Saint James High School

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Information sheet 1
Topic: Elements, Atoms and their History
MELCs:
1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation
and evolution
2. Explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the
laboratory (S11/12PS-IIIb-11)
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a. Explain the formation of elements during the formation of the universe
b. Identify the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of new elements
INTRODUCTION
The origin of all the naturally occurring elements fall into two phases: Big Bang or Primordial
Nucleosynthesis – the origin of the “light” elements; and Stellar Nucleosynthesis – the origin and
production of heavy elements. When astronomers refer to the “light elements”, they refer mainly
to hydrogen and helium and their isotopes. Hydrogen is the simplest possible atom by definition
which contains one proton and one electron. Anything less and it is no longer an atom; it is a
subatomic particle with very different properties from the energetically stable atom. It is easy to
understand that the most abundant atoms in our universe should be the ones that formed first
from subatomic particle.

Introduction to Nuclear Reactions_________________________________________

Nuclear Reactions – are processes in which a nucleus either combines with another nucleus
(nuclear fusion) or splits into smaller nuclei (nuclear fission).
Radioactivity – a phenomenon that is involve in the emission of energetic particles of an atom.

Fig 1.1 (left) Common Fig 1.2 (above) Emphasizes the

types of nuclear atomic number and atomic mass
reactions of an element.

Alpha decay: loss of an alpha particle

210 206 4
Alpha decay of polonium-210 84 Po → 82Pb + 2α
Beta decay: loss of beta particle
14 14 0
Beta decay of carbon-14 6C → 7N + −1 β
Gamma radiation: emission of gamma ray
Gamma radiation in alpha decay of uranium-238
238
U → 234 4
92 90 Th+ 2α
234
Th → 234 0
90 90 Th+ 0 γ
Positron emission: conversion of a proton in a nucleus into a neutron, along with the release of
a positron
15 15 0
Positron emission of oxygen-15 8O → 7 N + + 1 e
Electron capture: drawing of an electron into an atom’s nucleus
201 0 201
Electron capture of mercury-201 80Hg + −1 e → 79 Au
Bombardment of alpha particle: addition of alpha particle
9 4 12 1
Bombardment of beryllium with an alpha particle 4 Be + 2α → 6C + 0n

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Balance equations is important in chemistry. Notice that the sum of the atomic masses of the
particles in the left-hand side of the equation is equal to that in the right-hand side. The same is
true for the atomic mass and atomic number of the particle that will make the sum in the two
sides of the equation equal.
Example: Which among the given particles will complete the nuclear reaction below?
226
88 Ra → 222
86 Rn +¿ ¿
Solution:
Atomic number: 88 = 86 + 2
atomic mass: 226 = 222 + 4
the one with Z = 2 and A = 4 is the alpha particle. Therefore, 226 222 4
88 Ra → 86 Rn + 2α

Cosmic Origin of Elements_______________________________________________

The Big Bang
The most widely accepted explanation to the origin of the universe. Edwin Hubble observed that
many stars and galaxies shine with light shifted toward the red end of the visible spectrum. This
phenomenon, red shift, occurs because the light waves of cosmic bodies are stretched into low-
frequency red waves as they move away from an observer on Earth. This observation
developed into the Hubble’s Law, which suggests that the size of the redshift is proportional to
the distance and speed of a star that is moving away from Earth. This becomes the evidence of
the theory.
Fig 1.3 Brief explanation of
The Big Bang Theory

Within the first second after the explosion, subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons, and
electrons were formed.

Fig 1.4 As the expanding universe cooled, the protons

and neutrons started to fuse (combine) to form heavier
nuclei of deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen with one
neutron and one proton), and some into helium.

Subsequent nuclear fusion reactions, in which two atomic Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Reactions
nuclei join to form a new type of nuclei, resulted in the
1
production of other light elements and their isotopes. 1 p + 10n → 21 H + 00 γ
Astronomers believe that a few minutes after the big bang, the
2
universe was composed of approximately 75% (by mass) 1 H + 11 p → 32 H e+ 00 γ
hydrogen, 25% helium (primarily 42H ), and trace amounts of 2
1 H + 21 H → 31 H + 11 p
lithium. The processes through which these light elements
2
formed are generally called big bang nucleosynthesis. 1 H + 21 H → 32 He + 10n
Observe that two isotopes of helium (32 H ∧ 42 H ) have been 3
1 H + 21 H → 42 He + 10n
3
1 He + 21 H → 42 He + 11 p
3
 3
formed from these reactions. 1 H also known as tritium, is also an isotope of hydrogen formed
from big bang nucleosynthesis.
Stellar Formation and Evolution
The universe continuously expanded for several years and the cloud of hydrogen and helium
gases condensed to form stars, including the sun. Over the millions of years, the stars made of
hydrogen became hotter and denser. During this stellar evolution, nuclear reactions continued,
which produced elements heavier than lithium. The light elements combined to form of carbon,
neon, oxygen, silicon, and iron.
Starting from small, young, yellow star, successive nuclear reactions occurred until it became a
giant red star. The reactions involved in the formation of each new element happened in regions
or layers so called fusion shells. As more elements were produced, new layers added up to the
size of the star until it became a red giant.

Fig 1.5 Cross-section of the “onion skin” structure of

a red giant showing the distribution of the first few
elements formed after the big bang. Layering
increases the density of the star. Nuclear burning
occurs at the boundaries between zones.

