Revision Notes

CHAPTER – 5
The Fundamental Unit of Life
1. All the living organisms are made up of fundamental unit of life called “ cell”.
2. The cell is a Latin word for “a little room”.
3. The scientist Robert Hooke saw a little room in the cork (the bark of a tree) resembled
the structure of a honeycomb. The use of the word “Cell” to describe these units is used
till this day in Biology as” Cell Biology”.

4. The Compound Microscope consist eye piece, objective lens and condenser to
observe a cell after putting a drop of Safrannin (for plant cell) and methylene blue (for
animal cell).
5. The scientist Leeuwenhoek saw free living cells in the pond water for the first time.
(father of microbiology)

6. The scientist Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in the cell.

7. The cell theory states that all the plants and animals are composed of cells, it
was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann.
8. The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow by suggesting that “all cells arise
from the pre-existing cells”.
9. The cells differ in size, shape, structure (Please refer to Fig. 5.2/5.3: Onion peel/Various
cells in Human body, NCERT Book Page-57/58): Types of cells: Onion cells, Smooth
muscle cell, Blood cells, Bone cell, Fat cell, Nerve cell, Ovum, Sperm etc. Each kind
of cell performs specific function.
10. A single cell may constitute a whole organism as in Amoeba, Chlamydomonas,
Paramecium and Bacteria; these are called as unicellular organisms. Whereas in
multi-cellular organisms (Human beings) division of labor is seen.
11. The feature in almost every cell is same: Plasma membrane, nucleus and
cytoplasm.
12. Plasma membrane: It is the outermost covering of the cell.
 It is called as selective permeable membrane (because it prevents movement of
some materials).
 It helps in diffusion and osmosis
 Diffusion: movement of substance from high concentration to low concentration.
Eg; exchange of carbon dioxide or oxygen with external environment.

Osmosis: it is the passage of water from the region of high water concentration to a
region of low water concentration through a selective permeable membrane.

a) The cell gains water, if the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water
concentration (Hypotonic solution) than the cell.
b) The cell maintains the same water concentration as the cell (Isotonic solution), water
crosses the cell membrane in both directions.
c) The cell loses water, if the medium has lower water concentration (Hypertonic
solution) than the cell.
Note – The cell drinking is endosmosis;
omission of water is called ex-osmosis.

13. The cell engulfs food is called endocytosis and ejects solid is called exocytosis.
Amoeba acquires food through endocytosis and excretion of solid is called exocytosis.
14. The cell wall is a rigid outer covering composed of cellulose. It provides structural
strength to plant cells. When a living cell loses water, there is shrinkage of contents of a
cell away from the cell wall. This phenomenon is called as plasmolysis. The cell walls
permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute (Hypotonic)
external media without bursting.
15. The Nucleus: It is a dark colored, spherical or oval, dot-like structure near the center
of a cell called Nucleus. The nucleus plays a central role in cellular
activities/reproduction. The chromatin material gets organized into chromosomes. The
chromosomes containinformation for inheritance of features from parents to next
generations in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid ) and protein molecules. The
functional segments of DNA are called genes.
16. In some organisms like Bacteria nucleus is not covered by nuclear membrane. Hence
it is called as prokaryote. (Pro= primitive; karyote = karyon = nucleus.) The organisms
with cells having a nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
17. Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Size: generally small (1-10 µm) Size: generally large. (5-500 µm)

Nuclear region: Not well defined and not Nuclear region: Well defined and
surrounded by a nuclear membrane & surrounded by a nuclear
known as nucleoids. membrane

Chromosome: More than one

Chromosome: Single
Chromosome

Membrane-bound cell
Membrane-bound cell organellesAbsent
organellespresent

Eg fungi, plant cell and animal

Eg- bacteria, blue green algae
cell.
18. Cell organelles: Every cell has fluid matrix (other than nucleus) is called cytoplasm.
The nucleus and cytoplasm is together called as protoplasm. The protoplasm term was
coined by Purkinje. It has important cell organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi
apparatus, Lysosomes, Mitochondria, Plastids, and vacuoles.
19. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): It is a large network of membrane –bound tubules
and vesicles.
 There are two types of Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) (It looks rough because Ribosome’s are
attached to its surface. They are the sites of protein synthesis).
  Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) (It looks smooth because Ribosome’s are
not attached to its surface. They are the sites of fat molecules synthesis).
1. SER; help in the functioning of enzymes and hormones to carryout biochemical
activities.

