Biology – study of living organisms and

various aspects like morphology

,classification ,interaction .
• Father of biology – Aristotle .
Branches of Biology –
1. zoology – study related to animals .
2. botany – study related to plants .
• father of zoology – Aristotle (book –
Historia animalium)
• father of botany – Theophrastus (book –
Historia plantarum )
• firstly the term biology was pronounced
by – Lamarck and Treviranus .
Cell –
• Cell is the basic structural and functional
unit of livings .
• Study of cell is called – cytology .
• Number of cell in human body is -
nearly 1014
• Discovery of cell – Robert hooks (in
1665).
• J.E.Purkinje tells that protoplasm is the
living part of the cell.
• Leeuwenhoek studied the inside
composition of the living cell.
• Discovery of protoplasm was by felix
Dujardin .
 • Smallest cell is of Mycoplasma
gallisepticum.
• Longest cell – nerve cell (neuron).
Cell theory-
• Cell theory is given by Schleiden and
Schwann (in 1838-39).
The 3 main points of the theory are as
follows:

1. The cell is the basic unit of life. The

cell is the smallest living organism that
shows the characteristics of living things.
2. An organism can be unicellular
(composed of only one cell), or
 multicellular (composed of more than
one cell).
3. All cells are created from existing
cells through cell division. Cell division
is when a cell divides into two new cells.

• Types of cell
1. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell-
2 . Plant cell and animal cell
Plant Animal
cell
Cell wall present. Cell wall absent.
Nucleus usually lies near Nucleus present near the cent
periphery due to vacuole.
Centrosome is usually Usually centrosome is presen
absent from higher plant helps in
cells, except lower motile
cells. formation of spindle fibres.
Plastids are present, Plastids are absent.
except fungi.
 Mitochondria is generally Generally tubular in shape.
spherical or oval in shape.
Single large central Many vacuoles occur, which
vacuole is present. smaller in size.
Number of mitochondria Number of mitochondria is
rom approximately
200 – 2000. 1600 – 16000 in liver cells.
Cytoplasm during cell Cytoplasm divides by furrow
division usually divides by cleavage method.
cell plate method.
Plant cells are capable of Animal cells cannot form all t
forming all the amino amino acids, coenzymes and
vitamins.
acids coenzymes and
vitamins.
There is no contractile Contractile vacuole may occu
vacuole. pump excess water.
Sodium chloride is toxic Tissue fluid containing sodium
to plant cells. chloride bathes the animal cel
Plant cells are generally Generally much smaller than
well over 100 micrometer micrometer
long.
Spindle formed during cell Spindle formed during cell di
division is anastral. are amphiastral.
Lysosomes present in less Lysosomes present in more
number. number.
Chromosomes are larger Chromosomes are smaller in
in size.

• Unlike other organisms ,Amoeba has no

definite shape . It keeps on changing its shape
to get food and for various functions known as
Pseudopodia .
• A White Blood (WBC) in human blood is
another example of a single cell which can
change its shape .But while WBC is cell
,amoeba is a full fledged organism cabable of
independent existence .
• Shape of Cell –
a. Red blood cell – Spherical
 b. Muscles cells – Spindle
c. Nerve cell(neuron) – Long branched.
Size of Cell –
The smallest cell size varies from 0.1
micron to 0.5 micron – cell of bacteria.
Largest cell size measures 170 mm × 130
mm - Cell of egg of an Ostrich.
Cell Structure and Functions
Every organ in our body performs a variety of
different functions such
as digestion, assimilation, and absorption.
Similarly, in the plants too, there are different
organs of the plant which performs specialized
or specific functions. For instance, the roots of
the plants help in the absorption of minerals and
water.

In our body and in the body of every living

organism, every organ is composed of smaller
parts known as tissues. A tissue is a group of
like cells that perform a specific function. Let’s
learn more about the cell structure and
functions.