Younger yellow stars made up of hydrogen were fueled by the energy released from the fusion
of hydrogen nuclei to form helium. In the outer layer of a yellow star, the burning of hydrogen
through nuclear fusion produced helium. Once enough 42He was produced, these nuclei became
concentrated at the core of the star, making the temperature hotter at the region. Hydrogen
fusion continued, but in a shell surrounding the helium core. The reactions in the hydrogen
fusion shell are as follows:
1
1 H + 11 H → 21 H + + 01e
2
1 H + 11 H → 32 H + 00γ
3
2 He + 32 He → 42He + 11 H + 11 H
When the core reached the temperature enough for helium fusion to occur, helium burning
began. The outer temperature then became colder than the core, which caused the star to
become red. 84 Be formed from helium fusion. Another 42He nucleus fused with 84 Be , forming 126C .
These reactions happened in the helium fusion shell, beneath the hydrogen fusion shell.
4
2 He + 42 He → 84 Be
8
4 Be + 42 He → 126C
The carbon nuclei produced became more concentrated at the center of the star, as helium was
earlier. This produced a carbon core, that when it reached a certain temperature to allow carbon
fusion, it produced neon within the carbon fusion shell. Nuclear reactions that occurred in this
shell include the following:
12
C + 126C → 20 4
6 10 Ne + 2 He
12
C + 126C → 23 2
6 11 Na + 1 H
Neon then became concentrated at the core, then underwent fusion to produce oxygen.
20
10 Ne + 00γ → 168O + 42 He
20
Ne + 42 He → 24 0
10 12 Mg + 0γ
When oxygen became concentrated at the core, nuclear fusion continued, producing silicon.
16
O + 168O → 28 4
8 14 Si + 2 He

The fusion of 28 56
14 Si produced radioactive 28 ¿, which than decayed to iron. More nuclear fusions
happened between different nuclei to form the other elements. However, the production of

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element stopped when iron was formed. Since iron is the most stable nuclei, it cannot undergo
nuclear fusion. In all of the previous reactions, a great amount of energy is produced, enough to
fuel more nuclear reactions. However, in order to produce elements heavier than iron, energy
input is necessary. At this point, the star has already exhausted its nuclear fuel.

Stellar Explosion
As the red giant star exhausted the nuclear fuel of light elements, its core started to collapse
that eventually led to the explosion of the star.
Supernova - violent explosion which releasees a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced,
through neutron capture and radioactive decay, other elements heavier than iron.
Neutron capture reactions were either as fast as a fraction of a second or as low as a few million
years. These processes occurred as a seed nucleus captures neutrons, forming a heavier
isotope of the other heavier isotopes of the seed nuclei. Unstable or radioactive isotope,
however, underwent beta decay, producing an isotope of a new element. For seed nuclei with
relatively few neutrons (from iron to bismuth), neutron capture occur so slowly that beta decay
of the product isotope happened before it captured another neutron. This is now referred to as
the slow process or s-process. An example of this process is the formation of copper (Cu) and
zinc (Zn) nuclei from a nickel (Ni) nucleus.
62
28 ¿ + 10n → 6328¿ neutron capture
63
¿ → 29Cu +−10 β beta deacy of unstable 63
63
28 28 ¿
63 1 64
29 Cu + 0n → 29 Cu neutron capture
64
Cu → 64 0 64
29 30 Zn + −1 β beta decay of unstable 29Cu
However, some series of neutron capture occurred very fast that the seed nucleus turned into a
relatively heavier nucleus before beta decay took place. Such process is referred to as the rapid
process of r-process, which is exemplified in the formation of cobalt (Co) from iron (Fe).
56
26 Fe + 10n → 57
26 Fe

57
26 Fe + 10n → 58
26 Fe Series of neutron capture of Fe
(also written as 56 1 59
58 26 Fe +3 0n → 26 Fe )
26 Fe + 10n → 59
26 Fe

59
Fe → 59 0 59
26 27 Co +−1 β betadecay of unstable 26 Fe

Different isotopes and much heavier elements were formed during the neutron capture-and-
decay processes. All these elements, along with the fragments of the star during supernova,
were released int the vast space and gradually condensed to form the different planets like ours,
new stars, and other heavenly bodies.
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass_________________________________________
The discovery of the subatomic particles prompted other scientist to study the variations in the
characteristics of elements. English physicist Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley experimentally
found that different metals bombarded with electrons produced varying frequencies of X-rays.
He attributed these results to the differences in the positive charge in the nucleus of the
elements. He correlated the frequencies to whole numbers, which he assigned to each to each
element – atomic number.
Atomic number (Z) - serves as the identity of an atom.
- refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an
element
- also indicates the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
Atomic mass (A) - is the total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an
atom of an element.
*All atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons. An exception to this is hydrogen, which
has one proton but no neutron.

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When Dmitry Mendeleev arranged the elements according to their atomic masses in 1869, he
paved the way to the construction of the periodic table. However, Mosely argued and confirmed
in 1913 that the basis for the arrangement in the periodic table should be the atomic number.
Until today, the periodic table is still arranged in terms of the atomic number.

