The Cell Theory

Wednesday, 17 November 2021 10:36 am

Trivia about cell

80 Interesting Cell Facts You Should Know - Facts Legend

Introduction
- The cells are smallest and the fundamental function of life as it is the basic unit
that lives independently and has the potential to exist.
- Most cells are measured between 1 and 100 (um) in diameter.
- Different cells are differing in size, shape and quality for being complex.
- Skeletal muscle cells are usually long, tube-like shape, nucleus are made up of two
or more and located at the peripheral area of cell. More striations appeared inside
the cell that consists of light band and dark band. Skeletal muscle cell is known as
striated voluntary muscle cell that can do a work voluntarily.
- Nerve cells are the fundamental and functioning unit of the entire system in brain.
The star like shaped of the nerve cells can be distinguish from other types of cells.
From the oval structures that located at the center known as cell body, while the
short projection that surrounded are called dendrites, and the long single branch
also known as axon. The nerve cell carries information to the brain vice versa.
- Red blood cells are oval biconcave discs shape and lack of nucleus. Red blood
cells is the most abundance in the entire body but they are small when you
compare from white blood cell. It is also contains a substances known as
Hemoglobin a protein substance to carries oxygen in the blood.
- Common characteristics and properties similar to other cells:
*Composition of the cell membrane
*Metabolic activities that they perform
*Similarity of boundary parts (cell membrane) and complex materials inside.
*Composition of chemicals compounds (organic compound and inorganic
compound.)

The Cell Theory

1. ROBERT HOOKE
- English scientist, 1665
- Saw minute partitions, room like structures.
- Discovered the minute hallow compartments known as "cell".
- One of the pioneers of the cell study who used his own made microscope.
- he conducted a study about the cell by slicing a very small piece of cork (oak
cork). Hooke only saw the cell wall considering that the cork cells are not alive.

2. ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK

- Dutch naturalist
- Discovered tiny living organisms known as "Animalcules" from the drop of rain
water. (some of the tiny animalcules are known as bacteria.)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-
sciences/animalcule
- An expert in grinding lenses and he was able to discovered.
- Father of microbiology
- Father of microscope
- First one who discovered the structure of RBC
- Able to discover the structure of sperm cell

3. ROBERT BROWN
- Botanist, 1831
- Discovered the carrier of the genetic materials call "Nucleus".
- Nucleus is the transmitter, controller of the information and carrier of genes.

4. FELIX DUJARDIN

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 4. FELIX DUJARDIN
- French biologist, in 1835
- Discovered the "protoplasm" (living part of the cell) the cytoplasm and nucleus
- Discovered a semi-transparent living substance known as Sarcode, in which later
on was changed to protoplasm.
- https://byjus.com/biology/protoplasm/

5. MATHIAS SCHLEIDEN
- German botanist
- He concluded in his studies about the entire parts of a plant that all plant are made
up of cell.
- Discovered the cells in plant only.

6. THEODOR SCHWANN
- German zoologist, 1839
- Discovered cell in animals
- All cells originate from other preexisting cells (cell division)

7. RUDOLF VIRCHOW
- German physician, 1858
- Justify the creation of new cells were came from other cells.
- "all living cells come from other existing cells and therefore this proof justify that
the creation of new cells were from other living cells.
- The reason why he propose this idea because Spontaneous generation, life is from
non-living matter

What Operations can Cells do?

Cells are similar to human, they can perform many activities.
Conceptualizing the theory of a cell, based on the different studies made by different
scientists that support us a clear understanding about what cells can do. According to the
principles formulated by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann developed a theory
of cell and known as the cell theory.

The Cell Theory States that:

1. Cells are the building block and the functional unit of all living organisms it
includes the life cycle, metabolic activities and the ability to transfer character
traits.
2. All living organisms are containing one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from the pre-exciting cells.

The first principle states that a man is made up of trillion of cells in his body,
therefore man do all the
work just because all the cells are totally functional and working. This principle implies
of unity.

The second principle states that, our human body composed of well-organized
group of chemical
compound, from the smallest or simplest chemical compound up to complex, therefore
man has a capacity to perform his life processes in order for him to survive. This
principle implies of functionality.

The third principle states that a single cell can be divide and multiply to produce
two daughter cells the
same as their parent cells. This principle implies of reproducibility.

Modern Cell Theory:

1. All living organisms are composed of trillions of cells in their body.
2. Cell is fundamental and building blocks of all living organisms.
3. Cells come from other cells by cell division.
4. The cell consists of genetic material which passed from generation up to the last
generation.

