2.6418
12 187.96 0.163 6.127 190.7 663.67 473.94 2.6878
13 191.6 0.151 6.617 194.58 664.02 470.7 2.7327
14 195.04 0.141 7.106 198.26 664.25 467.6 2.7767
15 198.28 0.132 7.596 201.74 664.52 464.61 2.8197
16 201.37 0.124 8.085 205.06 665.79 461.74 2.862

34
 Table 2: Heat Loss from Un-Insulated Surfaces
Internal Temp in Deg.C Heat Loss in kCal/hr for M2
50 291
100 894
200 3065
300 6690
400 12114

Table 3: Heat Loss from Insulated Surfaces

Temp in Deg.C 25 thk 40 thk 50 thk 65 thk 85 thk 100 thk

50 47 36 -- -- -- --
100 135 95 73 -- -- --
200 338 244 190 150 122 --
300 -- 420 310 255 220 170
400 -- -- 455 370 320 244
2
Note: Thickness in mm and Heat Loss in kCal/hr for M

35
 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In recent years, thermal power plants have been required to attain higher and higher
efficiency due to increasing fuel costs, growing electricity demand and load varying operations.
This has imposed stringent requirements on the control systems of the boiler, particularly to
handle slow responses with high time constants. The subject of boiler optimization is therefore
gaining more attention in the power industry these days. Implicit in the development of optimal
control systems for the boiler is a mathematical description of the static and dynamic behaviour
of the boiler in the form of a mathematical model and a suitable control strategy for optimizing
the boiler operations. In order to address these issues, the thesis offers a comprehensive
(mathematical and Least squares) model for the boiler and appropriate control strategies for
optimizing the most crucial main steam temperature control.

36
 REFERENCES

1. Frederick M. Steingress (2001). Low Pressure Boilers (4th ed.). American Technical
Publishers. ISBN 0-8269-4417-5.
2. Frederick M. Steingress, Harold J. Frost and Darryl R. Walker (2003). High Pressure Boilers
(3rd ed.). American Technical Publishers. ISBN 0-8269-4300-4.
3. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, PG-5.5, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (2010)
4. BS EN 14222: "Stainless steel shell boilers"
5. "Steam Generation in Canneries". U.S. Food & Drug Administration. Retrieved 25 March
2018.
6. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspection According to ASME
7. The Locomotive, by Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company, Published by
Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Co., 1911, Item notes: n.s.:v.28 (1910–11),
Original from Harvard University, Digitized December 11, 2007 by Google Books, Link to
digitized document: an article on a massive Pabst Brewing Company boiler explosion in 1909
that destroyed a building, and blew parts onto the roof of nearby buildings. This document also
contains a list of day-by-day boiler accidents and accident summaries by year, and discussions
of boiler damage claims.
8. Dan Holohan."What you should know about Hartford Loops".
9. "The Hartford Loop on Steam Boilers".
10. Bell, A.M. (1952) Locomotives 1 p 46. Virtue and Company Ltd, London
11. Bell (1952: 1 35)

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