Information Sheet 2
Topic: Forces of Attraction and Chemical Bonds
MELCs:
1. Determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar given its structure
(S11/12PS-IIIc-15)
2. Relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties (S11/12PS-IIIc-16)
3. Describe the general types of intermolecular forces (S11/12PS-IIIc-d-17)
4. Explain the effect of intermolecular forces on the properties of substances (S11/12PS-
IIId-e-19)
5. Explain how the structures of biological macromolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids,
nucleic acid, and proteins determine their properties and functions (S11/12PS-IIIe-22)
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a. Describe chemical bonding
b. Identify the shapes of molecules
c. Explain how intermolecular forces affect the properties of molecular covalent
substances.
INTRODUCTION
Molecular covalent substances consist of single atoms or molecules in which the atoms are
joined by covalent bonds. These atoms or molecules are neutral and interact by weak
intermolecular forces.
All molecular substances will condense to a liquid at a sufficiently low temperature and freeze
even lower temperatures. When liquid is cooled, the average energy of the molecules
decreases, the molecules slow down. When the temperature is sufficiently low, at freezing point
of the substance, the attractive forces overcome the energy of molecules and draw molecules
closer together. The attractive intermolecular forces also cause them to arrange themselves into
the regular pattern that characterizes the solid. This characteristic of molecular substances is an
indication that intermolecular forces exist between molecules.
Chemical Bonding______________________________________________________
Most atoms that exist only by themselves are less stable compared to when they are bonded
with other atoms in a compound. The atoms become more stable if it is to be combined with
other atoms through chemical bonding.
Octet Rule: Atoms has eight electrons.”
Chemical bond - is an electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of an atom
and which binds atoms together. Oftentimes, this type of attraction is called intramolecular force.
Three types of chemical bonds may exist in substances: ionic, covalent and metallic.
Ionic bond - results from the transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to
another.
- exists between a metal that has a tendency to lose electrons, and a nonmetal that
has a tendency to accept electrons.
- subsequent cation and anion combine because of mutual electrical attraction.
- formed between a metal and a nonmetal due to large difference in their
electronegativities.
Electronegativity - is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons toward itself.

Fig. 2.1 Representation of ionic

bonding. Each cation-anion pair is
referred as formula unit.

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Covalent bond – bonding which occurs between nonmetals.

Fig. 2.2 Representation of Nonpolar

Covalent Bonding. This equal sharing of Fig. 2.3 Representation of Polar Covalent
electrons indicates a balanced distribution Bonding. This unequal sharing of electrons
of electrical charge. It means that the may be regarded as “partial electron
electrons spend the same length of time in transfer” or a shift in electron density. The
the locality of each atoms. electrons are closer to the more
electronegative atoms.
Dipole – two partially charged regions or poles of a molecule.

More electronegative
Less electronegative atom (negative pole)
atom (positive pole)

It is important to know the electronegativity values of an atom in identifying nonpolar from polar
covalent bond. Atoms of elements with high electronegativity have a greater tendency to attract
electrons compared to those with low electronegativity.
The absolute value of the electronegativity difference (∆ EN ) between two atoms gives an idea
of the type of chemical bond that can exist between them.

Ionic bond ∆ EN ≥1.7

Polar covalent bond 1.7> ∆ EN > 1.4
Nonpolar covalent bond ∆ EN ≤1.4

Example:
Compound More ∆ EN Type of Chemical
Electronegative Bond
Atom
NaCl Chlorine 3.0 – 0.9 = 2.1 Ionic
ICl Chlorine 3.0 – 2.5 = 0.5 Polar covalent
H2 None (same 2.1 – 2.1 = 0 Nonpolar covalent
electronegativity)
Example: Based on the metallic properties of elements, predict whether the following are ionic
or covalent bonding. Then, calculate the electronegativity and determine the more
electronegative atom in each pair.
a. Chlorine and Potassium
b. Chlorine and Carbon
c. Two atoms of Chlorine
Solution:
Compound More ∆ EN Type of Chemical
Electronegative Bond
Atom
Cl and K Chlorine 3.0 – 0.8 = 2.2 Ionic
Cl and C Chlorine 3.0 – 2.5 = 0.5 Polar covalent
Cl and Cl None (same 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 Nonpolar covalent
electronegativity)
The polarity of covalent bonds in a molecule helps determine the polarity of the whole molecule.
A molecule whose bonds are all nonpolar in character is likely to be nonpolar overall. However,
not all polar covalent bonds result to polar molecules. Molecule polarity is also affected by the

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molecular geometry, which in turn is influenced by the electrons in the molecule. These
electrons that have a significant effect on geometry are those that can be seen in the Lewis
Structures of molecules.

Fig. 2.4 Common Molecular

Geometries

Metallic bonding – exist in metals when a metal chemically bonds to either similar metal to
other metals to form alloys.
Substances and their Properties___________________________________________
Ionic Compounds
- chemical compound consisting of cations and anions.
- exist as solids, with mutually attracted cations and anions arranged in a three-dimensional
crystal lattice.
- represented with the use of a formula unit.
- hard but brittle
*The positive and negative ions are combined in a proportion such that a neutral compound is
obtained; meaning, the net charge of the compound is zero.
Chemical Formula – representation of the composition of a compound
- presents all the atoms in a compound and their relative numbers using
element symbols and numerical subscripts.
Fig. 2.5 A conductor when it is dissolved in water. Most ionic
compounds are soluble in water due to their high polarity caused
by the high electronegativity difference between their component
atoms. When ionic compounds dissolve, the cations and anions
dissociate and are surrounded by water molecules, allowing
them to move freely to carry electrical current. This makes the
solution electrically conducting.