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 generation.
5. All cells are made up of the same in chemical composition.

Modern interpretation of cell theory

- The energy of organisms is formed In the cell
- Dna is passed on from cell to cell
- All cells have the basic chemical composition

Parts of Microscope
- Rotating head
- Object lens
- Stage
- Diaphragm
- Base
- Body tube
- Eye piece
- Arm
- coarse focus numb
- Fine focus numb
- Power switch
- Lights source

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Cell Structures and Function
Sunday, 6 February 2022 9:49 pm

- A typical cell consists of three major important parts:

1. CELL MEMBRANE AND THE CELL WALL

Cell Membrane
- Every cell in the body is bounded by a plasma membrane.
- It has a double layer of phospholipid(head and the tail, head is polar lipid while tail is
non polar lipid), fats, carbohydrates and protein materials embedded in it.
- The protein provides structural support, form channels to regulate the flow of materials
into and out of the cell, helps to maintain cell shape, act as receptor sites and functional
carrier of molecules, provide identification boundary.
- It is made up of semipermeable membrane that actively controls the exit and entrance
pf the materials inside the cell.
- A membrane is located on the outer potion creates a partition from neighboring cell
considering as membrane boundary of cell.
- Osmosis-movement of water from tail to head (it does not required energy to transport
the materials)
- Active transport- it requires energy to transport materials like carbohydrates

Cell Wall
- The external boundary outer cell membrane that located in plants only.
- It consist of cellulose structure and other substances that protect the plants from
invading pathogenic organisms as well as to prevent dryness.

2. CYT
- The cytoplasm is one of the major parts of the cell that located outside the nucleus,
inside the cell membrane.
- It composed of a jelly-like substance that filled up in the entire cytoplasm.
- It also contains cytosol, organelles and inclusions.
- Cell expansion, growth, metabolic activities and cell replication are main functions of
cytoplasm.
- The cytosol is the semi-transparent fluid in which cytoplasmic organelles and particles
are suspended. It is one of the major cellular components that give structural support
and holds the organelles inside the cell.
- 70% of cytoplasm are water

1.
Cytoplasmic Organelles:
○ RIBOSOMES
- Small rounded dark bodies which composed of ribosomal proteins and
ribonucleic acids.
- The one which connect amino acids together to form long chains of protein.
- Bounded by membrane but they are not membranous in structure.
- Ribosomes are the builders of protein materials and responsible for protein
synthesis.
- They usually floating around the cytoplasm, located in entire cell and some are
found in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

○ ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- A network or interconnected of tubes and flattened sacs, extending in the entire
cytoplasm and channels, membranous tube-like structure known as cisternae.
- Acts as transport vesicles to carry different substances, responsible for
carbohydrates, protein, lipids synthesis, modifies protein materials.
 Two Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
A. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

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 A. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Composed of network flattened membranous tubes containing ribosomes
stud on outer surface.
- It involved in manufacturing protein materials, protein folding, and site of
protein synthesize.
B. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
- It consists network tubular sacs that lacking of ribosomes on its surface.
- Its function responsible to detoxify drugs, manufacturing lipids, carries
carbohydrates, lipids and non-protein materials.

○ GOLGI APPARATUS
- Golgi complex, Golgi bodies
- It is made up stacks of flattened membranous sacs carrying the protein from
rough endoplasmic reticulum to the outside of part of the cell.
- It contains enzymes that responsible to modify protein, packages and secreted
proteins.

○ MITOCHONDRIA
- It is known as the "Power house of the cell".
- This is the location wherein energy produces by synthesis of Adenosine
Triphosphate,
- Mitochondrion has two layers of membranous sacs, the inside membrane is
enfolds to form cristae and encloses by a matrix.
- A sausage shape like organelle considered as the sites for cellular respiration,
conversion of energy origination from simple sugar and lipid into ATP energy.
- It regulates cellular metabolism.

○ VACUOLE
- Single membranous sac that plays important roles in storage of materials and
water, releasing of cellular waste products, conducts intercellular digestion,
maintaining hydrostatic pressure.
- The vacuole in plants is large that plays a vital role in turgor pressure and serves
as for the storage of water.
- The vacuole in animals is small for the storage of food products.

