EEE206

Lab Manual
Electronic Devices & Circuits-I

This Binder Belongs to:

Name: __________________ID: ______________

 BRAC UNIVERSITY
ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND CIRCUITS I LAB - ECE202 / EEE206

Exp. 1: STUDY OF DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

OBJECTIVES

1) To study the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of silicon p-n junction diodes

2) To build Half Wave rectifier circuit and understand its operation principle.

EQUIPMENT

p-n junction diode(1N4003) one piece

Resistor (1k, 10k) one piece each
DC power suply one piece
Oscilloscope one unit
Chords and wire lot
Capacitor 1F, 47F

TASK 1
THEORY

Diode is a semiconductor device that allows current flow only in one direction, from p to n or
anode to cathode. The schematic diagram, diode notation and circuit symbol are shown in
Figure 1. Diodes are usually marked with a dot or a bar appearing on the cathode side. This
mark helps identify the diode terminals.

Figure 1
Diode Structure

Packaged Diode

Anode Cathode

Circuit Symbol

Diodes have small impedance to current flow in one direction (forward-biased) and large
impedance in the reverse-biased mode. When diodes fail they either short-circuit (pass
current in both directions – i.e. low resistance in both directions) or open-circuit (do not pass
current at all).

1
Ideal Diode Characteristics:
Figure 2

Real Diode Characteristics:

Diode Equation Figure 3

ID ≈ IS exp(VD/nVT), VD >> VT

VD < - VZK ID ≈ - IS , VD < 0

2
Diode Resistance:
As the diode I-V characteristic is not linear, it will have different resistances at different
points on the curve. A dynamic or AC resistance for the diode is defined as,
rd = dv/di ≈ nVT/ID
The static or DC resistance at any point is defined as, RD = VD/ID.

Diode Specifications:
There are many specifications for each type of diode, the most important two are: (1) PIV
(Peak inverse Voltage) maximum voltages the diode can tolerate in reverse direction. (2) IF,
Maximum Forward Current the diode can conduct in forward biased condition without
exceeding the safe limit. Take a look at the data sheet of a diode provided at the last page to
get familiar with some of the diode specifications.

Diodes are widely used in applications such as mixers, detectors, protection circuits. In this
experiment you will investigate application of diodes as a switch in a logic gates (AND gate),
and study its I-V characteristics.

EXPERIMENTAL
Circuit Diagrams: + V R-

1K
+
VD
-
Vdc

Figure 4 Circuit diagram for

diode characteristics

PROCEDURE

1. Measure resistance accurately using multimeter.

2. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 4. Vary input voltage (Vdc) from 0 to 15 V and
measure VR and VD. Increase Vdc in steps of 0.1 V for 0-1 V and in steps of 1 V for 1-15
V. (Note that ID=VR/ R).

3. Plot ID vs VD and calculate the static and dynamic resistances for I D = 4, 8 and 12 mA.

REPORT
1. Plot diode I-V characteristics of the diode for different readings obtained.

2. Calculate the diode ideality factor (n), and the reverse saturation current (IS), using the
diode equation assuming VD >> VT.
3. Calculate static and dynamic resistances for ID = 4, 8 and 12 mA. Tabulate and comment
on the results.

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 EEE206/ECE202 Device 1 Lab
Simulation of experiment 1
Objective: To simulate the diode I-V curve in Pspice Schematics
(Vd vs Id curve)
Start Schematics
• Open Pspice Schematics and set up the following circuit; take help
from the following pages.
Get parts
• To draw the circuit shown in the previous page, Press “Ctrl+G” or the
button for “Get new part” from the toolbar above.

• In the window that appears, type in “Vdc” for a dc source and click on
the “Place and close button”. Place the part as appropriate and
similarly, continue for the other parts.
Get parts
• Type in “R” for resistor
• “D1n4148” for diode. Note that there
are several models for diode, and if you
don’t have this particular model,
choose another one.
• “Gnd_earth” for a zero volt reference.

• To rotate a part, click on the part, and

press “Ctrl+R”.
Draw wires and change attribute values

• Now, add wires and complete your circuit. Use the “Draw wire”
button on the toolbar as shown above to draw wires.
• To change the parameter values (e.g.- resistance of resistors), double
click on the existing value, and enter your desired value.
 Setup analysis

• After your circuit is set up, click on

the button “Setup analysis” on
the toolbar as shown above.
• In the window that appears,
select “DC sweep”.
• DC sweep varies the DC source
and helps us to see the circuit
behavior with changing input
voltage.
DC Sweep
• In the DC sweep window, select
“Voltage Source” as the “Swept Var.
Type”
• Type in the name of the DC voltage
source used in YOUR circuit. In my case,
it is “V1”.
• Select “Sweep Type” as Linear, and
enter Start, End and Increment values
as shown.
Simulation
• When everything is ready, save your file if you have not already done
so, and click on the “Simulate” button in the toolbar above.

• A new window with a black screen should appear. Don’t worry if you
don’t get to see any curves- few steps are still left.
Simulation
• Notice that we want to plot the Current through the diode (Id) with
respect to Voltage dropped across the diode (Vd). However, the black
screen has the variable DC source as the x axis variable.
• To change the x axis variable to Vd, click on
the “Plot” (shown above) menu and select
“Axis Settings”.
• In the window that appears, click on the
button “Axis Variable…” as shown.
Axis variable
• In the space for “Trace
expression” erase everything and
click on “V(D1:1)” once as shown
by the upper arrow.
• Put a ‘-’ (minus sign) after V(D1:1)
and click on V(D1:2).
• The final expression should read
“V(D1:1)-V(D1:2)”. Click ok.

*V(D1:1) means one terminal of the diode D1, and

V(D1:2) means the other terminal of the diode D1.
Add trace
• Now that we have chosen our x axis variable as “Vd”, we need to set
“Id” as the y axis variable.
• To do that, go to the “Trace” menu
from the top and select “Add
trace”.
• For the “Trace expression” select
“I(D1)” and click ok.
• If you have done everything right,
you should get the desired I-V
curve shown on your screen.
 BRAC University

ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND CIRCUITS I LAB

ECE202 / EEE206

Exp. 2: STUDY OF HALF WAVE AND FULL-WAVE DIODE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

OBJECTIVE
To build half and full-wave diode rectifier circuit and understand its operation principle.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
Resistor 10k
Capacitor 1F, 47F
Diode 4 pieces

TASK 1
THEORY
The diode rectifier converts the input sinusoidal voltage V s to a unipolar output Vo. There are
two types of rectifier circuits: (i) Half-wave rectifier and (ii) Full-wave rectifier.

(i) Half-wave (HW) rectifier

The circuit of a half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. 1.

10V p-p Figure. 5

vs RL v0
100 Hz

Assuming ideal diode model

For the period t = 0 → T/2, vs > 0, Diode is ON, and v0 = vs
For the period t = T/2 → T, vs < 0, Diode is OFF, and v0 = 0

As only positive half cycle appears at the output and the negative half is blocked, the AC
input voltage changes into a unidirectional DC voltage at the output. The process of removing
half of the input signal to establish a dc level is aptly called half-wave rectification. Due to
diode voltage drop, the actual output voltage will be approximately, v0 = vs – VD0.

For Vs = Vmsint, DC voltage and current of a half wave rectifier are as follows
VDC = Vm/ - VDO/2
IDC = (Vm/ - VDO/2)/R
where, VDO  0.7 V, for Si.

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 BRAC University

Figure 6:
Input and output wave shapes
of a HW rectifier circuit
assuming constant voltage
drop model.

Figure. 7
Input and output wave shapes
of a HW rectifier circuit
assuming an ideal diode
model.

HW rectifier with a Filter Capacitor

Although the rectification stage makes the sine wave voltage to be positive, the rectifier’s
result is not as “flat” a DC value as we would like to have from a reliable voltage source, as
you will measure in the lab. The capacitor is included to help smooth out the ripples that
result in the output from the rectification stage.
Recall that the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously, but rather it requires
a certain amount of time before it is fully charged. Initially, as the input voltage rises, diode
turns on, and the capacitor starts charging. After the input voltage reaches its peak value, the
capacitor gets charged to the peak input voltage. As the input voltage now starts decreasing
below the peak value, the diode turns off, since the n-side is more positive than the p-side due
to the voltage across the capacitor which does not change instantaneously. The stored charges
on the capacitor will be released through RL.

