The document discusses the basic unit of life - the cell. It describes the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and between plant and animal cells. The basic components of cells are also outlined, including the plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles. In particular, it focuses on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum.
The document discusses the basic unit of life - the cell. It describes the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and between plant and animal cells. The basic components of cells are also outlined, including the plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles. In particular, it focuses on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum.
The document discusses the basic unit of life - the cell. It describes the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and between plant and animal cells. The basic components of cells are also outlined, including the plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles. In particular, it focuses on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum.
The document discusses the basic unit of life - the cell. It describes the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and between plant and animal cells. The basic components of cells are also outlined, including the plasma membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles. In particular, it focuses on the structure and functions of the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum.
Surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Cell wall absent. Single large vacuole Large number of smaller vacuoles Larger in size. Smaller in size. Plastids present. Plastids absent. Centrioles are absent Centrioles are present. Cilia absent. Cilia present. Lysosomes are very rare Animal cells have lysosomes. Nucleus is peripheral Nucleus is central Regular shape Irregular shape Autotrophic (Food producers) Heterotrophic (Food consumers)
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
Cell structure
Cells are the smallest units of life. They are a closed system, can self-replicate, and are the building blocks of our bodies. A cell consists of two major regions, the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Organelles are small structures within the cytoplasm that carry out functions necessary to maintain homeostasis in the cell. They are involved in many processes, for example energy production, building proteins and secretions, destroying toxins, and responding to external signals. Organelles are considered either membranous or non-membranous.
The plasma membrane surrounds the cell to create a barrier between the cytosol and the extracellular matrix. Characteristics: Thin Delicate & elastic Semi-permeable Living and capable of limited self-repairing
The structure of the membrane resembles a fluid mosaic made up of;
Phospholipids Cholesterol Membrane proteins
Phospholipid molecules, the main structural components of the membrane, form an amphipathic bilayer. The inner surface of each layer is made up of lipid chains and thus is hydrophobic. The outer surface of each layer is made up of the polar heads of the phospholipids and is hydrophilic. Proteins associated with the plasma membrane are either:
Peripheral membrane proteins: interact closely with the membrane through ionic interactions Integral membrane proteins: embedded within or pass through the lipid bilayer. There are six broad categories: Pumps - transport ions, sugars, and amino acids across membranes
Channels - allow small ions and molecules to pass freely in and out of the cell
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
Receptors - recognise and bind with ligands
Linkers - anchor the cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix
Enzymes - have many roles, for example ATPases participate in ion pumping
Structural proteins - form junctions with neighboring cells
Functions
i. Mechanical support: provide support to cytoplasm
ii. External form: provide shape and external form to cell iii. Transportation: selectively permeable and help in transport of materials iv. Regulation of materials: lipid soluble substances can cross more easily. Many small gas molecules, water and glucose etc. being neutral can easily cross. Ions, being charged particles have some difficulty in crossing. v. Active transport: many substances which are not needed enter the cell by passive transport. These are then pushed out by active transport. The energy for this transport is provided by ATP. vi. Endocytosis: engulfing of food or other materials by enfoldings in the form of vacuoles. Phagocytosis (ingestion of solid material), Pinocytosis (engulfing if liquid materials) vii. Conduction: in neuron, cell membrane helps in transmit of nerve impulse form one part to another part of body to keep co-ordination. viii. Act as receptor: cell membrane is a good receptor
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
2. Cell wall Outermost boundary of plant cell but absent in animals.
Characteristics: Rigid and hard Non-elastic Permeable (allows all molecules to pass) Non-living and incapable of limited self-repairing
i. Primary cell wall: Cellulose molecules are arranged in a crisscross arrangement.
Some amount of pectin also present. ii. Middle Lamella: cemented in between cells of primary wall. iii. Secondary cell wall: thick and hard as compared to primary wall. Chemically composed of: Inorganic salts Silica Waxes Lignin Cutin etc.