○ LYSOSOMES
- Are known as the "scavenger of the cell", membranous bag structure which
contain strong hydrolytic enzymes and use by the cell to digest macromolecules.
- Develop in vesicles
- These are single-membranous organelles that worn-out the damage parts, fuse
with the lysosomes and broken down by nucleic acids and some lipids.
- The digested products can reuse again by the cell for the synthesis of cellular
materials.
- The programmed of cell destruction with the use of lysosomal enzymes is
important in the process of cell development.

○ GYCOCALYX
- It is known as the Cell Coat that located in the outer part of cell membrane of
animal cell, its function for cell recognition and cellular adhesion.
- It is also responsible for tissue organization.

○ PEROXISOMES
- Are membranous sacs that containing oxidative enzymes for the function of
detoxifying harmful substances.

○ CYTOSKELETON
- It is composed of collective network of protein filamentous, thread-like structure
called microtubules, microfilaments which produce a strong ability to support and
maintain the cell shape.
- It is the fundamental framework of the cytoplasm containing protein filament that
assist for the organelles to move inside.

○ PLASTIDS

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 ○ PLASTIDS
- The largest, rounded membranous organelles that contain DNA usually located in
plant cell but not common in animal cell for coloring pigment in plants.
- A double membranous structure enclosed by a thylakoid membrane consists of
chloroplasts which contain chlorophyl use by the plants for making their food
through the process of photosynthesis.
Different Plastids and their coloring pigments
A. Chloroplastids- green pigment
B. Chromoplastids- colored igment like red, yellow and orange.
1. Carotenoids
2. Anthocyanin
3. Anthoxanthin
4. Xanthophyll
C. Leucoplastids- white and colorless pigment
1. Amyloplst- stored starch grains
2. Proteinoplasts- stored protein
3. Elaioplasts- stored oil substance.

○ THE CENTROSOME AND THE CENTRIOLE

- The centriole is a small, fibrous structure and cylindrical shape having a mass
dense of protoplasm found near the nucleus.
- It contains nine pairs of peripheral microtubules orthogonally arrange to produce
the wall of the cylinder.
- Inside the centrosome of an animal cell is a pair od cntroiles which replicates as
the cell divides.
- Centrioles are mostly present in animal cells but absent in plants even also fungi.

3. THE CELL NUCLEUS

- A spherical shape, large structure and the most visible part that can be seen, easily
located near or at the central part of a cell.
- There are important functions of the nucleus to controls, direct all biochemical
reactions that the cell undergoes.
- It regulates the cell activity due to the presence of enzymatic structure.
- Also inside the nucleus there are chromatin materials that containing hereditary
information to determine the traits of an organism.
- From the process of cell division, the cell prepares and divides the chromatin to become
short, coiled, and thick then condense to convert into chromosomes in which DNA is
form.
Parts Of The Nucleus

○ NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- Consists id two-membranous layered w/c surrounded the entire nucleus and
serves as the boundary to separates the nuclear materials from the cytoplasm.
- It is containing thread-like materials called chromatin and usually located in a
darker area of the nucleus.
- The nuclear membrane controls the continuous flow of materials inside and
outside the nucleus.
- Nuclear pores

○ NUCLEOPLASM
- It is known as the clear sap containing fluid substance that suspended in the
internal part forming the protoplasm of the nucleus also known as Karyoplasm.

○ NUCLEOLUS
- A spherical shape made up of granular structures that found inside the nucleus
containing Ribosomal Nucleic Acid (RNA) which rich of protein materials for
the protein synthesis and carrying hereditary traits.
- Creates ribosomes

○ CHROMOSOMES
- These are long thread stands associated with proteins materials that suddenly
coiled, appear thicker, denser and shorter when cells divide.
- It contains genetic materials known as DNA that embedded inside the

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 - It contains genetic materials known as DNA that embedded inside the
chromosomes.
- It is also bounded protein which serves as packaging for DNA and controls the
hereditary characteristics.

○ FLAGELLA
- Are cytoplasmic projection that made of two central and nine pairs of peripheral
microtubules which extend from surface of cell.
- Cover by plasma membranep
- Many single-celled organism use them for propulsion and other function of
flagella for cell locomotion

○ CILIA
- Are relatively short projection that extend from the surface of cell and allowing
the materials to move on surface of some tissues in form of waves.