2. SER detoxifies many poisons and drugs from the cell.

3. ER serves as channel for the transport of material between various regions of the
cytoplasm and the nucleus.

4. Proteins and fat molecules produced by ER helps in membrane biogenesis.

21. Lysosomes: They contain membrane-bound sacs with powerful digestive enzymes
(enzymes are made by RER) to digest the worn-out cell organelles. When the cell gets
damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell, hence called as
“Suicidal bags of a cell”. It is a waste disposal system of the cell.
22. Mitochondria: It is covered by a double membrane. Outer membrane is very porous
and the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds create a large surface area for
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecule synthesis. ATP is the energy currency of a cell;
hence the Mitochondria are called as Power House of a Cell. Mitochondria have their
own DNA and Ribosome’s; therefore they can make their own proteins.
23. Plastids: They are present only in plant cells. They are of two types.
1. Chromoplasts (Colored Plastids: Chloroplasts – Green pigmented and useful in
Photosynthesis and also contains various other pigments like yellow or orange)
2. Leucoplasts (White or colorless plastids; stores materials such as oils, proteins, fats
etc. ) Plastids are also covered by a double membrane. The matrix is called Stroma, seat
for enzymatic actions. Plastids have their own DNA and Ribosome’s; therefore they can
make their own proteins.
24. Vacuoles: Storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. They are small in size in animals
while plants have large, may occupy 50-90 % of the cell volume. Helps to provide
turgidity and rigidity to the cell. Many substances like amino acids, sugars, organi acids
and proteins are stored in vacuoles. In Amoeba food vacuole is specialized to play an
important role.
Differences between Plant cell and Animal Cell
ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

Cell wall absent Cell wall present

Plasma membrane is the outer layer Cell wall is the outer layer which
which provides turgidity to the cell gives rigidity and turgidity to the cell
 Vacuoles are small in size Vacuoles are big in size

Plastids are absent Plastids are present

Nucleus lies in the centre. Nucleus lies on one side

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 6
Tissue
1. Tissue is a group of cells having similar origin, structure & function. Study of tissues is
called Histology
2. In unicellular organism (Amoeba), single cell performs all basic functions, whereas in
multi-cellular organisms (Plants and Animals) shows division of labour as Plant tissue &
Animal tissues.

3. Plant tissues are two types: Meristems & Permanent tissues.

4. Meristems: The Meristems are the tissues having the power of cell division. It is found
on those region of the plant which grows.
Types of Meristems;
1. The Apical meristems – It is present at the growing tip of the stem and roots and
increases the length.
2. The lateral meristems – present at the lateral side of stem anf root (cambium) and
increases the girth.
3. The intercalary meristems – present at internodes or base of the leaves and
increases the length between the nodes.
Permanent tissues: Two types such as Simple permanent tissues & Complex permanent
tissues.

a) Simple permanent tissues: subdivided as

(i): Parenchyma: Tissues provide the support to plants.They are loosly packed and has
large intracellular space.
 Parenchyma with chlorophyll which performs photosynthesis is called as
chlorenchyma.
 The parenchyma with large air spaces to give buoyancy is called as aerenchyma.
Parenchyma also stores food and water.
(ii) Collenchyma: Tissue provides mechanical support, thickened at the corners, have
very little intercellular space. It allows easy bending of various parts of a plants without
breaking
(iii) Sclerenchyma: Tissue makes the plant hard and stiff, thickened due to lignin and no
intercellular space. Cells of this tissue are dead and commonly seen in the husk of
coconut.
(iv) Guard cells & Epidermal tissue: the tissue aids in protection and exchange of
gases.
Guard cells are kidney shaped in dicots, dumb bell shaped in monocots to guard the
stomata. The epidermal tissues of roots aid in absorption of water and minerals. The
epidermal tissues in desert plants have a thick waxy coating of Cutin with waterproof
quality. The epidermal tissues form the several layer thick Cork or the Bark of the tree.

b) Complex permanent tissues: The complex tissues are made of more than one type
of cells. All these cells coordinate to perform a common function. They are subdivided
as;

