12/10/2021

Tuber and Root Crops - Outline

Introduction
Tuber and Root crops Classification
o roots, rhizomes, corms, etc.
Properties
Assoc. Prof. Pham Van Hung Nutritional
Department of Food Technology + Water
+ Starch
+ Minerals, vitamins
Preservation

Introduction World Production of Root and Tuber Crops

(106 mt)
 Tuber and root crops are underground parts of
plants and include rhizomes, tubers, roots, stems,
and leaves. 300

 Possibly domesticated before seed crops. Used by FAOSTAT, 2003

Million mt

most hunter-gatherer societies. 200

 Used in all cultures, but only major in a few: e.g., the

potato in Europe, minor root crops in the Andes, and 100
cassava in the lowland tropics.
 About as much grown in terms of tonnage as cereal 0

grains, but much less nutritional value. Potato SwPotato Taro

 The most important root crops are: cassava, potato and
sweet potato.

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Food Utilization of Root and Tuber Crops Feed Utilization of Root and Tuber Crops
Crop Production % in
Crop Production % in
(1,000 mt) Developing
(1,000 mt) Developing
Countries
Countries
Cassava 92,500 > 99.9%
Cassava 31,000 71%
Potato 161,200 40%
Potato 54,900 72%
Sweet potato 70,100 98%
Sweet potato 58,100 >99%
Yam 16,000 99%
Yam 400 100%
Total 350,900
Total 144,800

Root crops in market in Peru

Classification
 Root (cassava, sweet potato)
 No leaves or reproductive organs
 Tuber (potato, yams)
 Fleshy underground stem
 Minute scale leaves with buds (eyes)
 Corm (aroids, cocoyam and taro)
 Short, bulblike underground upright stem
 With scale leaves

Courtesy Nancy Hikes

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Classification Properties
 Rhizome  Mostly water and starch.
 Rootlike stem  Shipping involves shipment of water.
 Upper part with leafy stems
 Little protein or fats.
 Lower part with roots
 Most root crops spoil easily when harvested.
 Bulb (lily, onion, tulip)
 A bud, usually underground
 Short thick stem
 Roots from below
 Overlapping scalelike leaves

Cassava or yuca, Manihot esculenta,

Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Euphorbiaceae
 Cassava (also known as manioc, mandioca, or yuca)
is widely eaten. This plant is the major starchy food
for more than 500 million people.
 Cassava is native to central South America and has
been cultivated for thousands of years.
 The edible portion of cassava is a starchy root,
which matures to harvest within 8 to 24 months of
planting, depending on cultivar and climate.
 A mature cassava root may be anything from 15 to
100 cm in length and from 0.5 to 2.0 kg in weight,
subject to variety and growing conditions.

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Structure of cassava Structure of cassava

• The root is circular in • Transversely a cassava

cross-section. root consists of three
principal areas.
• It is generally fattest at
the proximal end and
tapers gently towards - The periderm. Comprises the outermost layer of the root. It is composed mostly
the distal end. of dead cork cells, which seal the surface of the root. The periderm is only a few
layers of cells thick and as the root continues to increase in diameter, the outermost
• Sweet and bitter portions of it are sloughed off and replaced by new cork formations from the inside
layers of the periderm.
cultivars.
- The cortex. A layer 1 to 2 mm thick located immediately beneath the periderm.
- The starchy flesh. The central portion of the root, consisting mainly of
parenchyma cells packed with starch grains.

Utilization
Composition
 Cassava contains about 1% protein and some 30-35% of starch on a  Griddles for cooking cassava go back at least 2000 years.
dry weight basis; it is thus a predominantly starchy food.  However, since the crop developed in the lowland tropics
 As a human food it has been criticised for its low and poor quality
where preservation is poor, it may go back much farther.
protein content, but the plant produces more weight of carbohydrate
per unit area than other staple food crop under comparable agro-  Cassava contributes over 37% of the total calories
climatic conditions. consumed in Africa and 11% in Latin America.
 The edible starchy flesh comprises some 80% to 90% of the root and
includes:  Cassava is toxic if not processed properly.
 Water 62%  Cassava roots and leaves contain cyanides in two different
 Fibre 1-2%
forms: i) the glycosides; linamarin and lotaustraline which
 Carbohydrate 35%
 Minerals 1%
are considered "bound" and ii) the non-glycosides;
 Protein 1-2% hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and cyanohydride which are
 Fat 3% considered "free".