Prokaryotic
eukaryotic

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Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells
Saturday, 5 March 2022 1:56 pm

PROKARYOTIC CELLS
- Prokaryotes means "before the nucleus" or pre means before and karyon means "nucleus.
- They are organism without a cell nucleus.
- They are belonging to the group of unicellular organisms but some are multicellular.
- They evolved first before the eukaryotes.
- All prokaryotes are single celled organisms that are smallest and metabolically diverse forms of
life.
- They are located nearly Earth's entire environment including some of hostile places.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
- "true nucleus"
- Eukaryotes are organisms that are consist of free-living cells
- capable to become independent.
- Others also made up of trillion of cells working together as a team or as a unit.
- A eukaryotic cells contain visible organelles.
- Most of the cells in your body are having their nucleus except the red blood cells, they having
nucleus when they newly formed.
- Also organisms in terms of their cells are orderly arranged from simple up to complex
structures by enclosing membranes and at the center of the cell it os bounded by a nucleus.

COMPARISON BETWWEN PROKARYOTIC CELL AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Basis of Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Differences
Nucleus Absent Present
Number of Contain of Nucleic acid, one but not true With nucleic acid and protein, more
Chromosomes chromosomes; plasmids than one.
Features of Not organized, DNA molecules are packed Organized packed into chromosomes
genetic material in a region, nucleoid but not the nucleus located inside the nucleus
DNA
Nuclear Absent Present
membrane
Present of Incomplete organelles lack of the Complete organelles.
Organelles following; Mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes.
Sexual No meiosis, transfer of DNA fragments, Meiosis and fusion of gametes
reproduction absent conjugation.
Cell Wall Usually chemically complexes, contain Only in plant cell and fungi,
muriatic acid. chemically simplest without muriatic
acid.
Chloroplast Absent chlorophyll scattered in the Present only plants.
cytoplasm
Cell type Unicellular Multicellular
Flagella Composed of only one fiber Usually arranged a nine doublets,
submicroscopic in size, lack of tubular bounded membrane, microscopic in
feature. size. With tubular feature.
Examples Bacteria, Archea Animal and plants

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS
- All cells are probably the same, however prokaryotic and eukaryotic have important structural
characteristics in which they are differ from one another like the present of nucleus, organelles,
chemical composition of the cell wall, mitochondria and chloroplast.

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 chemical composition of the cell wall, mitochondria and chloroplast.
- The manner of comparing the two kinds of cells is the most important features among the
groups of organisms.
- The most distinctive difference is Eukaryotes have true nucleus containing DNA and located
inside the nucleus.
- On the other hand, the genetic material in prokaryotes is not bounded by a nuclear membrane,
DNA floats and disorganized on the surface membrane of the prokaryotic cell.
- The cell wall made up of peptidoglycan while the eukaryotic cells have cell walls without
peptidoglycan.
- In eukaryotes, the mitochondria and chloroplast perform their individual function for metabolic
activities, whereas the prokaryotic prokaryotes are absent of mitochondria and lack of
chloroplast, sometimes only few chlorophyll that scattered in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cell.
- The prokaryotes are usually smaller than the eukaryotes.

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Cell Types
Saturday, 12 March 2022 11:56 pm

CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELL

- The cell is the lowest level of structure capable of performing all the activities of life.
- Most organisms are made up of thousands or millions of cells and are referred to as
multicellular.
- Animals and plants are multicellular living organisms that are made up of many cells.
- Both plants and animals represent their evolutionary histories that show the development of
an individual living thing.
- In the terms of locomotion, it shows also how animals move from place to another.
- Cell grouped together to form tissues and fulfill similar function.
- Tissues are then grouped together to form an organ, which perform a particular function
like movement.
- Animal organs composed of many cells and tissues like the epithelial tissue for making the
lining of the stomach, secreting gastric juices and the connective tissues that are bind and
support other tissues and cells in our body.
- Nerve tissues are made up of different.

1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
- Epithelial tissues form the covering of the surfaces of the body located both in internal and
external parts.
- One example is skin found in the uppermost layer of the body which made of epithelial
cells.
- There are two groups of epithelial tissue; these are classified base on the cells arrangement
according to layer.
- Epithelial tissue consists of single layer known as Simple epithelium while others
composed of many layers known as stratified epithelium.
CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS IN EPITHELIAL TISSUE ON BASE
Type of Cells Description Location Function
Squamous Cell Thin, scaly-look like, Kidney glomeruli, air sacs, Diffusion
flattened on the surface, fried lining of heart, blood Filtration
egg appearance with rounded vessels, lining of the Secretion
nucleus. vertical body cavities. Protection
Cuboidal Cell Dice shape, square-like shape Kidney tubules, ducts and Secretion
with large and spherical secretory position of small Absorption
nuclei. glands, very surface, egg
cells, sperm cells.
Columnar Cell Taller rather that wide, Digestive tubes, Absorption
column in shape, long and gallbladder excretory Secretion
rectangular shape with oblong ducts, some gland , Reception
or elongated nucleus contain bronchi, uterine tubes, Sensory
goblet cells. uterus, nose ears, tongue.
a. Ciliated Fine hair-like projection Nose, uterus, fallopian Move mucus
columnar Cell tubes, egg cells. and other
substance
across the cell,
ciliary action
b. Pseudostratified False stratification or Ducts of large glands, Filtration,
columnar cell appearance, free surface with ductus difference, trachea, Absorption,
hair-like projection, nuclei throat, mouth Secretion,
seen at different level that Ciliary action
contain goblet cells