For RLC >> T, it will take long time for the capacitor to discharge and the output terminal
will maintain almost a dc voltage. Thus large capacitance values help suppress the quickly
changing voltage from the rectifier and result in a flatter DC value being supplied to the load.
Typical power supply designs use relatively large capacitor values (greater than 1000 μF).

Figure. 8:
Half wave rectifier
Ch1 10V p-p
Vs RL V0 C Ch2 with the filter
100 Hz capacitor

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 BRAC University

v0
Figure. 9:
Vr is the ripple voltage. A
small ripple voltage is
required in most supply
design.

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage): PIV is the maximum voltage that appears across the diode
when it is reverse-biased.
PIV = Vm
Ripple voltage and ripple factor
The output of a rectifier though unidirectional, contains periodically fluctuating components.
The theoretical value for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is given by,
Vr = Vp/(fCR), for a HW rectifier circuit
Here f is the ripple frequency, and R is the resistance connected in parallel with C.
A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor r, which is defined as
rms value of alternating components of wave
r
average value of wave
= I’rms /Idc = V’rms /Vdc
where, I’rms and V’rms denote the rms value of the ac components of the current and voltage,
respectively.

PROCEDURE

1. Construct circuit of Fig. 5 without the capacitor. Observe V s and Vo simultaneously on the
oscilloscope.

2. Sketch input and output waveforms. Note down the voltage levels. Also measure V o with
a multimeter in dc and ac mode.

3. Connect 1F capacitor across the load resistor, RL (BE CAREFUL about the polarity of
the capacitor).

4. Measure the dc load voltage V0 (DC) and peak-to-peak ripple voltage Vr(pp) as shown in
the figure (To measure the ripple voltages, switch the oscilloscope to AC coupling. This
slows you how to magnify the small ac ripple voltage without including the much larger
dc level).

5. Measure the ripple frequency at which the waveform repeats. Sketch input and output
waveforms. Also measure Vo with a multimeter.

6. Replace 1F Capacitor with 47F and repeat steps 4 and 5.

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 BRAC University

TASK 2

THEORY
The diode rectifier converts the input sinusoidal voltage V s to a unipolar output Vo. There are
two types of rectifier circuits: (i) Half-wave rectifier and (ii) Full-wave rectifier.

Full-wave (FW) Bridge Rectifier

Circuit diagram for the

bridge rectifier
Vs RL Vo
C

Figure. 1

Figure. 2
Input and output wave shapes of a FW rectifier circuit without the filter capacitor, assuming
an ideal diode model.

Fig. 8 shows the output voltage of a FW rectifier as a function of time assuming constant
voltage drop model. Peak voltage across each diode when it is reverse-biased is
PIV = Vm - VDO
DC voltage, VDC = 2(Vm - 2VDO ) /

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 BRAC University

Input and output wave shapes of a FW rectifier circuit assuming

Figure. 3
constant voltage drop model.

Figure. 4 Output voltage wave shape of a FW rectifier circuit with the filter capacitor

Ripple voltage and ripple factor

The output of a rectifier though unidirectional, contains periodically fluctuating components.

The theoretical value for the peak-to-peak ripple voltage is given by,
Vr =Vp/(2fCR), for a FW rectifier circuit
Determine peak-peak ripple Vr from oscilloscope.
Here f is the ripple frequency, and R is the resistance connected in parallel with C.

A measure of the fluctuating components is given by the ripple factor r, which is defined as
rms value of alternating components of wave (multimeter in AC mode)
r average value of wave (multimeter in dc mode)
= I’rms /Idc = V’rms /Vdc
where, I’rms and V’rms denote the rms value of the ac components of the current and voltage,
respectively.

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 BRAC University

PROCEDURE

7. Construct circuit of Fig. 1 without the capacitor. Observe V s and Vo separately on the
oscilloscope.

8. Sketch input and output waveforms. Note down the voltage levels. Also measure Vo with
a multimeter in dc and ac mode.

9. Connect 1F capacitor across the load resistor, RL (BE CAREFUL about the polarity of
the capacitor).

10. Measure the dc load voltage V0 (DC) and peak-to-peak ripple voltage Vr(pp) as shown in
the figure (To measure the ripple voltages, switch the oscilloscope to AC coupling. This
slows you how to magnify the small ac ripple voltage without including the much larger
dc level).

11. Measure the ripple frequency at which the waveform repeats. Sketch input and output
waveforms. Also measure Vo with a multimeter.

12. Replace 1F Capacitor with 47F and repeat steps 4 and 5.

REPORT

1. Calculate the average and effective values of the load voltages in circuits of Fig.1 without
capacitor. Compare these values with those obtained with the multimeter.

2. Comment on PIV of the diodes for the HW and FW rectifier.

3. Calculate the ripple factor for the HW and FW rectifier and complete the following table.
Compare your results with the calculated values.

4. Which capacitor acts as a better filter? Explain your answer.

5. Which of the two rectifiers is better? Explain why.

6. Why can’t you see the input and output using 2 channel of oscilloscope simultaneously?

Experimental Theoretical
Ripple
C Vr(rms) Vdc Ripple Vr Vdc Ripple
Frequency,
(F) (V) (V) Factor (V) (V) Factor
f (Hz)
1
HW
47
1
FW
47

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 EEE206 Device 1 Lab

Experiment 2- Half wave and Full wave rectifiers

Objective: To observe the HW and FW rectifier

circuit behavior
 Setup the circuit

• Construct the above circuit in Pspice Schematics for HW rectifier circuit.

• Use the voltage probes/markers as shown to observe the input and output wave
shapes.
• Use transient analysis to observe 4 complete cycles of the input waveform.
 Setup AC source
• For the AC source, select “Vsin”.
• Double click on the “Vsin” source to show its properties. In the window
that appears, enter the values as shown below.
 Setup the circuit

• Construct the above circuit in Pspice Schematics for FW rectifier circuit.

• To observe the output waveform across the Resistor, use ‘Voltage differential
markers’. (Get it from the menu Markers>Mark Voltage differential) Place it as
shown above.
• To observe the input waveform, use the normal Voltage Marker.
• Use Transient Analysis to perform the simulation.
 BRAC UNIVERSITY
ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND CIRCUITS I LAB
ECE202 / EEE206

Exp. 3: STUDY OF CLIPPER AND CLAMPER CIRCUITS

OBJECTIVE
To study the operation of clipper and clamper circuits.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 Diode
 Resistance – 10k  , 1 k  ,
 Capacitance – 1 uF

THEORY

Clipper Circuits:
 Clippers remove signal voltage above and below a specified level. In the last experiment,
half wave rectifier can also be called as a clipper circuit. Because it clipped off the
negative half cycle of the input signal.
 A diode connected in series with the load can clipp off any half cycle of the input
depending on the orientation of the diode.
 A diode connected in parallel with the load can clip off the input signal above 0.7 v to
any one half cycle depending on the connection of the diode. Using two diodes in parallel
and in opposite direction both the half cycle can be limited to a 0.7 v.

Vs +

Load Vo

-
  Using a biased diode it is possible to limit the output voltage to a specified level
depending on the attached battery voltage. Either the half cycles or both of them can be
clipped off above a specified level.
 Two zener diodes connected in back to back configuration can also be used as a double
clipper. In this case, in each half cycle of the input, one diode is forward biased while the
other diode works in the reverse breakdown region. The limiting voltage in either half is
VD + VZ.

Vs +

Load Vo
V1 V2

In practical case for both the series and parallel clippers voltage source is not added. Required
voltage levels are maintained by adding more semiconductor diode.

Clamper Circuits:

A DC clamper circuit adds a dc voltage to the input signal. For instance, if the incoming signal
varies from -10v to +10v, a positive dc clamper will produce an output that ideally swings from
0v to 20v and a negative clamper would produce an output between 0v to -20v.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Set up 1: Input Sine wave (10 Vpeak amplitude, frequency 1 kHz)

100k 100k

Vs + +
Vs Load
Vo Vo

Load
VB - VB -

(a) (b)

Figure 1: Negative Clipper Positive Clipper

Set up 2: Input Sine wave (10 V peak amplitude, frequency 1 kHz)

Figure 2: Double Clipper Circuit using Zener Diodes (DO NOT SETUP THIS
CIRCUIT)
Set up 3: Input square wave (5 V peak amplitude, frequency 1 kHz)
.1uF
.1uF

Vs + +
Vs
Vo Vo
VB 100k
VB 100k
- -

(a) (b)

Figure 3: Positive Clamper Negative Clamper

Procedure:
 Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 1. Use a sinusoidal voltage source with 10
volts peak (Vm).
 Observe the wave shapes for various values of VB and draw the output voltage wave
shape for VB = 5 V for each circuit. Record the clipping voltage levels.
 Draw the output voltage wave shape for the circuit in figure 2 with input peak voltage Vm
= 10 volts and record the output voltage levels.
 For the clamper circuits in figure 3, do the same as in above steps with V m = 5 volts.