Functions
Provide definite shape to the cell
Makes cell rigid Turgidity Transportation Mechanical support
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
Protection to inner parts of cell
3. Protoplasm Inner to the cell membrane, fluid part of the cell divided in two parts:
Cytoplasm Nucleoplasm (Outer to nucleus) (Inner to nucleus) Composed of three parts: i. Cytosol: 90% water ii. Fundamental molecules: Some are in ionic form Small molecules for true solution Large molecules form colloidal solution which may be sol or gel. iii. Organelles:
Functions
Most vital to life of cell organelles
Metabolic process such as glycolysis (first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism) Storage of organelles
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
4. Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membranes, which is continuous with plasma membrane at one end and also appears to be in contact with the nuclear envelope.
Structure
ER is visible under microscope having network of channels extending throughout cytoplasm.
Channels are filled with material which is separated from the cytoplasmic material by spherical or tubular membrane called cisternae.
Types:
i. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (sER):
Ribosomes are absent on outer surface of membrane, giving smooth appearance.
Helps in metabolism of different molecules particularly lipids.
Helps to detoxify harmful drugs in liver cells
(Detoxification occurs through enzymes associated with the sER membrane and usually involves adding hydroxyl groups to molecules. The presence of hydroxyl groups makes the molecules more water soluble and therefore able to be flushed from the body through the urinary tract)
Responsible for transmission of impulses (nerve cells and muscle cells)
Transport of different materials from one part to other part of the cell
sER in cells of the endocrine system mainly produce steroid hormones.
ii. Rough endoplasmic reticulum(rER):
Ribosomes are attached on outer surface of membrane, making it rough.
Involved in protein synthesis. After, synthesis, the proteins are stored in cytoplasm or exported out of the cell through these channels.
Golgi apparatus in a membrane bound vesicle formed from budding of the rER membrane.
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
5. Mitochondria Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles. Also called power house of cell as they are involved in synthesis and supply of energy. Their size and number depend upon the activity of cell. Structure It is bounded by two membranes. Outer membrane is smooth. Inner membrane forms infoldings into the inner chamber called cristae. The inner surface of cristae has small knob like structures known as F1 particles. Space of inner chamber called matrix. Mitochondrial matrix have: Free ribosomes Mitochondrial DNA Enzymes & Co-enzymes Organic & Inorganic alts Mitochondrial DNA is unique in that it is entirely maternally inherited. Functions Protein synthesis F1 particles: are also known as oxysomes or elementary particles. They are responsible for ATP synthesis and oxidation.
6. Golgi Apparatus (Golgi complex or Golgi bodies)
In plants, also called Dictyosomes. It was discovered by Golgi in 1898. These are produced by budding of rER and are gathered around cisternae.
Structure
Golgi apparatus appears as a series of flattened, membranous sacs called cisternae.
Golgi apparatus has a directional structure. The cis-face (forming face) is located near the rER and receives vesicles. The trans-face (maturing face) is on the opposite side of the organelle and releases vesicles through budding of the plasma membrane
Functions
Cell secretions: Proteins or other products received from ER are further modified, packaged, and sent off to their final destinations in the cell or body. For example, pancreas secrets granules containing enzymes that help in digestion. The Golgi complex has a role of information of these granules
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
Transport outside the cell: Proteins or enzymes, which have to be transported out of the cell, pass through GA.
Modification in molecules: GA is a warehouse or post office for newly formed proteins. It
modify proteins and lipids into glycoproteins and glycolipids respectively by adding carbohydrates.
7. Ribosmes Tiny granular structures preset either free in cytosol or associated with rER. Also called Ribonucleoprotein particles. Palade discovered them in 1995.
Structure Composed of almost equal amount of protein and RNA (Ribonucleic acid). Each ribosome consist of two subunits: Larger subunits 60S (Svedberg unit which specifies sedimentation rate) Smaller subunits 40S
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
When ribosomes get attached with the same stretch of mRNA, they form a structure called ‘Polysome’
Function Ribosomes are involved in the synthesis of protein.