2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Connective tissues is a kind of tissue that use to connect, bind, holds, and support one part
to another part pf the body.
- This is the most vascularized and widely distributed inside the body.
- It gives the body many functions like supporting the muscles to produce movement,

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 - It gives the body many functions like supporting the muscles to produce movement,
protects the internal and delicate organs, and connects the tissues of the body.
- The connective tissues is characterized by a large percentage of living cells and non-living
material known as matrix which is made of ground substance and fibrous structures.
- Cells of connective tissues are widely apart with each other in a form of matrix.
KINDS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND THEIR TYPE OF CELL

Tissue Type Specialized Cell Matrix Specific Function

Bone Tissue Bone cell (Osteocytes) Hard or calcified Support, protects,
provides, lever, storage,
hematopoiesis
Blood Tissue Red blood cell, white blood Fluid matrix (plasma) Transport
cell, platelets
Hyaline Chondrocytes Firm, collagenous fibers Support, cushion
Cartilage properties
Fibro Cartilage Chondrocytes Collagenous fibers Absorb compressive
shock.
Elastic chondrocytes Elastic fibers Support the external
Cartilage
Areolar Mast cells, white blood Gel-like matrix, Holds and conveys
Cartilage cells, fibroblasts, Collagen fibers, Elastic tissue fluid,
macrophages fibers inflammation.
Adipose Tissue Fat cells, adipocytes Reticular collagen
Cartilage Chondrocytes Rubbery, collagen, Support, helps to
Tissue elastic fibrous secretion provide structures.
of chondroitin
substance
Areolar Tissue fibroblasts Collagen structure, Holding the organs in a
elastic particular area.
Adipose Tissue Fat cell (adipocytes) Reticular structure with Storage of lipids for
collagenous fibers energy building

3. MUSCLE TISSUE
- The muscle tissues are composed of muscle cells that designed for contraction and
movement.
- These can help us to do work.
- The muscle cells are also called muscle fibers.
- Inside the muscle fiber or a muscle cell it consists of sarcoplasm known as the cell
membrane, sarcolemma as the cytoplasm of the muscle cell and the cell boy that containing
nucleus located at the center.
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF MUSCLE CELLS IN THE MUSCLE TISSUES.
Cell Type Cell Description Location
Striated/voluntary/skeletal Long cylindrical shape, Bundle forms, Skeletal muscles
muscle cells many nucleus, many striations.
Striated/involuntary/cardiac Short branching shape, have few striations, Heart/cardiac
muscle cells single nucleus/two nucleus muscle
Non- Spindle in shape of cells, one nucleus Visceral/ smooth
striated/involuntary/smooth located at the center, absent of striations muscle tissue
muscle cells

4. NERVOUS TISSUE
- Nervous tissue consists of two types of cells: conducting cells and supportive cell.
- Conducting cells or we can call it neurons are modified to respond to specific stimuli.
- The stimulation results in which the neuron transmits from one region of the body to
another.
- The ability to respond to stimuli is one of the characteristic of living things and it is also
known as irritability.

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 known as irritability.
- The ability to transmit an impulse is called conductivity.
- The two properties of neurons such as irritability and conductivity, allow us to be aware to
our environment and the ability to respond to internal and external stimuli.
- The supportive cells of the nervous system are kind of connective tissue.
- It transport nutrients from the blood vessels to neurons and also become as guard against
toxin by creating barrier to many harmful substances.
- It also increase the level of conduction in which they are associated.