REPORT:
1. Sketch all the waveforms observed on the oscilloscope.
2. Compare the observed output wave shapes and voltage levels with your hand calculation.
Explain any discrepancy.
3. What role does the value of capacitor used in the clamping circuit play in order to obtain
proper clamping?
 EEE206 Device 1 Lab
Experiment 3 Simulation

Objective: To observe the behavior of clipper and

clamper circuits
Setup the circuit
• Setup the circuit for positive clipper as
shown. Configure the sine wave source
to provide a waveform of 10V p-p, at
1kHz.
• Use two voltage markers as shown to
observe both input and output waves
simultaneously.
• Use transient analysis to observe the
voltage waveshapes versus time.
• In a similar fashion, setup the circuit
for negative clipper.
Clamper circuit
• Setup the circuit for Positive
Clamper as shown.
• For the AC voltage source, use the
part “Vpulse” to get a square
wave.
• Refer to the next page in order to
see how to setup a square wave
source.
Square wave in Pspice- Vpulse
• After placing Vpulse, double click
on it, and you will be able to see
a number of empty variables.

• The letters are actually shortcuts

to some square wave properties,
shown in the diagram.
Setting up Vpulse
• Let’s say we need to setup a square wave source, which gives 10V p-p
at 1kHz.
• For this, enter values for V1 and V2 as 5 and -5 respectively.
• To get a frequency of 1kHz, the time period must be 1ms. Therefore,
set PER to 1ms. In order to get a perfect square wave, the pulse width
should be HALF that of the time period. So, enter 0.5ms for PW.
• Finally, we desire an almost ideal square wave, so that the Rise time
and Fall time should be negligible. Enter 0 in TF and TR. (You can also
enter really small values- like 1ns) Enter 0 for TD (Time delay) as well.
• DC and AC values should be set to 0 as well.
 BRAC UNIVERSITY
ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND CIRCUITS I LAB
ECE202 / EEE206

Exp. 3: STUDY OF ZENER DIODE AND ITS APPLICATION IN VOLTAGE REGULATION

OBJECTIVE
To study the I-V characteristics of a zener diode and its application as a voltage regulator in a DC
power supply and determine the line and load regulations.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 Zener diode (5 volt)

 Resistance (220  , 470  , 1k  )
 POT 10 k 

THEORY
The diodes we have studied before do not operate in the breakdown region because this may damage
them. A Zener diode is different it is a silicon diode that the manufacturer has optimized for operation
in the breakdown region. It is used to build voltage regulator circuits that hold the load voltage almost
constant despite large change in line voltage and load resistance. Figures below show the symbol of
Zener diode and its operating region.

Zener Diode Symbol Normal operating region of a zener diode

The Zener diode may have a breakdown voltage from about 2 to 200 V. These diodes can operate in
any of the three regions: forward, leakage and breakdown.

 In the forward region it works as an ordinary diode.

 In the leakage region (between zero and breakdown) it has only a small reverse saturation
current.
 In the breakdown region it has a sharp knee, followed by an almost vertical increase in current
without changing the voltage.
 The voltage is almost constant, approximately equal to Vz over most of the breakdown region.

Model Approximations:
First approximation: When the voltage across the zener diode V ≥ VZ, the diode is ON, and it is
represented by a battery with constant voltage of VZ, otherwise the diode is OFF and it is represented
by an open circuit.

Second approximation: The Zener diode is modeled with a battery of voltage VZ0 in series with
resistance rz, called the zener resistance, to account for the slight increase in the zener voltage VZ with
the zener current IZ.

VZ  VZ 0  I Z rz
Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation, a measure of performance of voltage regulator circuits, is classified as two types:

1. Line Regulation and

2. Load Regulation.

1. Line Regulation: line regulation is the variation in the output or the load voltage (VL) for one
volt variation in the input voltage (Vi), expressed mathematically as VL/Vi (mV/V).

2. Load Regulation: load regulation is the variation in the output or the load voltage (VL) for one
mA variation in the load current (IL), expressed mathematically as VL/IL (mA/V).

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

Vr
470

2
220
470
2

V V VL
Vz
1 10k
1

Fig 1: Circuit diagram 2

Fig 1: Circuit diagram 1

Procedure:

 Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 1.

 Vary the supply voltage from 0 to 10 volt, in steps of 1 V and complete Table1. Try to take
more readings with smaller voltage increments (0.1 or 0.2 V) near the breakdown region in
order to accurately capture the transition.
 Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram 2.
 Keep the 10k POT at maximum position and then power up the ckt. Apply 10 V DC at the
input.
 Gradually decrease the POT resistance and complete Table 2.
 Replace load with 1 k  resistance, vary the supply voltage and take readings for Table 3.
 Table 1 Table 2 Table 3
IZ = V R V
V VR VZ V220 VL I L  220 V VL
(V) (V) (V)
R1
(V) (V) R220 (V) (V)
(mA) (mA)

REPORT
 Plot the I-V characteristics (VZ vs. IZ) of the Zener diode. Estimate the Zener knee current and
voltage (IZK, VZK) from the plot. Also calculate the voltage VZ0 and the zener resistance rz using
the data.
 Plot VL vs. IL for the data of Table 2. Determine the load regulation.
 Plot VL vs. V for the data of Table 3. Determine the line regulation.
 Calculate the load and line regulation for the ckt 2 and compare with those obtained from
experimental data.
 Tabulate your results as in Table 4. Comment on your results.

Table 4
Load regulation Line regulation
VZK IZK VZ0 rz (mV/mA) (mV/V)
(V) (mA) (V) (ohm) From Theoretical From Theoretical
Experiment Calculation Experiment Calculation
 EEE206 Device 1 Lab

Experiment 4 simulation
Objective: To observe the behavior of
zener diodes in reverse bias
Setup the circuit
• Setup the circuit as shown. Use
a DC source and a zener diode.
For Zener diode, search for the
part name, “D02BZ4_7”. (Note
that the last two digits here, i.e.
4_7, signifies the reverse
breakdown voltage of this
particular zener diode)

• Use the voltage marker across

the diode as shown.
 DC sweep
• To setup DC sweep (i.e. varying the input DC
voltage and observing the corresponding
changes in the circuit), go to
Analysis>Setup…>DC Sweep.
• The name for the voltage source should match
the one you have used. In this case, it is V1.
• Enter the start, end and increment values as
shown.
• Sweep type should be set to Linear.
• Click Ok and simulate the circuit. Observe how
the voltage drop across the diode doesn’t
exceed 4.7V even as the input voltage goes
beyond.
Setup the circuit
• Now, setup the new circuit as shown.
Use Vsin for the AC voltage source.
Configure it to have a 6V amplitude
at 1kHz.
• Use voltage markers as shown.
• Go to setup analysis, and select
“Transient Analysis”
• Set the final time to show 6 complete
cycles of the input waveform.
• Click ok and simulate the circuit. See
how this circuit behaves.
 BRAC UNIVERSITY
ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND CIRCUITS I LAB
ECE202 / EEE206

Exp. 5: STUDY OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

OBJECTIVE

 Measure and graph the collector characteristic curves for a BJT.

 Use the Characteristics curves to determine the βDC of the transistor at a given point.
 Study data sheet of BJT and get familiarize with its specifications.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED

 Transistor (C828)
 Resistors (10, 2,2 , 3.3 , 4.7 , 470 KΩ, 470 Ω)
 Potentiometer (100 KΩ)

THEORY

Introduction:
Unlike the diodes, transistors are three terminal device with three-doped regions called:

 Emitter
 Base and
 Collector

These three-doped regions form two junctions: One between the emitter and the base and the other
between the collector and the base. Further, they come in two flavours NPN (On a NPN transistor
arrow is not pointed IN (See Figure 1)) and PNP. The middle letter indicate the type of material used
for the base, while outer letters indicate the emitter and collector material. The sandwiched materials
produce two pn junctions. These two junctions form two diodes-the emitter-base diode and base-
collector diode.

