1.

Characteristics of a Living Organism

A living should have the following characteristics:

 Growth and development. Organisms grow and develop as a result of genes

providing specific instructions that will direct cellular growth and development.
 Metabolic processes. It should require the transfer and transformation of energy
and matter.
 Order. An organism should have a successive order of biological organization.
 Information. An organism has a mechanism that involves the expression and
transmission of genetic information.
 Interactions. An organism should have interaction with other organisms and its
physical environment.
 Maintain homeostasis. An organism has a feedback regulation that regulates its
every process.
2. Theories on the Origin of Life on Earth

a. Divine Creation theory (also called Special Creation theory). It states that a
Supreme Being, called God, created the first living things.
b. Spontaneous Generation theory. It states that life spontaneously came from
nonliving materials.
c. Physico-chemical evolution theory (demonstrated by Miller-Urey experiment).
Illustrates the conditions on primitive Earth that led to the formation of simple
molecules which, in turn, led to the formation of life forms.
d. Cosmozoic theory. This theory states that a meteorite carries all the original
building blocks for life on Earth.
3. Scientific Method

The method starts with careful observations. Recorded observations are used to
form questions. Hypotheses are formed to answer these questions- tentative explanations
based on observations. Hypotheses must lead to many predictions that can be tested by
additional observations or by performing experiments. Experiments are carried out to test
the predictions and results are taken from experimentation. These results are used to
judge if the hypothesis is accepted (the result agrees to the prediction) or not (the result is
 different from predictions). If the hypothesis is not accepted, the method tries another
hypothesis and repeats the process. If the hypothesis is accepted, it will conclude its
result.

4. Elements of Cell Theory

The Cell Theory states that:

a. Every living creature is composed of cells.

b. The fundamental unit of every living organism is the cell.
c. The cells came from pre-existing cells.
5. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

a. Both Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are types of cells. Eukaryotic cells evolved from
prokaryotic cells that is why both contain plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA,
and ribosomes. However prokaryotic cell differs from eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells are single-celled organism that does not have any membrane-
bound compartment that contains the genetic material and also do not contain
membrane-bound internal structures. In terms of size, prokaryotic cells are
smaller than eukaryotic cells. Meanwhile, eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and
other internal structures (organelles) with specialized functions.
Cell Structure Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
Nuclear membrane Absent Present
Membrane-bound organelles Absent Present
Nucleolus Absent Present
Nucleus Absent Present
Chloroplast Absent Present to plant cells
Mitochondria Absent Present
Peroxisomes Absent Present
Vesicles and vacuoles Absent Present
Centrosome Absent Present to animal cells
Lysosome Absent Present
Endoplasmic reticulum Absent Present
Golgi complex Absent Present
Cytoskeleton Present Present
Flagella Present to some Present to some
Cilia Present to some Present to some animal cells
Chromosomes Present; single circular Present; multiple double helix
Ribosomes Present; small Present; large
Cytoplasm Present Present
Plasma membrane Present Present

6. Plasma Membrane

Figure 1. The fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.

a. The plasma membrane that surrounds the cells is semi-permeable- it only allows
specific materials to enter the cell. It is made up of several phospholipids,
cholesterol and proteins, and carbohydrates. The phospholipid bilayer is the
primary component of the plasma membrane which has both hydrophilic heads
(drawn as brown circles) and hydrophobic tails (the yellow tails attached to the
head). The cholesterols are attached to maintain the fluidity of the plasma
membrane. There is also a variety of proteins along with the phospholipid bilayer.
Receptor protein and transport protein helps with the transport of molecules.
Meanwhile, glycoproteins are attached to lipids to form glycolipids that help with
cell-to-cell communication and cell transport mechanisms. Carbohydrates are
only present outside of the cell’s membrane structure and are attached to the
glycoprotein or glycolipids. They allow cells to recognize each other.
b. Importance of Plasma Membrane

i. It protects the cell from its environment.

 ii. It outlines the borders of the cell.
iii. It controls the materials that are taken and/or excreted by the cell.
iv. It allows the cell to change shape as it passes through narrow capillaries.
v. Plasma membrane carries markers that allow cells to recognize one
another.
vi. The plasma membrane can transmit signals. It acts as extracellular input
receivers and as intracellular processing activators.
c. Structural modification of the plasma membrane
As most multicellular organisms release materials to their environment,
these cells are equipped with receptors to detect those surface materials. Plasma
membranes are equipped with protein receptors that bind with outside molecules
to the receptor. The receptor can change the formation of microfilaments inside
the plasma membrane to signal changes in the cell’s activities. This phenomenon
is only derived from complex cells like animal cells. Cells can also communicate
through direct contact or intercellular junction like the plant cell. In-plant cells, it
is facilitated through plasmodesmata. Plasmodesmata are where adjacent plant
cell’s cell walls connect their cytoplasm and enable the transport of materials
from one cell to another cell. In animal cells, it is also apparent in tight junction,
gap junction, and desmosomes. Tight junctions form watertight connections
among neighboring animal cells. Gap junction is like equipping the plasma
membrane with donut-like pathways connected to other cells’ donut-like
pathways built in their plasma membrane to allow the channel of molecules.
Some proteins within the plasma layer connect to halfway fibers to form
desmosomes. They interface two adjoining cells and keep up the cells in a sheet-
like formation in organs and tissues that extend, just like the skin, heart, and
muscles.
d. Transport Mechanisms