Parts of the Cell

Cell Membrane
One of the most important parts of the cell is the
cell membrane. The cell membrane acts as
a semi-permeable barrier. It allows only a few
molecules across it and fences the majority
of organically produced chemicals inside the
cell.

The primary components of the cell are – cell

membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. The nucleus
and cytoplasm are enclosed within the cell
membrane that is also known as the plasma
membrane. It works to separate cells from one
another and also the cell from the surrounding
medium. The plasma membrane is porous and
allows the movements of materials or
substances both inward and outward.
Cell membrane offers shape and rigidity to the
cell. In the case of the plant cells, besides the cell
membrane, there is also an outer thick layer that
is known as the cell wall. This additional layer
which surrounds the cell membrane is necessary
for offering the requisite protection to the plants.

A Plant Cell

The cells of the plants need protection against

the variations in temperature, high wind speed,
atmospheric moisture, etc. The plants are
exposed to variations since they cannot move.
You can easily observe the cells in the lead peel
of Rhoeo, Tradescantia or Elodea.
 Cell Wall

(1) Discovery: It was first discovered by Robert

Hooke in 1665.
(2) Cell wall is the outer most, rigid, protective,
non living and supportive layer found in all
the plant cells, bacteria, cyanobacteria and
some protists.
(3) It is not found in animal cells.
(4) Difference between primary cell wall
and secondary cell wall
 Primary Secondary
cell wall cell wall
Primary wall is laid inner to Secondary wall is laid inner
middle lamella to primary wall.
It is formed in a growing It is formed when the cells
cell. have stopped growing.
It is capable of extension. Extensibility is absent
except in collenchyma cells.
It is single layered. It is three or more layered.
Cellulose content is Cellulose content is
comparatively low (5 – comparatively high (20 –
20%). 90%).
Cellulose microfibrils are They are longer, closely
shorter, wavy and loosely arranged straight and
arranged. parallel.
Protein content up to 5%. Protein content up to 1%.
Hemicellulose content is It is 25% of the total.
high up to 50%.
Lipid content up to 5 – Lipid is absent.
10%.
Primary wall is It is comparatively thick 5 –
comparatively thin 1 – 5 10 micrometer
micrometer

Plasma Memberane -
(1) Definition: Every living cell is externally
covered by a thin transparent electron
microscopic, elastic regenerative and
selective permeable membrane called plasma
membrane.
(2) It is quasi fluid in nature.
(3) According to Singer and Nicolson it is
“protein iceberg in a sea of lipid”.
(4) A cell wall lies external to plasmalemma
in plant cells, many monerans, some protists
and fungal cells.
(5) Membranes also occur inside the cells.
(6) They are collectively called bio-
membranes.
(7) The term cell membrane was given by C.
Nageli and C. Cramer (1855) for outer
membrane covering of the protoplast.
(8) It was replaced by the term plasmalemma
or plasma membrane by Plowe (1931).
Protoplasm
(1) Definition: Protoplasm is a complex,
granular, elastic, viscous and colourless
substance. It is selectively or differentially
permeable.
(2) It is considered as “Polyphasic colloidal
system”.
(3) Discoveries
(i) J. Huxley defined it as “physical basis of
life”.
(ii) Dujardin (1835) discovered it and called
them “sarcode”.
(iii) Purkinje (1837) renamed it as
“Protoplasm”.
(iv) Hugo Von Mohl (1844) gave the
significance of it.
(v) Max Schultz (1861) gave the
protoplasmic theory for plants.
Cytoplasm
The substance occurs around the nucleus and
inside the plasma membrane containing
various organelles and inclusions is called
cytoplasm.
Mitochondria
(1) Definition: (Gk – mito = thread ;
chondrion = granule) Mitochondria are semi
autonomous having hollow sac like structures
present in all eukaryotes except mature RBCs
of mammals and sieve tubes of phloem.
(2) These are absent in all prokaryotes like
bacteria and cyanobacteria.
(3) Mitochondria are also called
chondriosome, chondrioplast, plasmosomes,
plastosomes and plastochondriane.
Plastids -
(1) Definition: Plastids are semiautonomous
organelles having DNA, RNA, Ribosomes
and double membrane envelope which store
or synthesize various types of organic
compounds as ATP and NADPH + H+ etc.
(2) These are largest cell organelles in plant
cell.
 (3) History: Haeckel (1865) discovered
plastid, but the term was first time used by
Schimper (1883).