8
The electrostatic attractions in the solid hold the ions in definite positions in the lattice. These
electrostatic attractions must be overcome by a strong force to dislodge the ions in the lattice.
When this happens, the positions of ions shift so that ions of like charges are close together.
The closeness results in strong repulsions between the similarity charged ions, causing the solid
to break.
Molecular Compounds
- refers to a chemical compound with molecules as its simplest units.
Molecular formula - is used to represent the types and number of atoms combined in a single
molecule of a molecular compound.
The solubility of covalent compounds in water, a polar compound, depends on the overall
polarity of the molecule. Only polar covalent compounds dissolve in water. Nonpolar covalent
compounds are soluble in nonpolar solvents like hexane.
Metals
- are malleable.
- can maintain a regular structure and usually have high melting and boiling points.
- considered better conductors of electricity compared to molten ionic compounds.
- are also good conductors of heat.
This property is attributed to the layered arrangement of atoms comprising a metal. These
layers can slide over one another when the metal is bent, hammered, or pressed.

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction________________________________________

The properties of matter, along with density, hardness, solubility, and physical state, are
referred to as physical properties. They are attributed to the forces of attraction that exist
between the molecules that comprise matter. These forces are termed intermolecular forces of
attraction (IMFA).
The strength of a substance’s intermolecular attractive force determines many of its physical
properties, including its melting and boiling points. Substances like bromine molecule that boils
very easily have extremely weak attractive force. Higher boiling points indicate greater
intermolecular forces of attraction between particles of a sample liquid.
IMFA also affect solubility. A polar substance is only soluble (or miscible when dealing with
liquid solute and solvent) in another polar substance; and a nonpolar substance is only soluble
in another nonpolar substance. “like dissolves like” is the simple rule in determining the solubility
of one compound in another, where likeness pertains to the polarity of the solute or the solvent.
Types of IMFA
Common in all the types arise from attractions between partial positive and partial negative
electrical charges. These attractions are collectively referred to as van der Waals forces, named
after Dutch physicist Johannes Deidrick van der Waals.
Dipole-Dipole Forces – short-ranged forces that exist between molecules that are very near to
each other.

Hydrogen Bonds – special type of dipole-dipole interaction

- it results when a hydrogen atom bonded to
a highly electronegative atom like nitrogen,
oxygen, or fluorine is attracted to an
unshared pair of electrons of an
electronegative atom of another molecule.
Fig. 2.6 The boiling points of hydrogen-bonded molecules are higher
due to the special stability provided by the hydrogen bonds. Water is a
good example of a hydrogen-containing compound with high boiling
points.

9
London Dispersion Forces – Fritz Woflgang London suggested that intermolecular forces
exist between all atoms and molecules
- constant movement of electrons in molecules which creates
instantaneous dipoles.
- weakest type of intermolecular force of attraction and only exist
when atoms are in very close range.
Noble gases and nonpolar substances have low boiling point. London dispersion forces
increase with increasing molar mass.

Chemistry of Carbon____________________________________________________
Many molecules contain carbon atoms bonded to each other or to atoms of other elements.
Organic compounds - carbon-containing molecules
Hydrocarbons - organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen atoms
- are considered nonpolar because of the almost equal distribution pf electrons
attributed to relatively similar electronegativities of hydrogen (2.1) and carbon
(2.5) atoms.
The covalent bonds between carbon and hydrogen are rich in energy, making organic
compounds very good fuels. Most organic molecules inside a cell contain atoms other than
hydrogen and carbon. The presence of these other atoms with different electronegativities make
the molecules polar.
Functional Groups – are specific arrangements of atoms within an organic molecule and which
impart the physical properties and chemical reactivity of the molecule in which they are found.
Fig. 2.7 Three basic forms of
carbon-containing molecules

Biological Molecules
Many molecules are extremely bigger than water. These big molecules, many of which are
synthesized and used by living things, macromolecules.
Carbohydrates (Store Energy)
- chains of organic molecules with a 1:2:1 mole ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- simplest formula of carbohydrates is (CH 2O)n where the subscript n refers to the
number of carbon atoms.
- act as energy storage or food reserves in plants and animals, and this role is
attributed to the many carbon-hydrogen bonds contained in a carbohydrate
molecule.
- abundance of polar -OH groups in its structure, so are highly polar molecules.

10
 - soluble in many body fluids, especially in blood (composed mainly of water) through
which they are carried to all parts of the body.
The polar groups store energy that is more easily available to the body.

Simple carbohydrates - provide an instant source of

energy. Examples: sugars found in candies.

Complex carbohydrates - serve as structural materials

for cells.
- are composed of simple
carbohydrates covalently
bonded to each other.
Lipids (Function as Membranes)
- an organic molecule that are insoluble in water because of their lack of many polar
and H-bonding functional groups.
- have a very high proportion of carbon-hydrogen bonds
- also serve as storage of energy
Fig. 2.8 When placed in water, lipid molecules cling together,
exposing their polar groups to the surrounding water molecules;
the nonpolar groups stay within the interior of the lipid cluster.
Because of the hydrophobicity of the lipid tail, it can serve as an
Proteins (Do Chemistry in the Cell) effective cellular membrane component.