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Utilization Potato, Solanum

tuberosum, Solanaceae
 Free cyanide comprises 8%-12% of the total tuber
cyanide. This cyanide can, under some circumstances,  Potatoes (Solanaceae) and
lead to human toxicity problems and cassava for food use other related species were
has to be processed to remove cyanide-containing domesticated in Andean
substances South America.
 The natives of South America had developed technology  Cultivated at least 4000
to remove the cyanide generating compounds.
years ago.
 Highly productive and little labor involved.
 Potatoes will grow at
 Will keep for several months if left in ground.
elevations where few other
 Reproduced vegetatively from stem cuttings. crops can be cultivated.
 Sweet types often boiled and fried.  The early Spanish found
 Bitter types often made into "tortas" or "farinha". potatoes from Colombia to
 Tapioca made from partially gelatinized cassava starch. Chile.

Potatoes in market in Wolfenbuettel, Germany

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum)
 In the tropics potatoes are harvested about four months
after planting which results in higher yields, as compared to
temperate climates where the main crop growing season
can extend to six months.
 Main crop potatoes should not be harvested until they are
fully mature, considered to be about two weeks after the
tops have died off, at which stage the skin of the tuber is
well set and be less prone to damage during harvesting.
 Early or "new" potatoes, which are harvested in an
immature condition before the skins have set, can be easily
damaged and do not store well or for long periods.

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Structure
• Skin or Periderm. A ring of six to ten suberized cell layers. The skin can easily be
removed in immature tubers but not when the tubers have reached full maturity. If the
tuber tissue is wounded, the tuber is able to form a new layer of suberized cells, known as
wound periderm.
• Lenticels, which are a circular group of suberized cells, are formed in the periderm and are
essential for the respiration of the tuber since the skin is almost impermeable to CO2 or O2.
• Potato eyes (effectively buds on the stem), the bud and stem ends are also present on the
periderm surface.
• Parenchyma tissue. Composed of cells of the cortex and the perimedullary zone. It
represents the major part of the tuber and contains starch grains as reserve material.
• The ring of vascular bundles. When the tuber is cut lengthwise part of the vascular tissue
is revealed as a ring, known as the xylem.
• The medullar rays and medulla. Also known as the pith.

Potato field near Toluca, Mexico

Composition Production
• The chemical composition of potatoes is very variable and is greatly influenced
by variety, environment and farming practices.  Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Poland are major
• Starch constitutes 65% to 80% of the dry weight of the tuber. producers.
• Potatoes are also an important source of protein, iron, riboflavin and ascorbic
acid.  In the U.S., Florida and California (winter) and Maine,
Constituents Percentage (wb)
Moisture 50 - 81 California, Idaho (summer) are major producing areas.
Protein 1.0 - 2.4
 Toxicity of potatoes. Greened tubers can produce
Fat 1.8 - 6.4
Starch 8 - 29 teratogenicity. In some areas of Bolivia, people practice
Non-starch Carbohydrates 0.5 - 7.5 geophagy to absorb the toxic materials from primitive
Reducing Sugar 0.5 - 2.5 lines of cultivated potatoes.
Ash 0.9 -1.4
Carotene (average) 4 mg /100 g  Potatoes are often treated to prevent sprouting. Harvested
Thiamine 0.10 mg /100 g potatoes are washed and stored cool. Sugar is converted
Riboflavin 0.06 mg /100 g
to starch on storage.
Ascorbic Acid 12 mg /100 g

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Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas, Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)

Convolvulaceae)
 Sweet potato has the shortest growing cycle of the root
 Sweet potatoes are native to northwestern South America.
crops grown in the tropics. The crop is normally
 Sweet potatoes have been found in South America as far back as harvested when the vines and leaves have turned yellow,
8000-10000 years. They were cultivated by 2000 B.C. Some feel generally about 4 months after planting.
that they go back in the South Pacific as far as 1200 A.D.
 In Japan, (especially) sweet potatoes are a major crop.
 They were taken very early to the South Pacific area and many
They are used there to prepare starch, wine and alcohol.
considered them native there.
They are also widely fed to animals. China is easily the
 Some postulated that sweet potatoes were taken from South world's leading producer.
America to the South Pacific by pre-Columbian voyagers.
 Widely eaten in the southern U.S. Not eaten particularly
 The sweet potato is a true root. They are usually reproduced
vegetatively using portions of the aerial stem.
in Europe.
 The roots contain about 2% protein. Lots of vitamin A.

Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)

 There are many cultivars of sweet potato each with its own  There are four type of sweet potato based on their colour of skins
characteristics of size, shape, colour, storage life, levels of and pulp:
nutrition and suitability for processing.  White-potato: a very dry pulp and is not very sweet
 A single plant may produce 40 to 50 tubers ranging in length
from a few to 30cm; they may be spindle-shaped or spherical
and weigh from 100g to 1 kg.
 Tubers may have a smooth or irregular surface and the skin and
the flesh may range from almost pure white through cream,
yellow, orange and pink, to a very deep purple.
 The chemical composition of sweet potatoes varies greatly
according to genetic and environmental factors.

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Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas)

 Yellow-potato: yellow pulp and sweet flavor  Purple-potato: purple skin and pulp

Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) Composition

Constituent Percent or (mg/100g)
 Sweet-reddish-potato: a dark skin and yellow pulp
Moisture 50 - 81
Protein 1.0 - 2.4
Fat 1.8 - 6.4
Starch 8.0 - 29
Non-starch Carbohydrates 0.5 - 7.5
Reducing Sugar 0.5 - 7.5
Ash 0.9 - 1.4
Carotene (average) 4 mg /100 g
Thiamine 0.10 mg /100 g
Ascorbic Acid 25g /100 g
Riboflavin 0.06 mg /100 g

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Dioscorea spp., true yams, Dioscoreaceae, female

Yams flowers

 Not to be confused with the sweet potato

(Convolvulaceae).
 Ignaime (French) or ñame (Spanish) ... but
probably originally from an African language.
 Yams are Dioscorea species and members of
the Dioscoreaceae.
 Different species cultivated in Africa (where
they were especially important), Asia, and the
Americas.
 Probably tubers.

A yam, Dioscorea sp., Dioscoreaceae

Production
 Many are poisonous and must be peeled
and/or cooked to remove toxic principles.
 Yams relatively high in protein for root crops.
 In most places where yams were formerly
cultivated, they have been replaced by sweet
potatoes or cassava.

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Taro and its relatives

These are plants of the Araceae. Taro is

Colocasia esculenta. Members of this family
domesticated as root crops in both the Old
and New World. Colocasia is native to Asia.
 A corm.
 About 30% starch, 3% sugar. Must be boiled
to be eaten.
 A staple in the Polynesian area. In Hawaii, they
use taro to make poi. Hawaiians used to eat
10-20 lbs. per day.

Taro, Calocasia esculenta, Araceae, field in Madagascar

Taro, Calocasia esculenta, Araceae

Minor Andean root crops
 A large number of these were domesticated in
the Andes. Few (other than the potato) were
used outside of the area.
 añu = Tropaeolum tuberosum
 arracacia = Arracacia xanthorrhiza
 oca = Oxalis tuberosa
 melloco = Ullucus tuberosus, Basellaceae,
second only to potatoes in upland Peru.
 maca = Lepidium meyenii, Brassicaceae or
Cruciferae.
 llacón = Polymnia sonchifolia, Asteraceae or
Compositae.

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Añu, Tropaeolum tuberosum, Tropaeolaceae

Añu, Tropaeolum tuberosum, Tropaeolaceae

Courtesy R. Norton Courtesy Dr. Tim Johns

Oca and quinoa in a Bolivian garden

Arracacia, Arracacia
xanthorhiza, Apiaceae

Courtesy Nancy Hikes

Courtesy Dr. Tim Johns

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Storage for Roots and Tubers

 Root and tuber crops are still living organisms after they have been
harvested and losses that occur during storage arise mainly from their
physical and physiological condition.
 The main causes of loss were associated with mechanical damage,
physiological condition (maturity, respiration, water loss, sprouting),
diseases and pests.
 To ensure effective storage of root and tuber crops, these major
causative factors need to be properly understood and, where
appropriate, be properly controlled, taking into account the socio-
Oca, Oxalis tuberosa,
economic factors which prevail in the areas of production and
Oxalidaceae
marketing.