The emitter is heavily doped, its job is to emit or inject free majority carrier (electron for NPN and hole
for PNP) into the base. The base is lightly doped and very thin. It passes the most of the emitter-
injected electron (For NPN) into the collector. The doping level of the collector is between emitter and
base.

Following figure shows the biased NPN transistor.

RC

IC ↓
+

IB
→
RB VCE VCC

VBB +
-

VBE

↓I E

Figure 1: Biasing of an NPN transistor

Amplification:
BJTs are current amplifiers. A small base current is amplfied to a larger current in the collector-emitter
circuit. Consider first the NPN transistor shown at the top. If the base is at higher ( ≈0.6 volt) potential
than the emitter then a current IB will flow into the base. The current into the collector is β times larger
than the base current. The quantity β (usually called hFE in transistor data sheets) is a characteristic of
the individual transistor and is typically in the range from 100-500 for the types of transistors we will
be using.

Biasing:
For a transistor to amplify, power is required from dc sources. The dc voltages required for proper
operation are referred to as bias voltages. The purpose of bias is to establish and maintain the requied
operating conditions despite variations between transistors or changes in the circuit parameters. For
normal operation, the base emitter junction is forward-biased and base-collector junction reverse-
biased. Since the base emitter junction is forward-biased, it has characteristics of a forward-biased
diode.

Characteristic Curves:
Input Characteristic Curve: Input characteristic is defined as the set of curves between Input current
(IB) Vs. Input voltage (VBE) for constant output voltage (VCE). It is the same curve that is found for a
forward biased diode.

Transistor Input Characteristics Transistor Output Characteristics

Output Characteristic Curve: Output characteristic is defined by the set of curves between Output
current (IC) vs. Output voltage (VCE) for constant Input current (IB). The curves have the following
features:

 It has three regions: Saturation, Active and Cutoff.

 Saturation: The rising part of the curve, where VCE is between 0 and approximately 1V is called
saturation region. In this region, both the collector-base and emitter-base junctions are forward
biased.
 Active: When the collector-base junction becomes reverse biased the graph becomes horizontal.
In this region, the collector current remains almost constant and is equal to IB, where is the
base-to-collector current gain. The region is known as the active region. For amplification
purposes, transistors always have to be operated in the active region.
 Cutoff: When both the collector-base and emitter-base junctions are reverse biased, transistor
currents are zero, and the transistor is in cutoff. Transistors used as a switch, such as in logic
circuits, are operated in cutoff (OFF) and saturation (ON) region.
 For different value of IB, an individual curve can be obtained.

About βDC
The βDC commonly known as simply β is an important bipolar transistor parameter that we need to
examine. βDC varies with both collector current and temperature. Keeping the junction temperature
constant and increase in IC causes βDC to increase to a maximum. A further increase in IC beyond this
point causes βDC to decrease. If IC is held constant and the temperature is varied, βDC changes directly
with the temperature. If the temperature goes up, βDC goes up and vice versa.

A transistor data sheet usually specifies βDC (hFE) at specific IC values. Even at fixed values of IC and
temperature, βDC varies from device to device for a given transistor due to inconsistencies in the
manufacturing process that are unavoidable. The βDC specified at a certain values of IC is usually the
minimum value, βDC(min), although the maximum and typical values are also sometimes specified.

Figure below shows the variation of βDC with IC and junction temperature (Tj) for a typical transistor.

DC

Maximum Transistor Ratings

A transistor like any other electronic device has limitations on its operation. These limitations are stated
in the form of maximum ratings and are normally specified on the manufacturer's data sheet. Typical
maximum ratings are given for collector-to-base voltage, collector-to-emitter voltage, collector current
and power dissipation. The product of VCE and IC must not exceed the maximum power dissipation
(Ptot(max)). Both VCE and IC cannot be maximum at the same time. Ptot(max) is usually specified at 25 °C.
For Higher temperature, Ptot(max) is less. Data sheets often give derating factors for determining P tot(max)
at any temperature above 25 °C. For example, a derating factor of 2mW/°C indicates that the maximum
power dissipation is reduced 2 mW for each centigrade degree increase in temperature.
Experimental Setup:

Procedure: +30 V

2
Step 1: Connect the circuit as shown in the figure. Use 2.2 KΩ as R.
V
Step 2: Measure VRB and calculate IB using I B  RB . We will 100k
1 assume that I B to be constant for a
RB
470
particular setup at input. 10 k
+

VR 470
R = 470. Calculate IC using I C 
Step 3: Measure the voltages VCE and+VVRB - VCE
.
470k
R470
+
Step 4: Take at least 10 readings by varying the POT. -

R VBE

Step 5: Repeat step 1 to 4 with R = 3.3 KΩ and 4.7 KΩ.

-

0 0

Figure 4

Table:

R IB = (VRB/RB) uA VCE VR=470 IC = β= IC /IB

KΩ volts volts (VR=470/R470)
2.2

3.3
4.7

REPORT:
 Plot the graph IC Vs.VCE with necessary details for different values of IB.
Show the different regions of operation.
 Plot a hypothetical output characteristic using PNP transistor.
 Comment on the values of  obtained for different values of IC and IB.
 EEE206 Device 1 Lab

Experiment 5 Simulation
Objective: To obtain the Ic vs Vce curve for a
BJT
Setup the circuit
• Setup the circuit as shown.
• Use the part Q2N2220 for the NPN BJT.

• In our experiment, we used a variable resistor to

change the collector current Ic while both the base
and the collectors were biased from the same source.
• But in Pspice, we can directly use a DC current source,
and vary it as required.
• For the DC current source, search for the part “IDC”.
Leave its value to 0V.

• Use the voltage marker to observe the collector-

emitter voltage as shown.
DC Sweep
• Go to setup, and click on DC sweep.
Change the Sweep variable type to
“Current Source” and enter the name of
your current source as appropriate.
• Enter the start, end and increment
values as shown.
• Go ahead and simulate the circuit.
 Probe window
• An exponential shaped graph
should appear. Delete this trace.
This is not the graph we want to
obtain.
• Go to Plot>Axis Settings>X
Axis>Axis Variable from the top
menu, and choose the collector-
emitter voltage to be in the x-
axis, as we want to obtain the Ic
vs. Vce graph.
• In this case it is V(Q1:c). Choose
as appropriate and click OK.
• Next, go to Trace>Add trace and
add the trace for the current
through the current source- I(I1)
 BRAC UNIVERSITY
ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND CIRCUITS I LAB
ECE202 / EEE206

Exp. 7: STUDY OF COMMON EMITTER (CE) AMPLIFIER

OBJECTIVE

To study the common emitter amplifier and measure its gain, input impedance, output
impedance and frequency response characteristics.

COMPONENTS

n-p-n transistor C828 One piece

10k potentiometer One piece
resistors 1K, 2.2 K, 10K, 33K, 100k
capacitors (2 pieces), 47F (1 piece).

THEORY

A bipolar transistor consists of two junctions: emitter- base and collector-base junctions. At
high frequency we cannot neglect the effect of capacitances on the performance of the
transistor. At low and mid band frequencies, their effects can be neglected.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

v0
vin 10F

RS
10F

47F

Common Emitter (CE) Amplifier

1
PROCEDURE

1. Construct the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram for CE amplifier.

2. Apply a signal voltage of 100 mV (peak-to-peak) and frequency 1 kHz at the input
terminals. Connect Ch.1 at the input between base and ground and Ch.2 at the output
terminals. Measure peak-to-peak value of both vin and vo.
3. Set the oscilloscope in dual mode. Observe the phase relationship between input and
output voltage.
4. Connect a 10k potentiometer at the output terminals. Adjust the potentiometer until v0 is
half the open circuit value. Measure the output impedance Ro from potentiometer.
5. Disconnect 10k potentiometer. Measure voltage before and after the 100K resistor at the
input. Calculate the input impedance.
6. Set the signal frequency at 50Hz. Measure the input and output voltages.
7. Repeat step 7 for frequency 100Hz, 200Hz, 500Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 5kHz, 10kHz, 20kHz,
50kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 500 kHz, 1MHz, etc. until voltage gain becomes zero,
ensuring constant input for all steps. Tabulate your results.