- a complex molecule composed of one or more chains of amino acids linked by

peptide bonds.
Peptide bonds - are type of covalent bond.
Amino acid - is a building block of protein.
The 20 amino acids that make up proteins have side groups with varying properties. Hence, the
number and sequence of amino acids affect the properties and functions of a particular protein.
For example, hemoglobin contains 574 amino acids in a unique order. Insulin, the protein that
regulates metabolism, is only made up of 51 amino acids ordered in a very specific way.
Proteins may be polar or nonpolar depending on the functional group present in each amino
acid. Oftentimes, the both polar and nonpolar parts, which allow them to perform different
functions as enzymes, transporters, defense from diseases, or regulators of cell processes.
Nucleic Acids (Contain Genetic Information)
- acids are made up of repeating units of monomers known as nucleotides
Common examples include deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). These
nucleotides are composed of sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous bases that are covalently
bound together. Cells use the information in DNA by coming up with a complementary single
strand of messenger RNA, which then directs the production of proteins needed in the living
organism. The sequence of amino acids in proteins corresponds to the nucleotide sequence in
DNA from which the RNA is transcribed.

The double helix structure of the DNA protects the nonpolar

nitrogenous bases in the molecule by orienting them in the middle.
The polar phosphate groups are exposed so that the DNA will be
soluble in the aqueous polar environment. This protects the
information stored in the DNA by ensuring that the DNA sequence stays
intact by keeping the DNA structure stable. Furthermore, the helix is
held together by hydrogen bonds that form between the two strands
of DNA. This allows it to form a stable double helix and thus be able to
protect the important genetic information that make up the bod y.

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 Information Sheet 3
Topic: Reactions in Matter
MELCs:
1. Use simple collision theory to explain the effects of concentration, temperature, and
particle size on the rate of reaction (S11/12PS-IIIf-23)
2. Define catalyst and describe how it affects reaction rate (S11/12PS-IIIf-24)
3. Determine the limiting reactant in a reaction and calculate the amount of product formed
(S11/12PS-IIIh-27)
4. Describe how energy is harnessed from different sources:
A. Fossil fuels
B. Biogas
C. Geothermal
D. Hydrothermal
E. Batteries
F. Solar cells
G. Biomass (S11/12PS-IIIi-29)
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a. Explain the rate of a chemical reaction which is influenced by a number of factors
b. Explain the importance of accounting reactants and products
c. Apply the energy of chemical reactions
d. Develop keenness in observing changes in the environment

INTRODUCTION
Color change, bubbles of gas, or explosion are visible proofs that a chemical reaction has
quickly taken place. Many reactions naturally happen at a slow rate. The knowledge of reaction
rate is useful in predicting the time required for a reaction to occur, whether the reaction occurs
in the laboratory, in living material or in the environment.

Energy is an important factor in any civilization. Most of the activities and needs of society make
use of energy. Think of any man’s activity and there is always the consumption of energy. The
society’s demand for energy and energy-consuming products keeps on growing. This is the
reason why scientists and technologists search for more economical and environmentally
responsible ways to meet the demand.

Rate of Reaction________________________________________________________
Chemical reaction can be better understood by considering it as a process involving collisions
between reacting particles, resulting in the breaking of some chemical bonds of the reactants
and the creation of new bonds of the products.
Collision theory, “Reactant particles require sufficient kinetic energy to initiate successful
collisions that will lead to the formation of products.”
also suggests that only particles that collide in the correct geometric orientation will successfully
form products.
Activation energy ( Ea ) - minimum energy required to initiate a reaction
Rate of reaction - speed by which reactants are
converted to products A reaction that takes a
long time to complete is described to have a low
reaction rate. A reaction that occurs quickly has a
high reaction rate. While some reactions may
occur almost instantaneously, others may take
hours, days, or even years to progress to
completion. However, a reaction can be speeded
up or slowed down by manipulating many
different factors.

Fig. 3.1 Effect of activation energy and orientation of the Effect of Concentration
formation of AB from A2 and B2.

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 Increasing the concentration of the reactants usually
results in a faster reaction rate. This explains the
burning of wood is much faster with pure oxygen than
in air, which has only 21% oxygen composition.
Pressure and volume in gases have significant role in
changing the concentration. Increasing the pressure of
a gas decreases the volume where the gas particles
can freely move. The amount of gas would be higher
Fig. 3.1 Effect of concentration on rate of reaction.
concentration in high-pressured container than in low-
More collisions occur in a highly concentrated pressured one. Increasing the pressure of a gas,
system than in a less concentrated one. increases the chances of collision of its particles.

Effect of Particle Size

Reactant particles with the same phase (liquid-liquid or gas-gas)

may easily mix with each other. It gives the particles the maximum
opportunity to collide and react. But there is difference when one of
the reactants is solid; the reaction can only take place on the
surface of the solid. The smaller the size of the solid particles, the
greater is the area in which the reaction can take place. So, finely
divided powder is expected to react more quickly than a big lump of
the same amount of the substance. Example, wood shavings burn
faster than big chunks of wood. Moreover, powdered metals react
violently with strong acids compared to large pieces of the same
metal.