i. Passive transport of materials into and out of the cells is the diffusion
(movement of molecules from high concentration to low) across the
membrane with no energy investment in the process. These are:
1. Diffusion
 2. Facilitated transport
a. Channel protein transport
b. Carrier protein transport
c. Gated channel transport
3. Osmosis
a. Hypotonic solutions
b. Hypertonic solutions
c. Isotonic solutions

ii. Active transport of materials into and out of the cells is the mechanism
that requires the cell’s energy (that moves molecules from lower
concentration to high).These are:
1. Primary active transport
2. Secondary active transport
3. Bulk transport
a. Endocytosis
i. Phagocytosis
ii. Pinocytosis
iii. Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
b. Exocytosis
e. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
i. Similarities of Endocytosis and Exocytosis:
1. Both are bulk transports of materials across plasma membrane.
2. A kind of transport mechanisms in the cell that requires energy.
ii. Differences of Endocytosis and Exocytosis:
1. In endocytosis, molecules enter cells within vesicles that pinch
inward from plasma membrane.
2. In exocytosis, transport vesicles migrate to plasma membranse,
fuse with it, and release their contents outside the cell.
7. Cell Division
 a. The cell cycle is an ordered series of events that takes place from the time
eukaryotic cells grow to the time resulting in two new daughter cells.
b. The major phases of cells:
i. Interphase, the longest stage of cell cycle composed of three stages:
1. G1, the cells grow.
2. S-phase, time for DNA replication
3. G2, the cell prepares to divide.
ii. M phase is the mitotic phase where the cell replicates its DNA and
cytoplasm divide to make daughter cells.
c. Cell cycle checkpoints are stages where the cell examines internal and external
cues and decide whether to continue the cell division or halt it. There are three
checkpoints:
i. G1 checkpoint
ii. G2 checkpoint
iii. M or Spindle checkpoint
8. Concept of Central Dogma
In the cell, DNA is zipped open to transcribe or rewrite its coded pattern
and produce RNA. We call this process, transcription. Thus, this RNA carries the
genetic pattern from the DNA to the protein-synthesizing machinery (ribosome)
of the cell and is popularly called the messenger RNA or mRNA. Translation
happens when this mRNA is translated to its nucleotide pair sequence producing a
new RNA often called the transfer or tRNA. To ensure the correct alignment of
mRNA, mRNA will attach to ribosomal RNA or rRNA. Transfer RNA or tRNA
is the base pairs of nucleotides of mRNA that are translated into the ribosome. As
the pattern grows, it forms a peptide chain-forming protein. In the process, DNA
is copied to form mRNA, mRNA is used to create tRNA to make peptide chains
to proteins.
9. Mitosis and Meiosis

a. Both meiosis and mitosis are the processes of cell division that result in new
daughter cells. In other words, there is one parent cell where it would undergo the
same process of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase of the cycle.
 However, mitosis produces two new daughter cells while meiosis produces four
new daughter cells and is different from their properties.
Property Mitosis Meiosis
DNA replication Occurs during interphase, Occurs during interphase
before mitosis begins before meiosis I but not
before meiosis II
Number of divisions One, including prophase, Two, each including
metaphase, anaphase, and prophase, metaphase,
telophase anaphase, and telophase
Synapsis of homologous Does not occur Occurs during prophase I
chromosomes
Number of daughter cells Two, each identical to the Four, each haploid different
parent cell with same number from the parent cell and from
of chromosomes each other
Roles For growth and development, To produce gametes and
and repair offspring