NEURON CONSISTS OF TWO MAJOR PARTS NAMELY:

1. Cell Body or Soma
▫ Contains nucleus that located at the center and its function is to control the entire
activities of the neuron.
▫ The cell body is composed of three distinct parts.
▫ The Axolemma is known as the cell membrane while the Axoplasm is called the
cytoplasm of the neuron.
2. Nerve Process
▫ Processes that composed of collectively nerve fibers that also made up of the
dendrites, these are the short branch the located around the nucleus and conducts
electrical impulse toward the cell body while the axon is contains a single long
branch that responsible to conducts impulses away from the cell body.

CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS:
- Neurons are classified according to the function and structure.
• Afferent or Sensory neuron
From the functional classification group this is concerned about the direction of the
nerve impulse travels to the CNS, from the CNS to the sensory receptors
• Efferent or Motor neuron
Neurons that carry impulses to the brain to the visceral or muscles and glands.
• Interneurons or Association neurons
Neurons that connect between sensory and motor neurons following the neutral
pathways.

SENSORY- Receptor to CNS

RELAY- CNS to CNS
MOTOR- CNS to Effector

Structural Classification Group neuron that can be classified according to the number
of neurons
1. Unipolar neuron- Single process emerging from the cell body
2. Bipolar neuron- One dendrites, one axon.
3. Multipolar- Many dendrites, one axon

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Cell Modification
Sunday, 13 March 2022 9:57 pm

CELL COMPOSITION ELEMENTS

1. MAJOR CELL STRUCTURE
a. Cell Membrane
- Composed of a very thin layer of lipids and protein materials that partly divides the cell
elements from its environment.
- It functions like a wall with gates that controls the passage of molecules in and out of the
cell.
- The membranes are consisting of phospholipids that allow the molecules across the
membrane.
- Cholesterol molecules interact with the phospholipids helping to keep the membrane
interact yet fluid.

b. Cytoplasm
- The most functional part of the cell wherein cytoplasmic materials are working together
and consider as the machinery of the entire cytoplasm.
- Each little organ performs a specific task.
- Inside the cytoplasm, there is a present of semi-fluid substance that usually suspended in
the entire environment of the cell.

c. Nucleus
- The control center of a cell.
- It plays the central role in cellular reproduction and in conjunction with the environment;
it directs the metabolic activities of the living cell.
- The entire cell nucleus is protected by nuclear membranous appearance.
- It also regulates the passes of substance that can enter and leave pf the nucleus.
- The present of tiny pores through which protein and other compounds can ass the surface.
- The protoplasm inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm.
- The chromosomes are threadlike bodies in which they are visible during the cell division.
- Chromosomes bear genes, the basic units of heredity.

2. CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE

Cell Feature Identification Function
Cilia Relatively short projection For the cell movement, allow the
extending from the cell surface and materials to move on surface of some
consists of two central and nine tissues.
pairs of peripheral microtubules.
Flagella Long tail/or whip-like appearance, Cell locomotion, allows the sperm
made up two central and nine pairs cells propels to reach the final
of peripheral microtubules. destination.
Microvilli Minute finger like projection Sites of osmosis where fluid may pass
in and out of the body
Pinocytic vesicle In pocketing of the cell membrane Engulfs a droplet of water, cell is able
where filled up of water. to drink.

3. CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
Cell Feature Identification Function
Ribosomes Small rounded dark bodies Workbenches of protein material.
Mitochondria Sausage like organelle, elongated, Powerhouse of the cell, builder of
threadlike bodies energy known ATP, for cell cellular
respiration.
Cytoskeleton Forming the network of Maintain cell shape motility, forms
microtubules, intermediate fibers the internal framework.
and microfilaments

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 Endoplasmic Highly variable network of Protein and membrane synthesis,
reticulum membrane that extend throughout intercellular transport vesicles of
the cytoplasm. protein materials.
Smooth ER No ribosomes on its surface Detoxification of drugs, synthesis of
lipids.
Rough ER Ribosomes stud on the surface Membrane and protein manufacture
Golgi body Stacks of flattened membranous Packaging and the center storage of
sacs protein.
Plastids Double-membrane sac enclosed Plant pigments or nutrient storage
internally by thylakoid membranes: center. ATP ad other energy rich
Chloroplasts contain green pigment compound are formed and used to
known as chlorophyll convert CO2 to carbohydrates.
Lysosomes Membranous sacs that present in Powerful digestive enzyme storage,
animals secretion, waste.
Peroxisome Membranous sacs containing a Site of many diverse metabolic
variety of enzymes. reaction.
Vacuole Membrane-enclosed cavities filled Expel excess water and waste from
with either fluid or granular the cell know as contractile vacuoles,
structure of material. food vacuoles contain food, maintain
hydrostatic pressure.