Xylem: It consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibers. The cells
have thick walls,
Function – help in conduction of water and minerals.
Phloem: It consists of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma, and phloem
fibers.
Function:- Phloem transports food material to other parts of the plants.
6. Animal tissues: Sub divided as epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue and
nervous tissue.
1. Epithelial tissue: It is a protective covering forming a continuous sheet. Simple
epithelium is the one which is extremely thin in one layer, whereas stratified
epithelium are arranged in pattern of layers.
Depending on shape and function they are classified as:

a) Squamous epithelium in the lining of mouth and esophagus.

b) Cuboidal epithelium in the lining of kidney tubules and salivary glands.
c) Columnar epithelium in the intestine &Columnar epithelium with cilia in the lining of
respiratory tract.
d) Glandular epithelium in the Glands aids in a special function as gland cells, which
can secrete at the epithelial surface.
ii) Connective Tissue:
a) Blood: The Blood is a fluid connective tissue. Blood plasma has RBCs (Red Blood
Cells) WBCs (White Blood Cells) and platelets. Blood plasma contains proteins, salts and
hormones. Blood flows and transports gases, digested food, hormones and waste
materials.
b) Bone: The bone is a connective tissue with hard matrix, composed of calcium and
phosphorus. A bone is connected by another bone with another connective tissue called
ligaments. A bone is connected by muscle with another connective tissue called tendon.
c) Cartilage: The cartilage is a connective tissue with solid matrix composed of proteins
and sugars. It is commonly seen in nose, ear, trachea, and larynx.
d) Areolar Connective Tissue: It is found between the skin and muscles, around the
blood vessels. It supports internal organs and aids in repair of tissues.
e)Adipose Connective Tissue: It is filled with fat globules for the storage of fat. It acts
as insulator.
Muscular tissues: They have special contractile proteins responsible for movements.
Three types, such as;
Striated muscles/skeletal muscles/voluntary muscles :
They are cylindrical, un-branched and multinucleated. They have dark bands and light
bands.

Unstriated muscles /smooth muscles/involuntary muscles:

They are commonly called as Smooth muscles, having no striations (dark bands/ light
bands are absent). Commonly found alimentary canal, uterus, Iris of an Eye. They are
spindle shaped. Involuntary in nature.

Cardiac Muscles: They are commonly called as Heart muscles, cylindrical, branched and
uni-nucleate. Involuntary in nature .
Nervous Tissue: The tissue responds to stimuli. The brain, spinal cord and nerves are
composed of nervous tissue or neurons. A neuron consists of Cell Body, cytoplasm,
Nucleus, Dendrite, Axon, nerve ending. The neuron impulse allow us to move our
muscles when we want to respond to stimuli.

*Refer ncert for related diagrams

Revision Notes
CHAPTER – 15
Improvement in food resources
1. Food Resources: Cereals (Wheat, rice, maize, millets and sorghum) provide us
carbohydrates; Pulses (Grams, pea and lentil) provide us proteins; Oil seeds (Soya bean,
ground nut, sesame, and castor) provide us fats; Vegetables, spices and fruits provide us
a range of minerals, nucleic acids and vitamins.
In addition to these food crops, fodder crops like berseem, oats or sudan grass are
raised as food for the livestock are called as fodder crops.

2. The Kharif crops: The crops grown in rainy season are called as Kharif crops (Paddy,
Soya bean, pigeon pea and maize). They are grown from June to October.
3. The Rabi crops: The crops grown in winter season are called Rabi crops (Wheat,
gram, peas, and mustard). They are grown November to April.
Compare Kharif crops and Rabi crops:
SN Crop Season Example

Kharif June to October ( Rainy Paddy, Soya bean, and

1.
crops Season) maize

Nov. to April ( winter Wheat, gram, peas, and

2. Rabi crops
season) mustard
4. The Green Revolution: Food supplies are generally as proteins, carbohydrates, fats,
minerals, nucleic acids and vitamins in all living organisms. Indian population is growing
enormously. Green Revolution is the need of the hour to increase food-grain
production.
5. Sustainable Practices: For sustained livelihood, one should undertake mixed farming,
inter cropping, and integrated farming practices, for example, combining agriculture
with livestock/ poultry/ fisheries/bee-keeping. The major group of activities for
improving crop yield can be classified as: Crop varietal improvement, Crop production
improvement, Crop protection improvement
6. The Crop varietal improvement:
a) Hybridization: It refers to crossing between genetically dissimilar plants;It is all to get
higher yield, improved quality, biotic and abiotic resistance, change in maturity duration,
wider adaptability and desirable agronomic characteristics.
SN Type Context