Endoplasmic Reticulum
(1) Definition: It is well developed electron
microscopic network of interconnected
cisternae, tubules and vesicles present
throughout the cytoplasm, especially in the
endoplasm.
(2) Discovery: Garnier (1897) was first to
observe the ergastoplasm in a cell. The ER
was first noted by Porter, Claude, and
Fullman in 1945 as a network. It was named
by Porter in 1953.
 Golgi Complex -
(1) Definition: Golgi complex is made up of
various membranous system e.g. cisternae,
vesicles and vacuoles.
(2) These are also called golgi bodies,
golgisomes, lipochondrion, dictyosomes,
Dalton complex, idiosomes or Baker’s body.
(3) These are also called “traffic police” of
the cell.
(4) Discovery: First observed by George
(1867) but it’s morphological details were given by
Camillo Golgi (1898), in nerve cells of barn fowl
&cat.
Nucleus
The nucleus is believed to be the most important
component of the living cell. It is located in the
centre of the cell and is usually spherical in
shape. You can stain the nucleus and see it
clearly by using a microscope. The nucleus is
separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane
known as the nuclear membrane. This membrane
is also porous and allows the moment
of materials between the cytoplasm and the
inside of the nucleus.
If you have a microscope of a higher
magnification, you can see a smaller spherical
body found in the nucleus. This is the nucleolus.
Besides the nucleolus, the nucleus also has
several thread-like structures known as
the chromosomes. The chromosomes carry genes
and support in transfer or inheritance
of characters from the parents to the offspring.
You can only see the chromosomes when the cell
divides.
You can think of genes as CD or memory stick
that is used to carry data or music from one
computer to another. In the similar fashion, genes
carry genetic codes that are responsible for
the unique physical characteristics of an animal
or a plant.

Nucleus works as the control centre of the

activities of the cell. The entire content of a living
cell is known as protoplasm. It includes the
cytoplasm and the nucleus. Protoplasm is called
the living substance of the cell.
Functions of a Cell
Structure and Support
You know a house is made of bricks. Similarly, an
organism is made up of cells. Though there are
certain cells such as collenchyma and
sclerenchyma are present for offering structural
support however in general too, all cells generally
provide the structural basis of all organisms.
Growth
In complex organisms such as humans, the tissues
grow by simple multiplication of cells. Hence,
cells are responsible for the growth of the
organism. The entire thing takes place via a
process of mitosis.

Transport
Cells import the nutrients that are used in the
different chemical process which take place inside
them. As a result of these processes, a waste
product is produced. Cells then work to get rid of
this waste. In this manner, the small molecules
like the such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
ethanol pass through the cell membrane
by diffusion. This method is known as passive
transport. On the other hand, the larger molecules
like the proteins and polysaccharides, go in and
out of the cell via active transport.

Energy Production
Organisms need energy to perform different
chemical reactions. In plants, the energy comes
from the process of photosynthesis while in the
animals the energy comes via respiration.

Metabolism
Cell is responsible for metabolism that
includes all the chemical reactions that take place
inside an organism to keep it alive.
Reproduction
A cell helps in reproduction by the processes
of mitosis (in more evolved organisms) and
meiosis.

