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5. THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

Cell :
Cell is the basic structural (or building) and functional unit of all organisms.
The fundamental organisational unit of life is the cell.
Q1. Who discovered cells, and how?
- Ans-Robert Hooke (1665), Robert Hooke by chance observed a slice of cork
(cork is a substance which comes from the bark of a tree) through a self-
designed microscope. He observed that it contained many little compartments,
like a honey comb, which he named as cells.
- We use safranin solution or iodine solution or methylene blue solution to stain the
cells of an onion peel(PLANT CELL)
And use methylene blue solution to stain human cheek cell (ANIMAL CELL)

A SINGLE CELL(unicellular organism) -It may constitute a whole organism

as in Amoeba(Amoeba have changing shape of cell), Chlamydomonas,
Paramecium and bacteria
MULTICELLULAR ORGANIM-In this many cell group together in a single
body and assume different functions in it to form various body parts
examples some fungi, plants and animals.in multicellular organisms,
division of labor is seen.
Some organisms have cells of different kinds examples are nerve cell(cell have
a typical shape), bone cell, fat cell, smooth Muscle cell, blood cells, ovum,
sperm.
Q2. What is a cell made up of? Why the cell is called the structural and
functional unit of life
Ans - The cell has special components called organelles.
Every cell has almost three features; plasma membrane, nucleus and
cytoplasm.
-Each cell acquires its structure and ability to function because of the
organization of its membrane and organelles in specific way. Thus the cell has a
basic structural organization. So the cell is the fundamental structural unit of
living organisms and basic functional unit of life.
 Plasma membrane or cell membrane :
This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell
from its external environment.
The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials
in and out of the cell. It also prevents movement of some other materials. The
cell membrane, therefore, is called a selectively permeable membrane. The
plasma membrane is flexible and made up of organic molecules called lipids

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and proteins. (We can observe it only through an electron microscope).It helps
in diffusion and osmosis.
CELL WALL:
Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer
covering called the cell wall. The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane.
The plant cell wall is composed of cellulose. Cellulose is a complex substance
and provides structural strength to plants.
DIFFUSION:
There is spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high
concentration to a region where its concentration is low. This is called
diffusion. It is important in the exchange of gases and water in the life of a cell.
Diffusion of gases (gaseous exchange)-
CO2 or carbon dioxide accumulates in high concentrations inside the cell. And
in the cell’s external environment (outside the cell), the concentration of CO2 is
low , so CO2 moves out of the cell, from a region of high concentration to a
region of low Concentration across the cell membrane by a process of
diffusion.
Similarly O2 enters the cell by the process of diffusion, when the level or
concentration of O2 inside the cell decreases.
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS:
1) HYPOTONIC SOLUTION (diluted solution)-If the medium surrounding the cell
has a higher water concentration than the cell, meaning is the outside solution
is very dilute, the cell will gain water by osmosis. This solution is called a
hypotonic solution and the process is called ENDOSMOSIS. In this more water
will come into the cell than will leave. So the cell will swell up.
2) ISOTONIC SOLUTION-If the medium has exactly the same water concentration
as the cell, there will be no net movement of water across the cell membrane,
such a solution is called as an isotonic solution.
Water crosses the cell membrane in both directions, and the cell will stay the
same size.
3) HYPERTONIC SOLUTION(concentrated solution)- If the medium has a lower
concentration of water than the cell, meaning is it is a very concentrated
solution, the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as a
hypertonic solution and the process is called EXOSMOSIS. In this process, more
water leaves the cell than enters it. So the cell will shrink.
Diffusion of water-
OSMOSIS:
The passage of water or The movement of water molecules which also affected
by the amount of substance dissolved in water, through such a selectively
permeable membrane that is plasma membrane from a region of high water
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concentration or hypotonic (dilute) to a region of low water concentration or

hypertonic (concentrated) is called OSMOSIS.
EXAMPLES:
1) Unicellular freshwater organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water
through osmosis.
2) Absorption of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.
3) Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute
(hypotonic) external media without bursting. In this the cells tend to take up
water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up pressure against the cell wall.
The wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell. Because of their cell
walls, these cells withstand.
Animal cell do not have cell wall, so they absorb water, they will burst.
Only living cells, and not dead cells (for examples when we boil some vegetable
its cell will be dead), is able to absorb water by osmosis.
PLASMOLYSIS:
When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there is shrinkage or
contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This
phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.
The cell also obtains nutrition from its environment.
ENDOCYTOSIS: The flexibility of the cell membrane enables the cell to
engulf in food and other material (nutrition) from its external
environment. Such process is known as endocytosis. Amoeba acquires
its food through such processes.