Inter varietal
1 between different varieties
Hybridization

Inter specific
2 between different species
Hybridization
 Inter generic
3 between different genera
Hybridization

Another way of improving the crop is by

Genetically Modified
4 introducing a gene that would provide desired
Crops (GMC).
characteristic.
7. The Crop production improvement: They include” no cost production”,” low
cost production” or “high cost production” practices.
1. Nutrients (Sixteen elements are required for growth are called as essential
elements Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen+ Macro nutrients & Micronutrients.
They increase the yield)
SNo. Macro nutrient Micro nutrient

Six elements are required in larger Other seven elements are

1.
quantity required in small quantity

Ex.Nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, Ex. Iron, manganese, boron, zink,

2.
Potassium, magnesium, sulphur copper, molybdinum, chlorine
1. Manure & Fertilizers:
SNo. Manure Fertilizers

Fertilizers are commercially

produced plant
Manure is prepared by the
nutrients. Excess fertilizers
decomposition of animal excreta and
destroy the soil fertility.
plant waste is called as Humus. It
Organic farming: No use of
1 decides the texture of the soil.
chemicals fertilizers, herbicides,
Compost: Farm waste, cow dung etc.
pesticides etc.
Vermi compost: Compost prepared
Culturing blue green algae,
by using earthworms.
neem leaves, healthy cropping
systems.

It is cheap and prepared in rural It is costly and is prepared in

2
homes and fields factories

3 It is voluminous and bulky It is compact and concentrated

 It is inconvenient to store, transport, It is easy to store, transport,
4
handle. handle.

It is nutrient specific and can

5 It is not nutrient specific. provide specifically nitrogen,
phosphorus etc.

Does not add humus to the

6 Add great humus to the soil
soil.
3. Irrigation: India has variety of water resources: Wells, canals, river lift system, tanks,
rainwater harvesting, water shedding management to increase in ground water levels
and to check the water flowing away to the sea. Planning to reduce soil erosion.
4. Cropping patterns:
S
Mixed cropping Inter-cropping Crop rotation
N.

Growing
Two or more crops grown different crops
Two or more crops
simultaneously on the same on a piece of
1 Grown simultaneously on
piece >of land in a definite land in a pre-
the same piece of land
pattern planned
succession

Two or three
Ex. Wheat+ Gram crops can be
Wheat+ Mustard; Soyabean + maize/bajra + grown in a year
2
Wheat+ gram; Cowpea depending
Groundnut+sunflower. upon the
duration.

A few rows of one crop The availability

alternate with a few rows of of moisture
a second crop. Crops are and Irrigation
A type of insurance
selected such that their facilities
3 against failure of one of
nutrient requirements are decides the
the crops.
different. This ensures the choice of the
maximum utilization of the crop to be
nutrients supplied and cultivated.
 prevents pests and diseases
spreading in the crop field
8. Crop protection improvement/ management: Field crops are infested by large number
of weeds, insects pests, diseases & storage of grains

Storage of
SN. Weeds Insect pests Diseases
grains

Disease is
Weeds are Insect pest is
caused by Different factors
1 unwanted plants nuisance in
pathogens in are responsible.
in the crop field the crop field
the field

Diseases alter
Insect pest
Weeds take up the Different factors
affect the
nutrients and physiology of reduce the
2 health of crop
reduce the crops and quality of stored
and reduce
growth reduce the grains
the yield.
yield

Botic factors:
Ex. insects, rodents,
Ex. Xanthium, Ex. Bacteria,
3 Caterpillars, fungi Abiotic
Parthenium Virus
dragonfly factors: moisture
& temperature

Removal of
weeds at an early
Spread of Spread of Systematic
stage is
4 chemicals such chemicals to management of
recommended.
as pesticides kill pathogens ware house.
Spray weedicides

9. Animal Husbandry: It is a scientific management of animal livestock, includes

feeding, breeding and diseases control. Animal-based farming includes cattle farming,
Poultry farming, fish farming, and bee Keeping.