Effect of Temperature
The average kinetic energy of the particles
increases with rising temperature, which means
that at higher temperatures, particles tend to
move faster. Since the number of reactant
particles during the reaction is constant, the
areas under the two curves are the same. But
the average energy of the particles in curve T2
is greater, so there are more particles with enough energy to react. The high energy increases
the speed of the particles, allowing them more chances to collide. For example, foods. Food
spoil easily when left at room temperature, but they will last longer when placed inside a
refrigerator or freezer. The chemical reactions causing the spoilage are slowed down at lower
temperatures.
Effect of Catalyst
Catalyst – are substances that hasten reaction without themselves
being consumed in the reaction.
- it lowers the activation energy that
a reaction must overcome in order to
achieve successful collisions and
progress.
- One application is the catalytic converter which is
used to reduce the production of toxic gases like carbon
monoxide from
vehicles.
Enzymes – catalysts termed in biological systems
- Proteins that are considered absolutely essential
to most life forms because many important
chemical reactions that occur in the body would
progress much too slowly without them.
- Used in some industrial processes such as the
production of “biological detergents”

Stoichiometric Calculations______________________________________________
Stoichiometry - refers to the quantitative relationships between the substances that are used
up and produced in chemical reactions.
Avogadro’s Number and the Mole Concept

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Mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12
grams of carbon-12. Its relationship with the Avogadro’s number is given by
1 mole = 6.022 x1023 atoms, molecules, formula units, and ion

In the laboratory, quantifying reactants and products uses the mole (mol) concept, where a mole
of atoms of a pure element is numerically equal to the atomic mass – expressed in atomic mass
of that element. This relationship allows for the expression of the moles of atoms in terms of
grams.
1 mole Fe = 55.85 grams Fe
This equation gives the molar mass of the element (g/mol). Sometimes, the molar mass of an
element is termed atomic weight or atomic mass.
Similarly, for a compound, the molar mass may be obtained as the sum of the molar masses of
the individual atoms. For example, the molar mass of Fe2O3 is calculated as:
g g
2 atoms Fe ×55.85 Fe=111.7 Fe
mol mol
g g
+3 atoms O ×16.00 Fe=48.00 Fe
mol mol

g
molar mass of F e 2 O 3=159.7 F e 2 O3
mole

Example: In a 5.00 g sample of Fe2O3, compute the following:

a. Moles of Fe2O3
b. Particles of Fe2O3
c. Moles of Fe3+ ions
d. Ions of Fe3+

Solution:
1 mol F e 2 O3
a. 5.00 g F e 2 O 3 × =0.0313 mol F e2 O3
159.7 g F e 2 O3
6.022 ×1023 F e2 O 3 particles 22
b. 0.0313 mol F e2 O3 × =1.89 ×10 F e 2 O3 particles
1mol F e2 O 3
3+¿ ¿
c. 1 mole F e 2 O 3 :2 moles Fe
Fe 3+¿ 3+¿¿
0.0313 mol F e2 O3 ×2 moles =0.0626 mol Fe ¿
1 mole F e 2 O 3
1 mol F e 2 O3 Fe3 +¿ 6.022× 1023 F e2 O3 particles
d. 5.00 g F e 2 O 3 × × 2 moles × ¿
159.7 g F e 2 O 3 1 mole F e2 O 3 1 mol F e2 O 3
¿ 3.77 ×1022 Fe 3+¿ions ¿
In a balanced chemical reaction, the mole relationships of the reactants and products are
specified by the coefficients of the substances involved. Consider this:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
From the balanced equation, the coefficients of the compounds are 1,2,1, and 1. Thus, the
following mole relationships or molar ratios can be:
1 mol CaCO3 : 2 mol HCl : 1 mol CaCl2 : 1 mol H2CO3
Limiting and Excess Reactants
The main goal with chemical reactions is to produce the maximum quantity of useful products
from the original materials at the minimum cost. To achieve this, an excess of one of the original
materials is usually supplied to ensure that the more expensive raw material is completely used
up. Once one of the reactants is consumed, no more product can be formed. Any excess of the
other original materials will be left unreacted at the end of the reaction.

14
Limiting reactant - substance that is completely used up first in the reaction
- It limits the amount of the other reactant consumed and the amount of
product formed in a chemical reaction.
Excess reactant - substance that is not used up completely in a reaction.
Reaction Yield
Theoretical yield - the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount
of reactant.
In most chemical reactions, the actual amount of product obtained is less than the theoretical
yield. This can be attributed to some factors. Reactants may contain impurities or may form by-
products in competing side reactions. Furthermore, in may reactions, reactants are not
completely converted to products. As a result, less amount of product is formed than what is
ideal stoichiometric calculations predict.
Experimental or actual yield - measured amount of a product obtained from a reaction
Chemists are usually interested in the efficiency of a reaction, which is expressed in:
experimental yield (¿ grams)
percentage yield= × 100
theoritical yield (¿ grams)
In industries, percentage yield gives an idea if a
product is good investment or not. if the yield of a
reaction is too small, the products may not be
competitive in the marketplace. If a reaction has
only a 50% yield, it means the process makes
only 50% of the amount of product that it
theoretically should.
The flowchart at the left is the general steps in
solving problems involving percentage yield.

Example: Steel wool, which is made of pure iron

metal, burns with oxygen gas to produce ferric oxide (Fe2O3).
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2 Fe2O3(s)
If there are 1.25 moles of Fe and 1.25 moles of O2,
a. How many of Fe2O3 will be produced? What is its mass?
b. If the actual laboratory yield is 95.8 g Fe2O3, what is the reaction’s percentage yield?
Solution:
2 mol F e 2 O 3
a. 1.25 mol Fe × =0.625 mol F e 2 O 3
4 mol Fe
2 mol F e2 O 3
1.25 mol O 2 × =0.833 mol F e 2 O 3
3 mol O 2
Since less product was formed using 1.25 mole Fe, Fe is the limiting reagent and the
theoretical yield is 0.625 mol F e2 O 3
Convert form moles to grams:
159.7 g F e2 O3
0.625 mol Fe × =99.8 g F e 2 O 3
1 mol F e 2 O 3
experimental yield (¿ grams) 95.8 g
b. percentage yield= × 100= × 100=96.0 %
theoritical yield (¿ grams) 99.8 g

Energy in Chemical Reactions____________________________________________

All chemical reactions involve energy. Applying energy to the reactants causes their chemical
bonds to break. Release of energy accompanies the formation of new bonds in the products.
These mean that energy is both absorbed and released during chemical reaction. Some
reactions release more energy than they absorb; other absorb more energy than they release.
Whether a reaction releases or absorbs energy depends on bond energy, which is the energy
associated with bond breaking or formation. Some energy must be absorbed by the reactants in
any chemical reaction.
Exothermic reaction - releases more energy than it absorbs. The products have lower bond
energy that the reactants. The excess energy – the difference in bond energy between the
reactants and the products – is often given off as heat or light.