4. CYTOSKELETON
Cell Feature Identification Function
Microtubules Tubular shape that made up of Give structural support cell mobility,
tubulin protein for cellular division
Microfilaments Rod-shape tubules, solid For the movement of cytoplasmic
rounded0like shape that contain organelles, responsible for cell
tubulin protein division, give supports
Intermediate Microscopic thin thread structure, Helps to make the cell to become
filaments hairy-like that made up of protein strong, maintaining the cell shape
fibers
Centrioles Pair of rounded tubular bodies Forms spindle fibers during cellular
located behind the nucleus division, for the movement of
cytoplasmic organelles for cell
reproduction.

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Cell Cycle
Thursday, 7 April 2022 9:23 pm

THE PHASES OF MITOSIS

- Did you know that the trillions of cells that make up your body came from just one cell, a
fertilized egg cell?
- An important biological principle formulated by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 states that all cells
come from other cells. It is simple and yet profound. It tells us that life is self-perpetuating.
This process of cellular reproduction is commonly known as cell division
- Cell reproduction or cell division has two crucial roles in the perpetuation of life. First, it makes
possible for a fertilized egg to develop into an adult organism. Second, it ensures continuity of
life through asexual and sexual reproduction.

The Cell cycle

- Cell is an essential aspect of life. It enables a multicellular organism to grow and reach the
adult size, replaces worn-out or damaged cells, and keeps the number of cells in an adult
organism relatively constant.
- A typical cell goes through cell division in stages to ensure that cell division always carried out
correctly. It performs normal life processes before new cells. The series of stages in the life of
a cell is referred to as the cell cycle. This consists of a phase (interphase), the actual cell
(mitosis). (division of the cytoplasm).
1. Interphase
- is the longest phase in the cell cycle for most cells. Typically lasts tot 90% of the total time
required for the cell cycle. A cell at interphase may testing under the microscope, but it
actually goes through a period of very high metabolic activity. Chromosomes duplicate, many
cells parts are made and its growing during this cell. Interphase is a phase referred to as the
preparatory stage

- As shown in the figure, the interphase consists of subphases. The first subphases is designated
as G1.
- G stands for gap, referring to the gap between cell division and DNA synthesis.
 G1, the period before DNA synthesis begins, is characterized by an increase in the supply
of proteins, in the number of cellular organelles particularly mitochondria and
ribosomes, and in the size of the cell.
 The second subphase is S(synthetic phase) , characterized mainly by DNA synthesis or
replication. In the S phase, the cell makes another copy of its
Chromosomes, which are composed of the DNA as well as the proteins attached to
them. The identical copies of each chromosome that result from the replication are
called sister chromatids. These sister chromatids remain attached to each other at a
point called centromere

 The third subphase is called G2, it spans from the completion of DNA synthesis to the
start of actual cell division. It prepares the cell for chromosomal separation. It is

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 start of actual cell division. It prepares the cell for chromosomal separation. It is
characterized by the synthesis of mitochondria and ribosomes, the synthesis of
microtubules and protein that will form the mitotic spindle fibers, and chromosomal
condensation.

2. Phases of Mitosis
- The term "mitosis' is derived from the Latin word mito meaning "threads".
- Scientists century ago had seen "threads" within cells so they named the process of "thread
movements" as mitosis. The nuclear material becomes visible as thread like chromosomes
during mitosis. These chromosomes organize at the cell center and then separate moving into
each new cell that is formed. A series of modification is undergone by the nucleus to form
daughter nuclei in the dividing cell. The equal nuclear division called karyokinesis is followed
by the division of the cell body called cytokinesis. The cells which constitute the body or soma
or multicellular organisms multiply by mitosis, hence the process of mitosis is designed as
somatic cell division. Mitosis occurs among cells during embryonic development, growth,
repair of injured tissues and replacement Of worn out tissues, Certain specialized cells like
nerve cells, sperm cells, and red blood cells that have no nuclei lose their power to divide.
- Mitosis is a continuous process. For convenience of description it has been divided into a
serious of phases, namely: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase The combination of
mitosis and cytokinesis makes up the mitotic phase (M phase) of the cell cycle. Each phase
smoothly flows into the next phase. Mitosis is described as a dynamic continuum.