Cell division – Mitosis and Meiosis

1. Cell Division
•Mitosis: A somatic cell divides once.
Cytokinesis (the division of
the cytoplasm) occurs at the end
of telophase.
•Meiosis: A reproductive
cell divides twice. Cytokinesis happens at
the end of telophase I and telophase II.
2. Daughter Cell Number
•Mitosis: Two daughter cells are
produced. Each cell is diploid containing
the same number of chromosomes.
•Meiosis: Four daughter cells are
produced. Each cell is haploid containing
one-half the number of chromosomes as
the original cell.
3. Genetic Composition
•Mitosis: The resulting daughter cells in
mitosis are genetic clones (they are
genetically
identical). No recombination or
crossing over occur.
•Meiosis: The resulting daughter cells
contain different combinations of
genes. Genetic recombination occurs as
a result of the random
segregation of homologous
chromosomes into different cells and by
the process of crossing over (transfer of
genes between homologous
chromosomes).
4. Length of Prophase -
•Mitosis: During the first mitotic stage,
known as prophase, chromatincondenses
into discrete chromosomes, the nuclear
envelope breaks down, and spindle
fibers form at opposite poles of the cell.
A cell spends less time in prophase of
mitosis than a cell in prophase I of
meiosis.
•Meiosis: Prophase I consists of five
stages and lasts longer than prophase of
mitosis. The five stages of meiotic
prophase I are leptotene, zygotene,
pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis.
These five stages do not occur in mitosis.
Genetic recombination and crossing over
take place during prophase I.
5. Tetrad Formation
•Mitosis: Tetrad formation does not
occur.
•Meiosis: In prophase I, pairs of
homologous chromosomes line up closely
together forming what is called a tetrad.
A tetrad consists of four chromatids(two
sets of sister chromatids).
6. Chromosome Alignment in
Metaphase
•Mitosis: Sister chromatids (duplicated
chromosome comprised of two identical
chromosomes connected at
the centromere region) align at the
metaphase plate (a plane that is equally
distant from the two cell poles).
•Meiosis: Tetrads (homologous
chromosome pairs) align at the metaphase
plate in metaphase I.
7. Chromosome Separation
•Mitosis: During anaphase, sister
chromatids separate and begin
migrating centromere first toward
opposite poles of the cell.
•A separated sister chromatid becomes
known as daughter chromosome and is
considered a full chromosome.
•Meiosis: Homologous chromosomes
migrate toward opposite poles of the cell
during anaphase I. Sister chromatids do
not separate in anaphase I.
Mitosis and Meiosis Similarities
While the processes of mitosis and meiosis
contain a number of differences, they are
also similar in many ways. Both processes
have a growth period called interphase, in
which a cell replicates its genetic material
and organelles in preparation for division.
Both mitosis and meiosis involve
phases: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase a
nd Telophase. Although in meiosis, a cell
goes through these cell cycle phases twice.
Both processes also involve the lining up of
individual duplicated chromosomes, known
as sister chromatids, along the metaphase
plate. This happens in metaphase of mitosis
and metaphase II of meiosis.
In addition, both mitosis and meiosis
involve the separation of sister chromatids
and the formation of daughter chromosomes.
This event occurs in anaphase of mitosis and
anaphase II of meiosis. Finally, both
processes end with the division of the
cytoplasm that produces individual cells.
Important points -
a) Jan Swammerdam: First to see red blood
cells of frog.
(b) Marcello Malpighi: Observed small
utricles in slice of plant and animal tissue.
(c) N. Grew: Initiated cell concept
(d) Lamarck: All living beings are formed of
cells.
(e) Corti: First to point out living substance
filled inside the cell. It was called “Sarcode”
by Dujardin.
(f) In vivo (in life) study: Study of cells in
their natural environment within the intact
organism.
(g) In vitro (cultural condition) study: Study
of isolated life system in laboratory and
cultural condition.
(h) Max Shultze proposed protoplasm theory.
(i) Sachs proposed organismic theory.
(j) Crystallo: colloidal theory (Fischer),
substances dispersed and dissolved in water
forming both true solution as well as colloidal
solution