15
Some living things, such as cup coral polyps, squids, and fireflies, give off light that comes from
exothermic reactions. Cellular respirations, which is the process that uses glucose and oxygen
to provide usable energy for cells, is also exothermic. It also releases heat that keeps the body
warm.
Endothermic reaction - absorbs more energy than it releases. Products have higher bond
energy than reactants. Energy must be absorbed to make up for this energy difference.
Photosynthesis, one of the most important life processes on Earth, is endothermic. During
photosynthesis, plants absorbed energy from the sun, which it uses to make carbohydrates.
When dealing with endothermic or exothermic reactions, it is often useful to consider the energy
as part of the chemical equations.
Energy absorbed in an endothermic reaction: reactant + energy → products
Energy released in an exothermic reaction: reactant → products + energy

Sources of Energy______________________________________________________
Fossil fuels
- formed from plants subjected to high temperature and pressure for millions of years. The
plants involved here once stored energy from photosynthesis before they got fossilized. In
cooking using a stove with natural gas as fuels, or driving a car powdered with petroleum, the
energy that drives these activities came from the stored energy from a series of endothermic
photosynthesis reaction. With the increasing concerns on rising fuel prices, oil supply
exhaustion, and global warming, renewable energy is gaining more public attention and
receiving more financial and legislative support.
Biomass
- any material derived from living things such as plants leaves and animal manure.
- used to produced biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, and biogas like biomethane. Ethanol and
biodiesel can be mixed with or replaced gasoline and diesel. These bioproducts reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and decreases the country’s dependence on imported oil while
supporting agricultural and rural economies.
Solar mass
Solar radiation is a general term for the electromagnet radiation emitted by the sun. It can be
captured and converted into useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety
of technologies. The feasibility of using these technologies depends on the location’s access to
solar radiation. Solar access is the availability of unobstructed, direct sunlight, which is
particularly important in utilizing solar energy for space heating, water heating, electricity
generation, and/or day lighting. One example of a solar energy is the photovoltaic system, which
can be reliable and pollution-free producer of electricity for homes or offices. Small PV systems
also provide a cost-effective power supply in locations where it is expensive or impossible to
send electricity through conventional power lines.
Wind Energy
Mechanical power, as well as electricity, can also be generated using the energy derived from
wind. Wind currents result from the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the
irregularities of the Earth’s surface, and the rotation of the planet. Therefore, wind energy is a
form of solar energy. It is one of the low-priced renewable energy. The only challenge in using
wind as an energy source is that wind is intermittent, and it does not always blow when
electricity is needed.
Geothermal Energy and Hydrothermal Energy
Geothermal energy - is an underused resource that is known to emit little greenhouse gases, if
none at all.
- can be obtained through a variety of ways, including using a reservoir to
generate electricity at a power plant and using piped hot water for warming
buildings or melting snow, which in this case the energy is aptly termed
hydrothermal energy.
Hydrothermal energy - comes from geothermal resources that contain fluid and heat.
- utilizes water to power machinery or create electricity.
- considered as the country’s largest renewable energy source.

16
 - takes advantage of the endless nature of the water cycle, which constantly
recharges the system through evaporation and precipitation.
- the use of hydropower must be carefully balanced with the preservation of
habitats that are altered by changes in water flow.
Several types of hydroelectric facilities are all powered by the kinetic energy of flowing water as
it moves downstream. Turbines and generators convert this energy into electricity, which is then
fed into electrical grid that distributes the commodity to homes, business, and industries.
Chemical Energy
Another source of energy are batteries, which store chemical energy that can be converted to
electrical energy once a device is attached to them. Inside a battery is an electrolyte, which is a
medium that allows the flow of electrical charge from the battery to the device. Batteries may be
disposable or rechargeable depending on its chemical composition.

Information Sheet 4
Topic: Examining Common Consumer Product
MELCs:
1. From product labels, identify the active ingredient(s) of cleaning products used at home
(S11/12PS-IIIi-j-31)
2. Give the use of the other ingredients in cleaning agents (S11/12PS-IIIi-j-32)
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
a. Describe the household cleaning products and their active ingredients
b. Apply the uses of household cleaning product
INTRODUCTION
People are very much aware that cleanliness directly affect their health and wellness, most
especially in this pandemic. The most common consumer products are intended for household
cleaning or personal care. Cleaning materials take form in either liquid, detergent, sprays,
powders and etc. that are used to clean, disinfect or eliminate bad odors. But aside from their
convenience, when used incorrectly, cleaning materials can bring serious harms as there are
toxics that may affect one’s health.
Active Ingredients – substances that directly help in achieving the performance objectives of a
certain product.
Inactive Ingredients - are components of a product that do not increase or affect the
therapeutic action of the active ingredient.
Personal care products refer to any substances intended for external use of the body which is
mainly for cleansing, beautifying, protection and perfuming.

