‘STUDY MATERIAL/NOTES

CLASS-VIII
BIOLOGY
TOPIC/CHAPTER-CELL-THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
Definition-Cell is the basic, structural and functional unit of life.
Discovery of the cell-The invention of the microscope during the 17 th century was instrumental in the
discovery of the basic unit of life the cell.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a microscopist, was the first to observe and describe, using his own simple
microscope minute microscopic organisms in rain water, but he did not use the term cell for such type
of structure.
The term cell (from Latin cella meaning little room or hollow space) was given by an English scientist,
Robert Hooke. Hooke in 1665, observed thin slices of cork under his crude compound microscope and
observed that the cork was composed of box- like compartments, forming a honey-comb structure. He
named the compartments as cells.
Cork-The cork is a plant material derived from the bark of a tree. It is a
dead tissue.

Types of organisms-
1. Unicellular organisms-Single celled organisms are called unicellular
organisms for example- Bacteria, Amoeba, Chlamydomonas,
Paramecium, and Euglena
2. Multicellular organisms-Organisms composed of more than two
cells or many cells are called multicellular organisms. For example-
Most Fungi, Plants and Animals

Cell Theory- Two biologists, J. M. Schleiden (1838) and T. Schwann (1839) proposed that-
(i) All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
(ii) The cell is the basic unit of life.
This cell theory was further expanded by R. Virchow in 1855 he suggested that in a multicellular
organisms, the cells come from the division of a single cell. That means “all cells arise from pre-
existing cells”.(from parental cells)

Cell size-
Cells vary in number, shape and size in different organisms and also in different parts of the same
organisms.
The shape and size of cells are in fact related to the function they perform.
Cells are extremely small, and can be seen only when magnified and observed through the lenses of a
microscope.
Cells can be measured in micrometers (microns).
Most cells lie in the range of 1/10 th to 1/1000th of a millimeter.
The smallest cell found is a mycoplasma cell a bacterium about 0.1 microns in diameter.
The longest cells are the nerve cells, measuring about a meter in length.
The largest cells are represented by eggs of birds; Ostrich eggs measure about 170X135 mm.

Cell Shape-Cells may be spherical, oval, elliptical, spindle-shaped, cuboidal, polygonal, columnar or
flat plate like.
The cells shape is often determined by the function which it performs.
Shape among unicellular organisms-
In Amoeba, A single celled organism, the body is irregular in shape.
In Chlamydomonas, a single celled flat the body is oval/rounded in shape.
Paramecium, a unicellular animal, has the shape of a slipper.
Shape among multicellular organisms-
In leaf epidermis, stomata consist of two kidney-shaped guard cells enclosing a pore in between.
Xylem and phloem elements are elongated tubular structures so as to help in conduction of water and
minerals.
The nerve cells are long which enables an efficient communication system.
The muscle cells are elongated and contractile, which helps in the movement of bones.
The red blood cells are thin and oval shaped. So that these can easily move through small spaces
and thus permit gaseous exchange.

Cells Composition
J. E. Purkinje, in 1839 gave the term protoplasm to describe the living fluid substance present in the
cells. Protoplasm is also called the life-giving substance.
Chemically, protoplasm is an aggregate of various organic and inorganic molecules- about 75 % water,
10-15 % carbohydrates, 2-10% proteins, 1-10 % fats and about 1% minerals. Nucleic acids are also
present.

Cell structure (Structural organization of a cell)

Cells, whether of plants or animals, consists of three regions:
(i) Cell or plasma membrane-an extremely thin outer boundary of cytoplasm.
(ii) Cytoplasm- a fluid, transparent, often appearing granular and
(iii) Nucleus-surrounded by its own double walled nuclear membrane and always surrounded by
cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm and nucleus together constitute protoplasm.
The cytoplasm contains a number of important tiny structures celled cell organelles. The cell organelles
are associated with cellular functions.
The fluid remains in the cell when all organelles are removed are referred to as cytosol.

Types of cells-
(i) Prokaryotic cells
(ii) Eukaryotic cells
(i) Prokaryotic cells-The nuclear region is not well defined as the nuclear membrane is
absent. Such an undefined nuclear region containing genetic material (DNA) is called a
nucleoid (a single chromosome, a single circular DNA). For example- Bacteria and blue
green algae.
Such organisms whose cells lack a nuclear membrane are called prokaryotes. Prokaryotes also lack
membrane-bound cell organelles like mitochondrion, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum. All functions
performed by the cell cytoplasm.
(ii) Eukaryotic cells-The nuclear region is well defined as the nuclear membrane is present,
true nucleus having a number of rod like chromosomes are present. Such organisms are
called eukaryotes.
Note-Cells in prokaryotes (1-10 micron in diameter) are generally smaller than those in eukaryotes (5-
100 Microns)

Parts of the cell-

Cell or Plasma membrane-Cell membrane is the outer covering
of each cell, forming a boundary of the cytoplasm. It consists of
lipids and proteins.
The cell membrane enclosed the nucleus and cytoplasm of the
cell.
In plant cells, the plasma membrane is present between the
cytoplasm and cell wall, whereas in animal cells it forms the
boundary of the cytoplasm.
It is a living delicate semi-permeable/selectively permeable
membrane, regulating the movement of molecules inside and
outside the cell. It allows the entry or exit of some molecules in
and out of the cell. It also prevents the movement of some other
molecules.
Functions of Plasma membrane-
It acts as a mechanical barrier between the external and internal environment of the cell, and protects
the inner cell contents.
It regulates the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.
Certain substances like carbon dioxide and oxygen move across the cell membrane by a process
called diffusion, while others like water molecules move across by the process of osmosis.