a. Prophase: Formation of Mitotic Spindle

- During prophase, significant changes in both the nucleus and cytoplasm occur.
- The duplicated chromosomes, which initially appear thin and thread-like, become more
tightly coiled and folded, thus appearing as short, thick, and discrete structures under
the microscope.
- The nucleoli disappear. In the cytoplasm, the mitotic spindle, which is composed of
microtubules, begins to form from the centrioles, which at the same time begin to move
away from each other, toward opposite sides of the cell (called spindle poles).
- Later in the prophase, the nuclear envelope breaks into fragments. With the nuclear
envelope gone, some of the microtubules emerging from the centrioles reach the highly

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 envelope gone, some of the microtubules emerging from the centrioles reach the highly
condensed chromosomes and attach to the protein structure called kinetochore at the
centromere region- Other spindle microtubules coming from the opposite poles

b. Metaphase: Alignment of chromosomes

- As the cell enters into metaphase, the chromatids begin moving toward the center of
the cell and align midway between the spindle poles, or along the spindle equator.
- The spindle microtubules attached to the individual kinetochores pull the sister
chromatids toward the center of the cell, with each centromere equidistant from each
pole of the cell.

c. Anaphase: Movement of the Daughter Chromosomes

- Of the four phases of mitosis, anaphase is the shortest.
- The centromere of each chromosome divided and the two sister chromatids detach
from each other.
- As this happens, the spindle microtubules shorten, pulling the detached sister
chromatids toward their respective poles.
- Each chromatid is now considered a full-fledged chromosomes, called daughter
chromosome.
- Anaphase ends when all the daughter chromosomes have moved to their respective
poles.
- Each poles has a complete set of chromosomes.

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d. Telophase: Formation of Two Daughter Nuclei
- Telophase begins as soon as the daughter chromosomes reach the opposite end of the
poles.
- This stage is characterized by the formation of a nuclear envelope around each set of the
chromosomes.
- The chromosomes uncoil, and once again appear thread-like under the microscope.
- Nucleoli reappear. At the end of the telophase, the mitotic spindles disappear and the
equal division of one nucleus into two identical daughter nuclei is completed.

e. Cytokinesis: Division of the Cytoplasm

- Cytokinesis is the final phase of cell division, characterized mainly by the division of the
cytoplasm.
- This phase usually starts 'in the late anaphase or the early telophases It occurs
differently in plant and animal cells. In plant cells, cellulose deposits accumulate along
the equator, forming a structure called cell plate from which the cell wall forms.
- A new plasma membrane extends across both sides of the cell plate.
In animal cell, the cytoplasm divides by the formation of a groove called cleavage furrow
starting from both edges of the membrane fusing toward the center Of the cell It finally
pinches off to form two new daughter cells.

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THE PHASES OF MEOSIS
Meiosis
- In humans, each body (somatic) cell contains two sets of chromosomes, with 23 chromosomes
in each set.
- Each of the 23 pairs is called homologous pair.
- One set comes from each parent cell.
- A cell that contains two complete sets or homologous pairs of chromosomes is called a diploid
cell.
- The number of chromosomes in a diploid cell is called diploid number, represent by 2N.
- Each organism has a constant diploid number of chromosomes in their body cells. The human
sex cells, which are the egg cell and the sperm cell, contain only half the number of
chromosomes found in the body cells.
- A cell containing a single set of chromosomes is called a haploid cell. Human gametes have a
haploid number (N) of 23. Thus, sexual reproduction, a haploid sperm cell from the father
fuses with a haploid egg cell from the mother. This process is called fertilization; it results in a
fertilized egg, called a zygote, which is diploid, Mitosis ensures that all somatic cells receive
exact copies of all the zygote's 46 chromosomes.
- Gametes, however, cannot undergo mitosis since this would double their number of
chromosomes after each cycle of cell division. Haploid gametes are produced by a serial types
of cell division called meiosis which occurs only in the reproductive organs.

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 of cell division called meiosis which occurs only in the reproductive organs.
- Meiosis is similar to mitosis in some ways. Both occur in eukaryotic cells and involve similar
phases of cell division. Bu the 'two processes differ in the following ways:
- Meiosis results in daughter cells having the number of chromosomes (haploid number)
of the parent cell
- The resulting daughter cells: meiosis are not alike. They do not have the same exact
copies o! chromosomes.
- In mitosis, a parent cell produces 'two daughter cells while in meiosis, a parent cell
divides twice! producing four daughter cells
- Mitosis occurs in all body cells while meiosis occurs only in reproductive cells of ovaries
and testes.

MEOSIS I PHASES

MEOSIS II PHASES

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CROSSING OVER

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