Frequency (Hz) Vo (V) Vin (V) Gain= 20log(Vo/Vin)

50
100
200
…
…
100k
200k
500k
1M

REPORT

1. Plot the gain in dB [ dB  20 log10 V0 Vi  ] as a function of frequency in a semi-log paper.

2. From the graph paper determine the lower cutoff frequency, higher cutoff frequency and
mid-band gain for this common emitter amplifier. Cutoff frequency can be defined as the
frequency where the voltage gain becomes 1 2 times the maximum gain or the mid-
band gain.
3. What is the gain (at 1 kHz), input impedance, output impedance and phase relationship
between input and output for CE amplifier for both with and without the bypass
capacitor? Compare your results with hand calculation. Make comments on them.
4. Explain the functions of bypass capacitor and the coupling (or dc blocking) capacitors?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of common emitter amplifier?

2
 EEE206 Device 1 Lab

Experiment 6 Simulation
Objective: To observe the time domain and
frequency domain response of the Common
Emitter Amplifier
Circuit setup

• Setup the circuit for Common Emitter amplifier as shown.

• Use Vsin as the voltage source for the time domain analysis. (Vampl=100m, Freq= 1k)
• Use the transistor model “2SD2353” as shown in the figure.
• Use voltage markers as shown, and use Transient analysis to observe the input-output waveshapes together. Find
the voltage gain.
AC Sweep
• Next, change the voltage source to
“Vac”, as we want to perform the
frequency domain analysis for the CE
amplifier. In it, change the Vamp to 1V.
• Go to Analysis>Setup.
• Uncheck Transient analysis.
• Click on AC sweep, and enter the start
frequency, end frequency,
points/decade as shown.
• Remove both the voltage markers.
Mark labels

• Mark the wires with labels Vin and Vout as shown. (Double click on the wire and write the
names of the labels)
• Simulate the circuit. No graphs should appear on the axes.
 Add trace
• In the Pspice A/D window,
go to Trace>Add trace.
• In the empty field for Trace
Expression write down the
following expression-
20*LOG10(V(Vout)/V(Vin))
• Take help of the two lists on
the left and right to obtain
• LOG10()
• V(Vout)
• V(Vin)
Plot
• Click on Ok to obtain the graph.
• If you have noticed, the trace expression was written to
obtain the Voltage Gain of the CE amplifier in decibels
versus frequency.
• Use cursors to obtain the upper and lower cutoff
frequencies (at -3db gain).
 BRACUNIVERSITY
ELECTRONIC DEVICE AND CIRCUITS I LAB
ECE202 / EEE206

Exp. 7: STUDY OF I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF MOSFET

OBJECTIVE

 Measure the drain current, gate voltage and drain voltage and plot the transfer and output
characteristics curves of a MOSFET.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
 MOSFET (IRF 9610)
 Resistor ( 56Ω)
 Multimeter

THEORY
The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a type of transistor used for amplifying or
switching electronic signals. MOSFET is primarily a three terminal device consisting of the following terminals:
 Gate
 Drain
 Source

There are two types of MOSFETS: i) enhancement-type MOSFET (shown in Figure 1(a)) ii) depletion type
MOSFET

Enhancement-type MOSFET
The basic construction of the n-channel enhancement-type MOSFET(nMOS) is provided in Fig. 1(a). A slab of p-
type material is formed from a silicon base and is referred to as the substrate. The substrate is sometimes
internally connected to the source terminal, while in other cases a fourth lead is made available for external control
of its potential level. The source and drain terminals are connected through metallic contacts to n-doped regions, but
note in Fig. 1(a), the absence of a channel between the two n-doped regions. This is the primarydifference between
the construction of depletion-type and enhancement-type MOSFETs—the absence of a channel as a constructed
component of the device. The gate is also connected to a metal contact surfacebut remains insulated from the p-type
material by a very thin silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer. SiO2 is a particular type of insulator referred to as a dielectric
that sets up opposing electric fields within the dielectric when exposed to an externally applied field.
 (a) (b)

(c)

Figure 1: (a) n-channel enhancement type MOSFET (b) Channel formation in the n-channel enhancement
type MOSFET (c) Symbol of an n-channel enhancement type MOSFET.

How to Turn on a N-Channel Enhancement(nMOS)-type MOSFET?

To turn on a N-Channel Enhancement-type MOSFET, apply a positive voltage VDD to the drain of the transistor
with respect to the source (the drain must be sufficiently more negative than the source (VD>VS). Then apply a
small positive voltage at its gate- relative to its source, so that VG>Vs. A voltage drop across the oxide induces
a conducting channel between the source and drain contacts. That means the positive charge at the gate will attract
the electrons in the p-substrate towards it. As a result, the electrons will accumulate the region in the p-substrate
below the gate thus forming the channel. The term "enhancement mode" refers to the increase of conductivity with
increase in oxide field that adds carriers to the channel, also referred to as the inversion layer. So with a sufficient
positive voltage, VDD, and sufficient positive voltage applied to the gate, the N-Channel Enhancement-type
MOSFET is fully functional in the 'on' operation.

How to Turn Off an N-Channel Enhancement MOSFET?

To turn off an N-channel Enhancement MOSFET, there are 2 steps you can take. You can either cut off the bias
positive voltage, VDD, that powers the drain. Or you can turn off the positive voltage going to the gate of the
transistor.

MOSFET Characteristics
Transfer Characteristics:
The transfer characteristic (input characteristics) relates drain current (ID) response to the input gate-source driving
voltage (VGS). Since the gate terminal is electrically isolated from the remaining terminals, the gate current is
essentially zero, so that gate current is not part of device characteristics. The transfer characteristic curve can locate
the gate voltage at which the transistor passes current and leaves the OFF-state. This is the device threshold voltage
(Vtn).

Figure 2: Transfer Characteristics of a MOSFET

Output Characteristics:
The output characteristic (input characteristics) relates drain current (ID) response to the drain voltage (VDS). In a n-
channel enhancement mode transistor, if a positive drain voltage with respect to the source is applied creates a
horizontal electric field. This causes electrons to flow from the source to drain. As a result a current flows from the
drain to the source, called the drain current. . If the channel horizontal electric field is of the same order or smaller
than the vertical thin oxide field(VDS is similar to VGS), then the inversion channel remains almost uniform along the
device length. This state is called the linear region. The drain and source are effectively short-circuited. This
happens when VGS > VDS + Vtn for nMOS transistor. Drain current is linearly related to drain-source voltage over
small intervals in the linear bias state.

But if the nMOS drain voltage increases beyond the limit, so that VGS< VDS + Vth, then the horizontal electric field
becomes stronger than the vertical field at the drain end. So the channel becomes asymmetric in shape causing one
end of the channel to become very narrow. This limits the amount of current that flow through the channel.
Therefore, the current does not increase further. This state is called the Saturation Region.

Figure 3: Output Characteristics of a MOSFET

Experimental Setup:

D
G

S
 1.) Setup the circuit given above.
2.) Keeping VD constant at 10V, increase VG from 0 to 30V and measure the corresponding voltage across the
𝑉𝑅
resistor VR. Calculate the drain current for each value of VG by using the formula 𝐼𝐷 = .
𝑅
VG VR ID
0
3
6
.
.
.
.
24
27
30

3.) Repeat the process for VD=15V and VD=20V.

4.) Plot the transfer characteristics (ID vs. VG) at VD=10V,15 and 20V.
5.) Now, keeping VG constant at 10V, increase VG from 0 to 30V and measure the corresponding voltage
𝑉𝑅
across the resistor VR. Calculate the drain current for each value of VG by using the formula 𝐼𝐷 = .
𝑅

VD VR ID
0
3
6
.
.
.
.
24
27
30

6.) Repeat the process for VG=15V and VG=20V.

7.) Plot the output characteristics (ID vs. VD) at VG=10V, 15V and 20V.