Cell wall-
 Cell wall is a rigid, non-living boundary wall outside the cell
membrane in plant cells. Animal’s cells lack a cell wall. It is
mainly made of a substance called cellulose. It is
permeable to water, solutes and gases.
In most fungi, cell wall is made up of chitin.
Cell wall in case of bacteria and blue green algae is
characteristics in having a complex proteinaceous compound.
Functions of cell wall-
Cell wall provides rigidity, structural strength and definite shape
to the cell.
It helps in transport of various substances across it.

Nucleus-Director of the cell

A prominent rounded structure is called the nucleus.
Nucleus was discovered by an English Biologist, Robert Brown
in 1831.
It is the most important part of the cell, exerting a controlling
influence on all cell activities.
It is found as a spherical or oval structure, usually located in the
center of the cell.
Note-Some cells like the sieve tubes of vascular plants and the
red blood cells of mammals lack nuclei (pl. of nucleus). The cells
without nuclei cannot survive for long.
Structure-
A nucleus shows following components-
(i) Nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane
(ii) Nuclear sap or nucleoplasm
(iii) Nucleolus and
(iv) Chromatin material
Nuclear membrane-Nuclear membrane separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. It is mainly made
up of proteins and lipids. It is a double layered membrane with space between the outer and inner
membrane. The membrane is perforated by several nuclear pores, which allow exchange of materials
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Nuclear sap-Nuclear sap is the cytoplasm within nuclear membrane in which chromatin and nucleoli
are suspended.
Nucleolus-Usually one spherical body called nucleolus is present inside the nucleus.
Nucleolus lacks membrane. It is rich in proteins and RNA (Ribonucleic acid) is concerned with the
formation of ribosomes and helps in protein synthesis.
Nucleolus is known as the factory of ribosomes.

Chromatin material- A nucleus contains network of threads which

constitutes the chromatin. The chromatin material mainly consists of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) its main function is to store and transmit
hereditary information from one generation to another. During cell
division, chromatin becomes more distinctly visible into a definite
number of rod like bodies called chromosomes. Chromosomes bear
many extremely minute particles called the genes. Chemically genes
are composed of DNA.
Chromosomes are the most significant components of the cell. They
become visible during cell division actively as long threads initially and
become short and thick gradually.
The size, shape and number of chromosomes are variable in different organisms. The chromosomes
number is constant for a particular species.
Chemically, chromosomes are rich in nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and proteins.
Genes
Genes are present on the chromosomes and are functional units of inheritance.
Chemically genes are composed of DNA.
Genes are arranged in a linear order along the chromosomes.
Genes are responsible for cell functions.
Functions of nucleus-
Nucleus is the chief controlling center of the cell. It contains
chromosomes which carry the genes. The genes are responsible
for transmission of hereditary characters from one generation to
another.
Nucleus controls metabolic activities taking place in the cell.
Cellular metabolic activities are controlled by enzymes. Synthesis
and regulation of the activity of enzymes are controlled by the
nucleus.
Cytoplasm-
Cytoplasm occupies the major part of the cell and is limited on the
outside by the cell membrane. It is a living component of cell, consisting of transparent, semi-fluid
granular substance. Water is the main component (up to 90%). In addition, proteins, fats,
carbohydrates and inorganic materials are present. Biochemical reactions take place in the
cytoplasm.
A number of cell organelles are present in the cytoplasm. These organelles include mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, plastids, lysosomes, peroxisomes, ribosomes and
centrosomes.
Cell Organelles-
The structure revealed by an electron microscope is known as the ultrastructure. The various cell
organelles which are visible in ultrastructure are described below-
Mitochondrion-Power house of the cell