Courtesy Dr. Tim Johns

Storage for Roots and Tubers Storage for Roots and Tubers
 Proper packaging and handling
 Control of Mechanical Damage  The ideal in packaging is to protect the produce from damage
 Most mechanical damage occurs as a result of careless handling at during handling, transport and storage and to provide containers of
harvest and during transport to and within a store since, generally in uniform size that are conveniently stacked and handled, easily
the tropics, food handling procedures are poorly developed and accounted for in quantity and, where appropriate, in weight.
fresh produce is all too frequently treated as an inert object.  In many developing countries traditional baskets, and various types
 Careful harvesting and proper handling of roots and tubers is, of trays or buckets are used for transporting produce to the house
therefore, an important step towards successful storage. Crops are or to village markets. These are usually of low cost, made from
readily available material and serve the purpose for transport over
most likely to be injured at harvest by the digging tools, which may short distances.
be wooden sticks, machetes, hoes or forks. Therefore, immediately
 Among the various types of packaging material that are available1,
after harvest, the crop must undergo the operation of curing. natural and synthetic fibre sacks and bags as well as moulded plastic
 The term "curing" refers to the operation of self-healing of wounds, boxes seem to be more suitable and have greater promise for
cuts and bruises. packaging roots and tubers and for their transport to distant
markets.

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Storage for Roots and Tubers Storage for Roots and Tubers
 Control ofTemperature
 Temperature has a great influence on many factors that cause loss
 Control of Sprouting
during storage. It is the single most important factor affecting the  The end of dormancy leads to the initiation of sprouting which,
rate of respiration, it also influences the rate of sprout growth, the in turn, means increased respiration and dry matter loss.
development of rotting micro-organisms and insect infestation.
 Therefore, if the duration of storage is to be longer than the
 At 10°C, the rates of sprout development, rotting and respiration
are shown to be moderate but at 4°C, sprouting is stopped, while natural dormancy period an alternative method to prevent or
rotting and respiration continue but at very low levels. delay sprouting is needed.
 Successful storage of roots and tubers in any sort of structure  One or more of three methods can be used:
depends very much on natural ventilation to remove respiration
 storage at low temperatures,
heat, to remove carbon dioxide.
 Ventilation should be with the coolest possible air, night time  the use gamma irradiation,
ventilation is not only the coolest but has the highest relative  the use of chemical sprout inhibitors.
humidity, so that water loss through transpiration is also held to a
minimum.

Storage for Roots and Tubers Storage for Roots and Tubers
 Control of the Spread of Diseases  Control of Damage Caused by Insects
 Simple and low cost preventive measures which to help control the  Insect pests can be the cause of serious losses in stored roots and
incidence of post-harvest diseases include: tubers, yams and sweet potatoes in particular.
 gentle handling to minimise the risk of injury to tubers during harvesting,  increasing levels of infestation of stored yams over a period of four
transport and storage; · adequate cultural practices and especially using disease months storage, with 63% of stored tubers being infested by moths
free planting material; and weight losses of 25% attributed to insects.
 good phytosanitary practices, including regular inspection of fields and premises,
 Good hygiene is of paramount importance in insect control
proper disposal of diseased tubers and plant debris, the cleaning and sterilising of
implements, boxes, buildings, etc. including, particularly, the destruction by burning of infested tubers
 pre-harvest crop application of chemicals to control the diseases in the growing and rubbish that can act as host to a variety of insect pests and
crop; cleaning and disinfection of the store structure.
 curing of the crop before storage;  Insecticides may be applied as dusts on the planting material, on the
 only storing produce that has been dried before putting into store, avoiding soil during the tuber-forming period, or as sprays applied to the
produce in store getting wet and storing at the optimum temperature. growing crop.

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Storage for Roots and Tubers Starch Chemistry

 Control of Nematodes
 Nematodes are well known to cause serious losses of roots and tubers,  Cassava starch
of both quantity and quality. There are three possible methods of
control:
 Potato starch
 Application of chemicals to soil and plants. This treatment has not proved to be  Sweet potato starch
economical;
 Treatment of propagative material prior to planting by immersion in nematicides
or hot water (50°C for 15-60 minutes is reported to give good results (Bridge,
1980));
 Cultural practices. The most common and reliable method. It involves growing
alternative crops for several years which are not suitable hosts for the specific
nematode pest.

Assignment
 Structure and property of:
 Cassava starch
 Potato starch
 Sweet potato starch The end!
- Looking for documents reported about these
information.
- Do not need to submit the assignment to me.

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