8. Lysosomes Lyso……..splitting Soma…… body
Structure They are bound by a single membrane and are simple sacs rich in acid phosphates and several hydrolytic enzymes. These enzymes are synthesized on RNA, processed in Golgi apparatus and finally budded off as Golgi vesicles, called primary lysosomes. Functions Phagocytosis: to engulf and digest any foreign particle. Single-celled organisms, such as amoebas, use lysosomes to digest food products. This process is referred to as phagocytosis. Phagocytosis occurs in human cells as well, however in humans this process is used in defense to destroy invaders and bacteria. Autophagy: (self-eating) Lysosomes are also used to recycle the cell’s own materials. This processes is referred to as autophagy. Damaged organelles (Mitochondria) that are broken
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
down in the lysosome and its organic monomers are returned to the cell cytosol for reuse. In this way the cell is constantly renewing itself. Extracellular digestion: Lysosome also release enzyme for extra cellular digestion. Degeneration: Lysosome enzymes can also result in degeneration of cell, as may occur during some developmental process.
9. Centrioles Animal cell and the cells of some micro-organisms and lower plants (Fungi, Algae) contain two centrioles located near the exterior surface of the nucleus and absent in higher plants. They are usually placed at right angle to each other. Structure: Each centriole consist of a cylindrical array of 9 microtubules. Each of the 9 microtubules is further composed of three tubules. Function: Centrioles help in the formation of: Basal bodies: used as building blocks for flagella and cilia. Mitotic spindles: help in cell division and are involved in the separation of chromosomes
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
10. Plastids
Plastids are large, membrane-bound organelles which contain pigments. Based on the type of pigments, plastids are of three types:
i. Chloroplast ii. Chromoplast iii. Leucoplast
i. Chloroplast: They are self-replicating organelle. Green colored plastids are called chloroplast. Green color is due to presence of a pigment called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll resembles haem group of hemoglobin while having Mg+2 ion. Structure It shows three components: i. Envelope: formed by double membrane. ii. Stroma: covers most of the volume of chloroplast. It is a fluid which surrounds thylakoids. It contains proteins, some ribosomes and a small circular DNA. In it CO2 is fixed to carbohydrate during photosynthesis. iii. Thylakoids: are the flattened vesicles which are arranged themselves to form “grana”. At the membrane of granum, sunlight is trapped and ATP is formed.
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
Function: specific for photosynthesis process.
6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight C6H12O6 + 6O2
ii. Chromoplast: They are present in petals of flowers and in the ripened fruits. The chromoplasts include fat- soluble, carotenoid pigments like xanthophylls, carotene, etc. which provide the plants with their characteristic color – yellow, orange, red, etc.
Function: impart colors to plant other than green help in pollination and dispersal of seeds iii. Leucoplast These are colorless plastids. These are triangular, tubular or some other shape. These are found in underground parts of plants and help in storage of food. Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (like starch in potatoes), aleuroplasts store proteins, and elaioplasts store oils and fats.
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
11. Nucleus
The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle found in all eukaryotic cells. It is the largest organelle, which functions as the control centre of the cellular activities and is the storehouse of the cell’s DNA. First time discovered in 1831 by Robert Brown. By structure, the nucleus composed of:
Nuclear membrane: acts as nuclear envelope and composed of two membranes. Outer membrane separates the nucleus from cytoplasm and is continuous with ER. While inner membrane encloses the nuclear contents. Outer and inner membrane are continuous at several points, giving rise to nuclear pores. They allow exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm: soluble sap present inside the nuclear membrane. DNA, RNA and proteins including enzymes are present in nucleoplasm.
Nucleolus: darkly stained body within nucleus and is without any membranous boundary. It is composed of precursors of ribosomal subunits, RNA and DNA. It is involved in the synthesis and storage of ribosomal RNA.
………………………………………………………………..Dr. Waheed Mushtaq
Biological Sciences (The basis of life)
Chromosome: During cell division, chromatin material is converted into darkly stained thread like structures known as chromosomes. Each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids which are held together at centromere. Centromere is the place on the chromosome where spindle fibers are attached during cell division. A chromosome is composed of DNA and protein. In man, each cell contains 46 chromosomes.