b. The crossing over is the result of an independent assortment of chromosomes

during meiosis where the new cell acquires new gametes different but inherited
from the parent cell. Through crossing over, random fertilization occurs that adds
to the genetic variation arising from meiosis and had resulted in the species’
evolution. In such a case, each of the offspring/children the species/we produce
are individually unique.
10. Reproduction
a. Similar characteristics of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction:
i. Both are types of reproduction
ii. Both are initiated with parent organism
iii. It involves the process of cell division
iv. The result is to produce new offspring
b. Differences of Sexual Reproduction and Asexual Reproduction
i. Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring by fusion of haploid
gametes, ovum and sperm, produced by two sexually compatible
 organisms while asexual reproduction results in the generation of
offspring that are genetically similar to the parental organisms.
ii. Sexual reproduction is evident in more complex organisms while asexual
is seen in lower organisms.
iii. Sexual reproduction is facilitated by two parents while asexual
reproduction only includes one parents.
iv. Sexual reproduction results to genetic variation while asexual reproduction
has no genetic variation.
v. Sexual reproduction produces offspring slowly while asexual produces
offspring fast.
11. Pattern of Inheritance
a. Complete Dominance: refers to the complete dominance to physical appearance
of heterozygous condition where one allele in a pair is physically evident and the
other pair allele is hidden. The phenotype of the heterozygote and the dominant
homozygote are indistinguishable. Example:
i. In Mendel’s classic pea crosses, the offspring from a cross of dominant
yellow pea and recessive green pea will always appear either a yellow pea
or green pea.
b. Incomplete Dominance: refers to some genes where neither allele is completely
dominant and the phenotype is the combination of the two allele. Example:
i. The red flowered gumamela and the white flowered gumamela produced a
pink flowered gumamela.
c. Co-dominance: refers to when each alleles affect the phenotype of the offspring in
distinguishable, separate ways. Example:
i. When you mate a black skinned bull and a white skinned cow and you got
a dotted calf, we ended up concluding that the genotypes of all offspring
are heterozygous as both skin characteristics of their parent are present in
their phenotype.
12. Representative Groups of Organisms

Representative groups Feature

Virus Acellular; requires host to reproduce
 Bacteria Prokaryotes with cell wall and live with
other organisms
Archaea Prokaryotes with no cell wall and live-in
extreme environment
Fungi Organisms with cell walls made of chitin
Protists Eukaryotic marine and photosynthetic
organisms
Bryophytes Nonflowering plants with no vascular
tissues
Pteridophytes Vascular plants but have no flower or seeds
Gymnosperms Seed producing plants not enclosed in ovary
Angiosperms Seed producing plant enclosed in ovary
Primitive invertebrates Animals with no backbones
Nematode Rounded body pointed at both ends
Annelids Cylindrical bodies segmented both
internally and externally
Mollusks Soft invertebrates enclosed in a shell
Arthropods Invertebrate having jointed limbs with an
exoskeleton made of chitin
Echinoderms Marine invertebrates with tube feet radially
symmetrical bodies
Invertebrate Chordates Invertebrate having a notochord or spinal
column
Vertebrates Animals with back bone

13. Evolution
a. Evolution is the process of continuous change in a population of specie over the
course of time.
b. Sources
i. fossil records
ii. comparative anatomical studies (based on homology of structures)
iii. comparative biochemical studies
iv. comparative embryological studies
v. records of geographical distribution of diverse species
14. Biodiversity
a. It is the number of species present and/concentrated within the given area.
 b. Threats
i. Loss of habitat
ii. Overharvesting
iii. Exotic species
iv. Climate change
v. Exploitative human behaviors
c. A biodiversity hotspot is an area with numerous endemic species that can be
found, along with a large number of endangered and threatened species
d. The Sierra Madre Biodiversity Corridor, Eastern Mindanao Corridor, and
Palawan Corridor are famously recognized as biodiversity hotspots in the country.
The Palawan Corridor is also a biodiversity hotspot for both terrestrial and marine
species located in Palawan. Meanwhile, the Eastern part of Mindanao that extends
to the Siargao Islands is also considered a biodiversity hotspot.
e. Conserving biodiversity in the Philippines.
i. Plant more trees.
ii. Reuse, reduce, and recycle our waste products.
iii. Build corridors that connect habitats separated by highways.
iv. Plant local flowers, fruits, and vegetables within the vicinity of our home.
v. Avoid illegal logging, mining, and fishing.
vi. Have nature reserves every region.
vii. Have a sustainable and responsible mining
viii. Establish law that prohibits selling of animals or species of endangered
and threated wildlife.
ix. Establishment of zoos.
x. Educate the Filipinos about the importance of biodiversity and the
consequences of its loss.
xi. Assign officials that are dedicated to safeguard, and conserve the
biodiversity in the Philippines.

15. Pedigree
a. A pedigree is a diagram created from collecting data about a family’s history for
specific characteristics and assemble this data into a family tree portraying the
traits of persons over generations.
b.
i. 3
ii. 2
iii. 5
iv. Heterozygous, having a genotype of Tt.
v. II,2 base on the lines from the parents, the first born is on the left
vi. Tt
vii. 4
viii. 2
ix. Autosomal dominant
x.
Reference of the figure:

Urry, Cain, Waaserman, Minorsky, & Orr. (2021). Campbell Biology. Hoboken: Pearson.