Questions
1.) In the plot of transfer characteristics, mark the cut-off region for the different drain voltages.
2.) From the plot of transfer characteristics, find the threshold voltage for VD=10V,15V and 20V each.
3.) In the plot of output characteristics, mark the linear and saturation regions for VG=10V, 15V and 20V.
Also, find the saturation current for each of the saturation current for each of the voltages.
 EEE 206 LAB

Experiment 2: Study of the I-V

characteristics of MOSFET
• Setup the circuit shown in the figure
• Use the MOSFET IRF150
 Transfer Characteristics
• Set DC Sweep (linear) of VG from 0 to 5 volts
in 0.01 volt steps.
• Set VD to 20V.
• Run simulation Plot ID(M1) vs. V_VG where V-
VG is on the axis and the current is on the y-
axis. Select ID(M1) using “Add Trace” while
selecting current.
• Determine the threshold voltage of n-MOSFET.
Transfer Characteristics
 Output Characteristics
• Here, for determining the output characteristics a
nested DC Sweep of VD and VG is required. For
achieving this, Select Setup Analysis and then DC
Sweep from the pop-up window. Sweep first VD from 0
to 20V in 0.1V increments. Then click on the Nested
Sweep button for sweeping VG from 0 to 5V in 1V
increments. Mark the Enable Nested Sweep box.
• Using “Add Trace” select ID(M1).
• Change the X-axis settings. [Plot  Axis settings  Axis
variable. Then select V1(M1:d) as axis variable]
• Output characteristic of the p-MOSFET will appear in
the probe.
Output Characteristics
Appendix
 BRAC University
Department of Electrical and Electronic Enginering
Introduction to PSpice

Objective
The objective of this module is to learn the fundamentals of computer aided circuit simulation using
PSpice.

Introduction
SPICE is a powerful general purpose analog circuit simulator that is used to verify circuit designs and to
predict the circuit behavior. This is of particular importance for integrated circuits. It was for this reason
that SPICE was originally developed at the Electronics Research Laboratory of the University of
California, Berkeley (1975), as its name implies
Simulation Program for Integrated Circuits Emphasis

PSpice program is extensively used to simulate and predict the behavior of experimental circuits.
Simulation is very important as it allows a potential circuit to be tested for errors before it is actually built,
thus saving time and cost.

Some Facts and Rules about PSpice

 PSpice is not case sensitive. This means that names such as Vbus, VBUS are vbus are equivalent.
 All element names must be unique.
 In PSpice circuits can be analyzed in two ways
o Text based: using “Netlist” to code up circuits
o Graphics based: using “Schematics” to draw circuits and simulate

Large and Small Numbers in PSpice

Unfortunately, PSpice cannot recognize Greek fonts or even upper vs. lower case. Thus our usual
understanding and use of the standard metric prefixes has to be modified. The metric prefix designations
used in PSpice are:

Number Prefix Common Name

1012 T or t tera
109 G or g giga
106 MEG or meg mega
103 K or k kilo
10-3 M or m mili
10-6 U or u micro
10-9 N or n nana
10-12 P or p pico
10-15 F or f femto

An alternative to this type of notation, which is in fact, the default for PSpice output data, is "textual
scientific notation." This notation is written by typing an "E" followed by a signed or unsigned integer
indicating the power of ten. Some examples of this notation are shown below:

656,000 = 6.56E5
-0.0000135 = -1.35E-5

Page 1 of 8
 Part 2: Introduction to Schematic
In this part you will learn to use the PSpice circuit simulation with the schematic capture front end,
Schematics. Click Schematic button in the MicroSim Design Manager window to get the following
schematic window.

A. Drawing the Circuit

1. Getting the Parts
 The first thing that you have to do is get some or all of
the parts you need to simulate your circuit.
 This can be done by
o Clicking on the 'get new parts' button , or
o Pressing "Control+G", or
o Going to "Draw" and selecting "Get New
Part..."
 Once this box is open, select a part that you want in
your circuit. This can be done by typing in the name or
scrolling down the list until you find it
 Some common parts are:
o r - resistor
o GND_ANALOG or GND_EARTH -- this is
very important, you MUST have a ground in
your circuit
o VAC and VDC – voltage sources
o IAC and IDC – current sources
 Upon selecting your parts, click on the place button
then click where you want it to be placed.
 Once you have all the parts you think you need, close
that box. You can always open it again if you need
more or different parts.

2. Placing the Parts

 You should have most of the parts that you need at this point.
 Now put them in the places that make the most sense (usually a rectangle works well for simple
circuits). Just select the part and drag it where you want it.
 To rotate parts so that they will fit in your circuit nicely, click on the part and press "Ctrl+R" (or
Edit "Rotate"). To flip them, press "Ctrl+F" (or Edit "Flip").
 If you have any parts left over, just select them and press "Delete".

Page 2 of 8
3. Connecting the Circuit
 Now you'll have to connect the parts with wires.
 Go up to the tool bar and
o select "Draw Wire" or
o "Ctrl+W" or
o go to "Draw" and select "Wire".
 With the pencil looking pointer, click on one end of a part, when you move your mouse around,
you should see dotted lines appear. Attach the other end of your wire to the next part in the circuit.
 Repeat this until your circuit is completely wired.
 If you want to make a node (to make a wire go more then one place), click somewhere on the wire
and then click to the part (or the other wire). Or you can go from the part to the wire.
 To get rid of the pencil, right click or press “Esc”.
 If you end up with extra dots near your parts, you probably have an extra wire, select this short
wire (it will turn red), then press "Delete".
 If the wire doesn't go the way you want (it doesn't look the way you want), you can make extra
bends in it by clicking in different places on the way (each click will form a corner).

4. Changing the Name of the Part

 To change the name, double click on the present
name (C1, or R1 or whatever your part is), then a
box will pop up (Edit Reference Designator). In
the top window, you can type in the name you
want the part to have.
 Please note that if you double click on the part or
its value, a different box will appear.

5. Changing the Value of the Part

 If you only want to change the value of the
part, you can double click on the present value
and a box called "Set Attribute Value" will
appear. Type in the new value and press OK.

 If you double click on the part itself, you can select VALUE and change it in this box.

6. Making Sure You Have a GND

This is very important. You cannot do any simulation on the circuit if you don't have a ground. If you
aren't sure where to put it, place it near the negative side of your voltage source.

Page 3 of 8
7. Voltage and Current Bubbles
 These are important if you want to measure the voltage at a point or the current going through that
point.
 To add voltage or current bubbles, go to the right side of the top tool bar and select "Voltage/Level
Marker" (Ctrl+M) or "Current Marker" . To get either of these, go to "Markers" and either
"Voltage/Level Marker" or "Current Marker".

B. Analysis
 Open the analysis menu by clicking the button. Enable the appropriate analysis options and
the press close.

 Click on the Simulate button on the tool bar (or Analysis, Simulate, or F11).

C. Probe
1. Before you do the Probe
 You have to have your circuit properly drawn and saved.
 There must not be any floating parts on your page (i.e. unattached devices).
 You should make sure that all parts have the values that you want.
 There are no extra wires.
 It is very important that you have a ground on your circuit.
 Make sure that you have done the Analysis Setup and that only the things you want are enabled.

2. To Start the Probe

 Click on the Simulate button on the tool bar (or Analysis, Simulate, or F11).
 It will check to make sure you don't have any errors. If you do have errors, correct them.
 Then a new window will pop up. Here is where you can do your graphs.

3. Graphing
 If you don't have any errors, you should get a window with a black background to pop up
 If you did have errors, go To "View - Output File" to check the errors.

4. Adding/Deleting Traces
 PSpice will automatically put some traces in.

 To change them go to Trace - Add Trace or on the toolbar. Then select all the traces you want.
 To delete traces, select them on the bottom of the graph and press “Delete”.

5. Doing Math
 In Add Traces, there are functions that can be performed, these will add/subtract (or whatever you
chose) the lines together.
 Select the first output then either on your keyboard or on the right side, click the function that you
wish to perform.
 It is interesting to note that you can plot the phase of a value by using IP(xx), where xx is the
name of the source you wish to see the phase for.

Page 4 of 8
6. Finding Points
 There are Cursor buttons that allow you to find the maximum or minimum or just a point on the
line. These are located on the toolbar (to the right).
 Select which curve you want to look at and then select "Toggle Cursor" .
 Then you can find the max, min, the slope, or the relative max or min ( is find relative max).

7. Saving
 To save your probe you need to go into the tools menu and click display, this will open up a menu
which will allow you to name the probe file and choose where to save it. You can also open
previously saved plots from here as well.

Circuit Example

 Using the steps explained above draw and simulate the following circuit. This is the same circuit
that we used for our example 1.
 In Analysis Setup window only enable “Bias Point Detail” option.