Q.3 Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL
1) Nuclear region is poorly defined Nuclear region is well defined
(undefined) and known as nucleoid
contains nucleoid acid.
2) Absence of defined nuclear Presence of nuclear membrane
membrane.
(Viruses lack membranes and
hence do not show characteristics
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of life until they enter a living body

and use its cell machinery to
multiply.
2) Membrane bound cytoplasmic cell Membrane bound (enclosed)
organelles absent cell organelles are present.
3) Chromosome single More than one chromosome.
4) The chlorophyll is associated with The chlorophyll is associated
membranous vesicles as in with plastids.
photosynthetic prokaryotic
bacteria.
5) Size is 1-10 micrometre. Size is 5-100 micrometre.
4) Ex. Bacteria, virus Ex. Plant cell, animal cell.
Q.4 Differentiate between plant cell and animal cell
Plant cell Animal cell
i. Plant cells are larger in size. i. Animal cells are comparatively
smaller in size.
ii. They contain cell wall made of ii. Cell wall is absent.
cellulose, which is present
outside the plasma membrane.
iii. They contain plastids i.e. iii. Plastids are absent.
chloroplast, leucoplast and
chromoplast.
iv. Centrosome is absent. iv. Centrosome is present
v. Large vacuoles are present. v. Vacuoles either absent or very
small in size.
vi. Food is stored in the form of vi. Food is stored in the form of
starch. glycogen.
vii. Lysosomes either absent or very vii. More number of prominent
few in number. lysosomes are present.
 NUCLEUS
The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane. The
nuclear membrane has pores which allow the transfer of material from inside
the nucleus to its outside, that is, to the cytoplasm.
In a cell which is not dividing, DNA is present as part of chromatin material.
Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures.
Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organized
into chromosomes.
Thus the nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped
structures only when the cell is about to divide. Chromosomes contain

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information for inheritance of features from parents to next generation in the

form of DNA molecules. Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein. DNA
molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organizing
cells. Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
 CYTOPLASM
The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It also
contains many specialized membrane bound cell organelles to do chemical
activities to support cell structure and function.
Such as endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria,
plastids and vacuoles.
1) ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
It is a large network system of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like
long tubules of round or oblong bags (vesicles). There are two types of ER-
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes
attached to its surface. These ribosomes also are present in all active cells, and
they the sites of protein manufacture. The manufactured proteins are then
sent to various places in the cell depending on need, using ER.
SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell
function.
Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This
process is known as membrane biogenesis.
Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones. In
vertebrates, in the liver cells SER plays a crucial role in detoxifying many
poisons and drugs.
 ER: endoplasmic reticulum
 SER: smooth endoplasmic reticulum
 RER: rough endoplasmic reticulum
Q.5 differentiate between RER and SER
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
i. It looks rough because i. It looks smooth because
ribosomes are attached to its ribosomes are not attached to
surface. its surface.
ii. They are also known as site of ii. They are also known as site of
protein synthesis. lipid synthesis.
iii. It does not detoxify poisons and iii. In vertebrates, in the liver cells
drugs. SER plays a crucial role in
detoxifying many poisons and
drugs
iv. It helps in the manufacture of iv. It helps in the manufacture of
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protein synthesis fat molecules or lipids

important for cell function.
2) GOLGI APPARATUS-The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi. It
consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately
parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns. These membranes often have
connections with the membranes of ER and therefore constitute another
portion of complex –cellular membrane system.
Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in
vesicles. In some cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the
Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of
lysosomes.
Animal cell

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Plant cell

3) LYSOSOMES: Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.

Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign material as well
as worn-out cell organelles. Foreign
Materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as well as old organelles
end up in the lysosomes, which break them up into small pieces. Lysosomes
are able to do this because they contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of
breaking down all organic material. During the disturbance in cellular
metabolism, for example, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst
and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as
the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell. Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs
filled with digestive enzymes. These enzymes are made by RER.
4) MITOCHONDRIA: Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is releases
by mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphospshate) molecules. ATP
is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body used energy stored in
ATP for making new chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
Mitochondria have two membrane coverings. The outer membrane is very
porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds create a large
surface area for ATP-generating chemical reactions.

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Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. So they are able to make
some of their own proteins.
 ATP: adenosine triphospshate
 DNA : deoxyribo nucleic acid
5) PLASTIDS: Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are three types of
plastids-
a) Chromoplasts (coloured plastids): Chromoplasts are coloured plastids
that is they may contain pigment of different colours.
b) Chloroplasts: Plastids containing the pigment chlorophyll is known as
chloroplasts. These are important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts
also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to chlorophyll.
c) Leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids): Leucoplasts are primarily
organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and protein granules are
stored.
The internal organization of the plastids consists of numerous membrane
layers embedded in a material called the stroma.
Plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes.
6) VACUOLES: Vacuoles are storage sacs. Vacuoles are small sized in animal
cells while plant cells have very large vacuoles. It may occupy 50-90% of the
cell volume. In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and
rigidity to the cell. Many substances include amino acids, sugars, various
organic acids and some proteins stored in vacuoles. In a single celled organisms
like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that the Amoeba has
consumed. In some unicellular organisms, specialized vacuoles also play
important roles in expelling excess water and some wastes from the cell.
Q8. Can you name the two organelles we have studied that contain their own
genetic material?
Ans- Plastids and Mitochondria.
Q9. If the organization of a cell is destroyed due to some physical or chemical
influence, what will happen?
-The functioning of cell organelles will be disturbed, control of the nucleus will
be lost. Thus cell will die.
Q10. What would happen to the life of a cell if there was no Golgi apparatus?
-If Golgi apparatus is not present in the cell all the processes of modification,
storage and transportation will be not possible. Lysosomes would not be
formed. Hence foreign material like bacteria could easily destroy the cell.
Q11.What will happen if plasma membrane ruptures or breaks down?
-Due to rupture of plasma membrane will be no regulation on the movement
of molecules. Contents of the cells may leak out then cell will die.

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