Household Cleaning Products____________________________________________

General Purpose Cleaners
- weakly alkaline (i.e., basic) surface cleaners intended for a wide variety of use.
Examples: multipurpose spray cleaners for floors or walls.
Active Ingredients: anionic or non-ionic surfactants, alcohols, silicates, sodium carbonate,
phosphates or sodium EDTA (Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid).
Inactive Ingredients: dyes, fragrances, and preservatives

Fig. 4.1 Surfactants, or surface-active agents, are Fig. 4.2 How does surfactant works
chemical agents that aid in cleaning surfaces that
contain oil, stains, and dirt, which are normally not
soluble in water. They contain a hydrophilic (water-
loving) polar head and a hydrophobic (water-fearing)
nonpolar tail. 17
Bathroom Cleaners
- specifically designed for bathroom surfaces, such as tubs, tiles, toilet bowls, which
normally develop stains like mildew.
- are either acidic or alkaline depending on the surface they will be used on.
*Alkaline cleaners are best to use for bathroom floors, walls, tiles, and bathtubs because they
preserve the enamel finishes of these surfaces; acidic cleaners can damage enamels.
Active Ingredients: phosphoric acid, citric acid, sodium bisulfate and bleaching agents such as
hydrogen peroxide or hypochlorite
*Some cleaners have additional ingredients, such as surfactants, that aid in the removal of soap
and fatty deposits

Special Surface Cleaners

Other surfaces that require special cleaners include glass surfaces, carpets, and upholstery.
Glass cleaners typically contained water, glycol ethers, ammonia, and alcohols, and are
commercially available as moistened towelettes, or liquid or aerosol sprays. Carpet and
upholstery cleaners are sold as liquid shampoos or as powders may have additional porous
carrier materials that trap dirt. One advantage of powders over liquids is that they allow for
easier cleaning of the surface with vacuum cleaners.
Stain and Deposit Removers
- are designed to remove spots and are commercially available as fluids or sticks.
Active ingredients: surfactants, solvents, or enzymes.
*Other cleaning products that require the use of abrasives like brushes and steel wool remove
to solid deposits on a surface called scouring cleaners. Sold as powders, pastes, or liquids,
scouring cleaners contain crystalline and amorphous silica, feldspar, clay, and chalk.
Ingredients like sodium carbonate, chlorine (bleaching agent), and oxalic acid are sometimes
added in the product.

Disinfectants and Sanitizers

- used to either eradicate or just lessen microbes on surfaces, nut not necessarily clean
them. Disinfectants are also sold in sprays, while sanitizers may be available as gels.
Usually used in clinics and hospitals, disinfectant completely kill all disease-causing
microorganisms called pathogens, such as salmonella and staphylococci bacteria, which
cause typhoid fever, diarrhea, and skin infections. Surfaces that are usually disinfected
include door handles, diaper changing tables, toilets, and other bathroom surfaces.
Sanitizers, only reduce the population of microbes to a level that is considered safe.
Active Ingredients: alcohol (ethanol or ethyl alcohol), isopropyl alcohol, and benzalkonium
chloride

Self-Check
Instruction: Answer the following questions. (You may use the back of this Self-check for your
answers to lessen the use of papers)
A. Modified True or False. Write True if the statement is true and if false, write the correct
answer.
_________1. Elements are known to exist along with the birth of the universe.
_________2. Younger yellow stars made up of hydrogen were fueled by the energy released
from the fission of hydrogen nuclei to form helium.
_________3. London dispersion force is the strongest intermolecular force.
_________4. Intermolecular force is the attractive force that separates molecules.
_________5. Amino acid is the building blocks of proteins.
_________6. Smaller surface area will lead to faster reaction since more spaces are exposed
for collision.
_________7. Catalyst provides an alternative pathway to the reaction by lowering the activation
energy.

18
_________8. Hydroelectricity means getting energy from steady water.
_________9. Burning of fossil fuels causes pollution and releases carbon dioxide, contributing
to the greenhouse effect.
_________10. Cleaning agents are substances that are used to remove dirt and foul odor on
surfaces.

B. In your own understanding, explain the following questions in five (5) sentences.
1. Why are atomic numbers significant in the study of element?
2. Why are most atoms held by chemical bonds?
3. Why does reaction rate matter in life?
4. What should you know about household cleaning product?
C. Solve the problem showing your solution.
Pure aluminum (Al) metal reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to produce aluminum
chloride (AlCl3) and hydrogen (H2) gas.
a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction described in the problem.
b. If the expected mass of AlCl 3 to be formed is 3.5 g, what should be the initial mass
of the pure aluminum metal?
Activity
Household Cleaning Products
Objective: Examine personal care products and assess one’s susceptibility to risks from such
products.
Procedure: Examine some personal care products you use and identify any of their ingredients
that are considered as allergens, irritants, developmental or reproductive toxins, carcinogens, or
neurotoxins. Choose two products for each category. Using your data, make an inference about
your susceptibility to risks from the chemicals.
Data:
Number of Brand of Active Hazardous Effects of
household Representative Ingredient Component(s) Hazardous
Location
cleaning Cleaning Agent (s) Component to
agents Human(s)
Kitchen
Bathroom
Inference:

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Santiago, K., and Silverio, A., (2016) Exploring Life Through Science: Physical Science.
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