Page 5 of 8
  To examine the node voltages and current through each part go to Analysis menu in the Schematic
window and then Display results on Schematic. Put the check marks beside Enable, Enable
Voltage Display and Enable Current Display.

Varying Resistance in Schematics:

1. Place a 1k ohm resistance RL and then draw the circuit diagram in Microsim Schematic window.
Save the file.
2. First, double-click the value label of the resistor, RL that is to be varied. This will open a "Set
Attribute Value" dialog box. Enter the name {RVAR} (including the curly braces) in place of the
component value. Choose "Get New Part" from the menu and select the part named param.

Page 6 of 8
 3. Place the box anywhere on the schematic page. Now double-click on the word PARAMETERS in
the box title to bring up the parameter dialog box. Set the NAME1= RVAR (no curly braces) and
the VALUE1= 10 (any value) to the nominal resistance value.

4. In the Analysis Setup dialog box, click the ‘DC Sweep’ button and Select ‘Linear’ type and ‘Global
Parameter’ as a sweep variable. Type RVAR as a sweep variable ‘Name’ with Start value = 100,
End value = 2000 and Increment = 100.

Transient Analysis Basics:

Transient Analysis is used to observe the behavior of a circuit parameter in time domain.

In the Analysis Setup dialog box, click the ‘Transient’ button and hence set the timing parameters.

Page 7 of 8
The first parameter, print step is the frequency with which data is saved. The actual time steps used by
PSpice may be different from this.

The second parameter, final time is the value of time at which the simulation will be ended. Since PSpice
starts at t = 0, there will be a total of 50ms time span of simulation for the circuit.

The third parameter, print delay is the print delay time. In some cases, we do not want to store the data
for the entire time span of the simulation. Most of the time, this parameter is set to zero or not used.

The fourth parameter, step ceiling is the maximum time step size PSpice is allowed to take during the
simulation. Since PSpice automatically adjusts its time step size during the simulation, it may increase
the step size to a value greater than desirable for displaying the data. When the variables are changing
rapidly, PSpice shortens the step size, and when the variables change more slowly, it increases the step
size. Use of this parameter is optional.

Creating a time-varying source using VPULSE:

To create a time-varying periodic source of arbitrary waveshape VPULSE is used. Choose "Get New Part"
from the menu and select the part named VPULSE. Now double-click on its symbol to bring up the
following dialog box. Set the parameter values appropriately.

For a 100Hz square wave signal ranging from 0 to 5V with 50% duty cycle
set DC=0, AC=0, V1=0, V2=5, TD= 0, TR=0, TF=0, PW=5ms, PER=10ms.

The significance of the parameters are explained in the figure below.

Page 8 of 8
Sweeping a Variable Resistor

Wheatstone Bridge
Place the Parts

1. VDC
2. R, which you place 3
times.
The numbering of the
resistor increases
sequentially as you
place each resistor.
3. R_VAR, the variable
resistor, which is
used to simulate the
trim pot.
Wire the components together
Click on the pencil icon on the
toolbar. Then, left click on the ends
of the two components that you
want to connect with a wire. Right
click to end the wiring operation.
Place PARAM

You need one extra part – PARAM

– to be able to run simulations
where the value of the component
is changed during the simulation.

Place this part to one side of the

circuit so that it doesn’t obscure
any of the other components or
labels.
Create a Variable Name
Double click on the word PARAMETERS, which will
cause PARAMETERS: to be highlighted in read and
the PartName param pop-up window to open.

Select NAME1
and assign it the
value Rx, the
name of the
variable that will
be ramped from
0W to 10 kW
during this
simulation.

Click Save Attr.

Assign a Value to the Variable
Then, select VALUE1 and assign it the value 10 kW.
This will be the value used by PSpice when calculating the Bias Point Detail.

Click Save Attr and then click OK to close the pop-up window.
 Assign Variable Name to R_VAR
Now you have to assign the parameter to the variable resistor. To do this,
double click on the symbol for R_VAR, which will cause the symbol to be
highlighted in red and will open the PartName: r_var pop-up window.

Click VALUE and assign Rx as its value. Then click Save Attr.
 Set
You must also change SET from 0.5 to 1. If you do not do this step, the value of the
variable resistor will be 50% of the value assigned by the parameter. I.e., the value of
the R_VAR will be ramped between 0 – 5 kW, and fixed at 5 kW during the calculations
for the Bias Point Detail.
A common mistake is to forget to change SET so verify that it is equal to 1
if you find that your results differ from the expected results.

Then, click Save Attr and finally click OK to close the pop-up window.
 Select the Type of Simulation

Change the other

component values:
1. VDC = 9V
2. R1 = R2 = R3 = 4.7k

Once you have finished laying out the schematic, you should save the schematic.

Now, you are ready to run the simulation. First, you have to select the type of
simulation. Either click on the Analysis Setup icon (white with blue strip on top) or go
to Analysis/Setup from the upper toolbar.

Make sure that Bias Point Detail is enabled. Click on the words DC Sweep, which will
enable this simulation and cause a pop-up window to open.
 DC Sweep
Select Global Parameter under Swept Var. Type.

The name of the parameter is Rx.

The start value is 0 W.

The end value is 10 kW.
The increment should be
small to yield a smooth
curve on the plots that will
be displayed; 100 W is
reasonable.

NEVER put a space between the number and the prefix in PSpice.
Run the Simulation

The yellow icon is RUN,

which may be at a
different location on the
upper toolbar of your
installation of PSpice.

Mine is located next to

the Analysis Setup icon
on the left.
 Error Message

If you have followed my directions exactly, you will have error messages displayed
in the window that is launched when the simulation is run.

Note that the error message is that several of the nodes are floating. The cause is
either (a) the wire connection to the components did not register and you need to
go back to the components and make a node show up at the connection of the end
of each part and the wire or (b) there is no reference point (ground) in the circuit.
Add a Ground
 Use Voltage Markers

Place a voltage marker between R1 and

R3 and a second marker between R2
and R4 to automatically generate a plot
of the node voltages.
Node Voltages as a Function of Rx
To Plot VBA

Click on Trace/Add Trace (the

shortcut is Insert).
Entering Mathematical Expressions
VBA is the difference
between the node
voltage between R2
and R4 and the node
voltage between R1
and R3. These are the
two voltages that were
plotted automatically
by the placement of
the voltage markers.

This the expression

that must be entered
in the Trace
Expression box.
 Trace Expression

Read the names from the bottom of the plot.

Subtract the voltage that contains R3 from the one that contains R4.
Then, click OK. A third curve will be displayed on the plot at this time
Note that your voltage labels may have a :1 instead of a :2. This depends on how many times you
rotated the resistors before placing them on the schematic.
 Add a Plot of the Currents

Click Plot/Add Plot to Window. An empty plot will be inserted above the one that was
automatically generated.
Note that this additional plot (as well as the trace expression) that you added for VBA will disappear if you
rerun the simulation.
Select the Currents to be Plotted
Left click inside the blank plot area.
Then, click on Trace/Add Trace.

In the pop-up window that opens,

type in I(R3), I(R4) into the trace
expression box. Then, click OK.
 Final Set of Plots

To increase the width, change the color or other attribute of each curve, right click on
the curve and select Properties.

Note that the currents displayed are negative. This is not correct.
 Current Markers

If current markers were placed at the ends of

R3 and R_Var, then the plot of the currents
would be positive.

Note that the labels at the lower left of the

plots are –I(R3) and –I(R4).
 Preferred Image

Printed a black and white version of the plot using File/Print or capture an image from
your display after selecting File/Print Preview and include this plot in your report
template. This will insure that the size of the report template is reasonably small when
you upload it on Scholar. The time stamp and the file location should be included.
 Results from Bias Point Detail

Use the Analysis/Display Results on Schematic option if you would like to see the d.c.
values of the voltages and currents from the Bias Point Detail calculation. The
calculate is performed when Rx is equal to its maximum value.
The schematic with the labels does not have to be included in the report.
 ECE 202
Experiment no. 6

Study of BJT Biasing Circuits

Theory:
Biasing a BJT circuit means to provide appropriate direct potentials and currents, using
external sources, to establish an operating point or Q-point in the active region. Once the
Q-point is established, the time varying excursions of input signal should cause an output
signal of same waveform. If the output signal is not a faithful reproduction of the input
signal, for example, if it is clipped on one side, the operating point is unsatisfactory and
should be relocated on the collector characteristics. Therefore, the main objective of
biasing a BJT circuit is to choose the proper Q-point for faithful reproduction of the input
signal. There are different types of biasing circuits. In the fixed bias circuit (Fig. 1), the
base current IB is determined by the base resistance RB and it remains constant. The main
drawback of this circuit is the instability of Q-point with the variation of  of the
transistor. In the laboratory, we will test the stability using two transistors with
different  . In the self bias circuit, shown in figure 2, this problem is overcome by using
a self biasing resistor RE to the emitter terminal.