Mitochondria are cytoplasmic organelles found in plants and animals. Each mitochondrion is a rod-
shaped structure surrounded by a double-membrane.
The outer membrane is smooth and porous while the inner one is folded into a large number of finger-
like structures called cristae.
The folds or the cristae increase the surface area of the inner membrane, thereby providing more area
for the metabolic reactions to take place.
Note-Mammalian RBCs lack mitochondria.
Note-Prokaryotic cells also lack mitochondria.
Mitochondria contain enzymes, for catalyzing biochemical reactions involved in respiration. Energy is
produced in the process, for this reason, mitochondrion are generally called power house of the
cell.
Mitochondria are able to make their own proteins, as they contain their own DNA and ribosomes. In
this respect, mitochondria are strange organelle.
Functions of mitochondria-
Mitochondria are centers of cellular respiration and result in the formation of energy rich molecules,
ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is known as energy currency of the cell.
The cells use this energy for performing cellular functions like synthesis of new chemical compounds,
their transport, and for mechanical work.
Endoplasmic reticulum-
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes (double
walled) which run through the cytoplasm.
Depending on the presence or absence of ribosomes on the surface
of ER, These are of two types-
Rough ER- with ribosomes on the surfaces of membrane.
Smooth ER-without ribosomes on the surfaces of the membranes.
Functions-
RER is the site of protein synthesis.
SER takes part in secretion of lipids.
ER provides increased surface area for metabolic reactions to take
place.
ER being a membranous network provides mechanical support to
the cytoplasm.
Proteins and lipids synthesized in ER are used for producing new cell membrane called membrane
biogenesis.
Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones.
Golgi Apparatus-
First describes by Camillo Golgi and also known as Golgi body or Golgi complex., it consists of smooth,
flattened, membrane-bound( double-walled) sac like structures called cisternae.
The cisternae are usually placed one above the other in parallel rows.
The Golgi apparatus is frequently surrounded by vesicles, which are discharged from the cisternae.
When present in plants in the form of sub-units, Golgi
apparatus is called Dictyosomes.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus-
It is a secretory organelle of the cell.
It packages materials synthesizes in the cell and
transports these out of the cell.
It is involved in the formation of lysosomes.
Plastids-
Plastids are the largest cytoplasmic organelles found
only in plant cells and photosynthetic micro-organisms.
These are readily visible under a light microscope.
On the basis of pigments present, plastids are of three types.
(i) Leucoplasts (colorless plastids)
(ii) Chloroplasts (green plastids)
(iii) Chromoplasts (colored plastids, other than green)
The leucoplasts are meant for storage of starch grains and oil drops.
The Chromoplasts contain non-green pigments and are responsible for the characteristics color in
flowers and fruits.
Chloroplasts-Kitchens of the cell
Chloroplasts are the most important plastids which contain the green pigments chlorophyll. These
are, thus, chlorophyll-containing plastids.
Chlorophyll traps the solar energy which is used for manufacturing food (photosynthesis).Chloroplasts,
thus, are the sites of photosynthesis, and are
therefore, called kitchens of the cell.
Chloroplasts are large, spherical, ovoid or disc-
shaped organelles.
Each chloroplast is surrounded by a double
walled semi permeable membrane.
Like the mitochondria, chloroplasts also
contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
Functions of chloroplasts-
Food manufacture i.e., photosynthesis.
Lysosomes-digestive/suicidal bags-
Lysosomes are small, spherical bodies surrounded by a single-walled membrane.
They contain powerful enzymes capable of breaking down (digesting) the organic material, thus,
serving as an intracellular digestive system; hence, called digestive bags.
Lysosomes are even capable of digesting or lysing the entire cell, once the enzymes are liberated. For
this reason, lysosomes are also called suicidal bags.
Note-Mammalian RBCs lack lysosomes.
Prokaryotic cells too lack Lysosomes.
Plants cells generally lack lysosomes; some plant cells
(yeast and some fungi) do possess lysosomes.
Functions of lysosomes-
When the cell dies, the lysosomes rupture liberating the
hydrolytic enzymes which digest the entire cell. This is a
mechanism for removing dead cells.
Sometimes a portion of the cell may enter the lysosomes
and get digested.
They destroy the foreign bodies, such as bacteria, inside
the cell.
Lysosomes are, thus, a kind of garbage disposal system of a cell as they help to keep the cell clean
by-
(i) Digesting foreign materials.
(ii) Eating up worn out cell organelles and
(iii) Removing dead cells.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are tiny, membrane-less organelle resent in the cytoplasm of all protein synthesizing
cells.
They are found attached to the surface of ER as well as free in the cytoplasm.
They are rich in RNA and proteins. RNA is useful in protein synthesis.
Functions of Ribosomes-
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis in the
cell. Both the bound and free ribosomes are involved
in this synthesis.
Centrosome and Centriole
Centrosomes are a small structure situated close to
nucleus in animal cells.
In Plant cells, centrosomes are absent and polar
caps perform the function of centrosomes.
Some lower plats like Chlamydomonas do possess
centrioles at the base of flagella.
Functions-
Centrosome helps cell division.
Centriole takes part in the formation of cilia and
flagella.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are generally fluid-filled cavities or sacs present in the cytoplasm. The watery fluid of the
vacuoles is called cell sap. Vacuoles are surrounded by a single membrane called tonoplast.
In a plant cell, the number of vacuoles dissolved food materials, waste products and pigments, whereas
in animal cells vacuoles contain engulfed solids or liquids.
Functions of vacuoles-
Vacuoles help to provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
Vacuoles act as housed of pigments and waste products, as well as useful minerals and salts.
In unicellular organisms like Amoeba the food particles captured by its pseudopodia are enclosed in a
vacuole, which is called the food vacuole.