Equipments:

 n-p-n Transistor (C828, BD135)

 10k Potentiometer
 Resistors (470  , 560  , 10k  )
 Multimeter
 Trainer Board

Circuit Diagrams:

Rc
Ra
100k 470 10V

10k

Figure 1
 RB1
10k Rc
470
10V

RB2
10k 560

Figure 2

Procedure:

 Arrange the circuit shown in figure 1 by C828. Record RC and set RB to its
maximum value.
V
 Decrease POT RB gradually so that VCE  cc .
2
 Measure voltage across RC and VCE.
 Record the Q-point (VCE, IC).
 Replace the C828 transistor by BD135 and repeat step 3 & 4.
 Arrange the circuit shown in figure 2 by C828. Record RC and set RB2 to its
minimum value.
V
 Increase POT RB2 gradually so that VCE  cc .
2
 Measure voltage across RC & VCE.
 Record the Q-point (VCE, IC).
 Replace the C828 transistor by BD135 and repeat step 8 & 9.
Data Sheet for Fixed bias Circuit:

Transistor RC VC VC Q-point
IC  VCE
RC
C828
BD135

Data Sheet for Self-bias Circuit:

Transistor RC VC VC Q-point
IC  VCE
RC
C828
BD135

Report:

1. Which circuit shows better stability? Explain in the context of the results obtained
in the laboratory.
2. Draw the dc load line for both the circuits and show the Q-point.
BJT Common Emitter

- Go to Setup Analysis, then check DC sweep

- Next click on DC sweep. In the DC sweep window write “V2” in space next to “Name”. Put start
value=0V, End value=12 V and increment=1 V.
- Click Nested sweep next. DC nested sweep window will pop up. Select “voltage source” ( most
probably “temperature” is selected by default.
- Write the name of the DC voltage source: V1.
- Select linear in the sweep type category. Write down start value=0, End value=12 and
increment=2.
- Make sure that the “enable nested sweep” box is checked.
- Click “ok” to come out of this window and then “close” on the Setup analysis window.

Run the simulation and from “Add Trace” select IC(Q1). Plot IC(Q1) Vs. (V1-V0) curve. Here “1” and
“0” are the nodes defined to identify Collector and Emitter consecutively.
Launching Schematic
Launch PSPICE Schematic by selecting Start >All Programs > Orcad Family Release 9.2 >
Schematics.

Figure 1

A screen with a blank schematic sheet will appear as in Figure 2. Now you can design you circuit
schematic on it.

Figure 2

Getting Parts

All the components (resistor, voltage source, diodes, ground etc.) required to design the circuit
in schematic will be found from the schematic librarires by selecting Draw -> get New part.
Alternatively, you can just click on the small shortcut icon inside the circle as shown in the
following figure.

Figure 3.

The following window (Fig. 4) will pop up. In the space below the line “Part Name”, write the
part name you want from the library. Once the particular part (a diode in the figure) has been
selected, click “Place”. You will see that a diode symbol is moving with the cursor and by
clicking the mouse on schematic sheet the diode will be placed on the sheet. The symbol will
disappear by right clicking the mouse. Note that you can click on a part to select it which will
turn it to red. You can click and drag it to move it to anywhere in your schematic, and release the
button to release it. If you want to delete it select and press “delete”. If you want to rotate the part
select it and then Ctrl+R.

Fig. 4
Repeat the process until you have all the components required to design the circuit and it should
look as in the following figure.

Figure 5.

Wiring Parts

In order to complete the design you need to connect all the parts with wires. Please click on the
small “Draw Wire” icon, which is circled as shown in Fig.6 . The cursor will take the shape of a
pencil. Click on one end of a part and then move to the end of another part to make the
corresponding wire connection between them. The wires drawn in the wrong way could be
deleted by simply selecting the wire, which will turn read, and then press delete. After you finish
all the wire connection, you can exit the wire mode by clicking right mouse button. Finally your
schematic with all the wiring done should look like as in figure 7.

Figure 6
Figure 7

Changing a Part‟s Attributes

You are now going to set the values in all the parts. For example, first double click on the “0V”
value of DC voltage source V1, a popup window appears as below (Fig. 8). Type your value (say
10V) in the space under the line “Set Attribute” and then click “OK”. Value of the DC voltage
source V1 has been changed to “10V” now. Similarly, can also double click on the values of
other parts (R1) and put new values.

Figure 8
Steps to analyze with AC voltage source:

1. Choose VSIN from get new parts and place it on the schematic window.
2. To change attribute double click on the VSIN symbol and a popup window will appear (see
Figure)
3. Put values of VOFF (voltage offset), VAMPL(voltage amplitude) and FREQ (frequency) in the
space provided under the name “Value”. First select the parameter you want to put/change the
value of (say, VOFF), the type the value (say, “0”), then press “Enter”. Once you are done
placing all the value to define the VSIN, click “OK” to get out of the window. As in the figure the
voltage source is characterized with Amplitude of 10 V, frequency 100Hz and the offset is 0.

Setup Analysis

To simulate the circuit, you must first decide what kind of analysis you want to perform. Click
on the icon inside the circle in the following figure. A Setup dialog box shown in figure 10
appears.

Figure 9
Figure 10

Obtaining a DC Sweep

DC sweep in the „setup Analysis‟ window is enabled if you want to determine the effect of
varying input voltage Vin on the output voltage. Click on theDC Sweep and another dialog box
as in Figure will appear where sweep details are entered. For example if you want a Voltage
Source sweep, select it (default selection). The name of the source has to be same as the name
appeared on the schematic. Consider linear sweep and the Start Value, End Value gives the
range of the Source Voltage and the increment gives the voltage steps. Click on OK, and you
will return to the Setup window in Figure. Click OK in the window to exit the Analysis Setup.

Fig. 11.
Transient Analysis

If you want to simulate the time varying characteristics of circuit then click on “Transient” to
setup the transient parameters. for example, if VSIN (sinusoidal voltage whose value changes
with time) is employed as source voltage then use Transient analysis. A popup dialog box will
appear as in figure below. Change the “Print Step” to 0.1ms, the “Final Time” to 30ms. These
parameters tell simulation step time and the final stop time. Now click “OK” and then “Close” to
exit Setup Analysis.

Fig. 12

Make sure to save the file as a schematic-filename.sch before hitting the Simulation command!

Run the Simulation

Click “Analysis-Simulate”.
Steps to analyze with AC voltage source:
1. Choose VSIN from get new parts and place it on the schematic window.
2. To change attribute double click on the VSIN symbol and a popup window will appear (see
Figure)
3. Put values of VOFF (voltage offset), VAMPL(voltage amplitude) and FREQ (frequency) in the
space provided under the name “Value”. First select the parameter you want to put/change the
value of (say, VOFF), the type the value (say, “0”), then press “Enter”. Once you are done
placing all the value to define the VSIN, click “OK” to get out of the window. As in the figure the
voltage source is characterized with Amplitude of 10 V, frequency 100Hz and the offset is 0.
Steps to use variable resistor and how to simulate
circuit using variable resistor
1. “get new part” choose “R_var” and place it on the schematic.
2. Double click on “R_var” symbol and Change the value of the part (not the name!) to
{RL} (use curly braces, name is arbitrary) and then press “Enter”. Click “OK”.
3. Go to “get new part” select “PARAM” and place it on the schematic.
4. Double click on “PARAMETERS”
5. Set the name to RL (same name as in “a” but with no curly braces) to NAME1
6. Set VALUE1=1k and then “OK” to exit the window.

Simulation Settings:

1) Click on “Set-up Analysis”

2) Analysis type: DC Sweep
3) Sweep variable: Global parameter
4) Parameter name: RL (or name of the parameter you used without curly braces)
5) Sweep Type: Linear
6) Fill in the Start, End, and Increment values. Note for resistance, the start value cannot be
0! Use 0.1 instead.

Press OK and simulate