Wheel Alignment Principles

A wheel alignment is the adjustment of the suspension

and steering to ensure proper vehicle handling with
minimum tire wear.
When a vehicle is new, the alignment angles are set at the
factory. After many miles and/or months of driving, the
alignment angles can change slightly.
By adjusting the suspension and steering components,
proper alignment angles can be restored. An alignment
includes checking and adjusting, if necessary, both
front and rear wheels.
 ALIGNMENT-RELATED PROBLEMS
• Most alignment diagnosis is symptom-based
diagnosis. The problem with the alignment is
determined from symptoms such as excessive tire
wear or a pull to one side of the road.

Pull Defined as a definite tug on the steering

wheel or pull toward the left or the right while
driving straight on a level road.
• Bent, damaged, worn suspension and/or steering
components or tire problems can cause this.
 Wander
• Worn suspension and/or steering components are the
likely cause of this condition. Incorrect or unequal
alignment angles such as caster and toe, as well as
defective tire(s), can cause this condition
 Camber
• Camber is the inward or outward tilt of the wheels
from true vertical as viewed from the front or rear of
the vehicle.
Positive camber. The solid Negative camber. The solid
Zero camber..
vertical line represents true vertical line represents true
vertical; the dotted line the vertical; the dotted line the
angle of the tire angle of the tire.
Excessive positive camber causes scuffing and
wear on the outside edge of the tire.
Excessive negative camber causes scuffing and wear on
the inside edge of the tire
Camber can cause pull if it is unequal side-to-side. A difference
of more than 1/2 degree from one side to the other will cause the
vehicle to pull.
The vehicle will pull toward the side with the most positive
camber.
• Incorrect camber can cause excessive wear on wheel
bearings.

Many vehicle manufacturers specify positive camber

so the vehicle’s weight is applied to the larger inner
wheel bearing and spindle.

As the vehicle is loaded or when the springs sag,

camber usually decreases. If camber is kept positive,
the running camber is kept near zero degrees for best
tire life.
Camber is not adjustable on many vehicles.
If camber is adjustable, the change is made by moving
the upper or the lower control arm or strut assembly by
means of one of the following methods:
a. Shims
b. Eccentric cams
c. Slots
• Camber should be equal on both sides; however, if
camber cannot be adjusted exactly equal, make
certain that there is more camber on the front of the
left side to help compensate for the road crown (1/2
degree maximum difference).
 Caster
• Caster is the forward or rearward tilt of the steering
axis in reference to a vertical line as viewed from the
side of the vehicle.
• The steering axis is defined as the line drawn through
the upper and lower steering pivot points.
• Zero caster means the steering axis is straight up and
down.
• On an SLA suspension system, the upper pivot is the
upper ball joint and the lower pivot is the lower ball
joint.

On a MacPherson strut system, the upper pivot is the

center of the upper bearing mount and the lower pivot
point the lower ball joint.
• Positive (+) caster is present when the upper
suspension pivot point is behind the lower pivot point
(ball joint) as viewed from the side.
• Negative (–) caster is present when the upper
suspension pivot point is ahead of the lower pivot
point (ball joint) as viewed from the side.
Caster is not a tire-wearing angle, but positive caster
does cause changes in camber during a turn.
• Caster is a stability angle
• If caster is excessively positive, the vehicle steering will be
very stable (will tend to go straight with little steering wheel
correction needed). This degree of caster helps with steering
wheel returnability after a turn.
• If the caster is positive, steering effort will increase with
increasing positive caster. Greater road shocks will be felt
by the driver when driving over rough road surfaces.
• If caster is negative, or excessively unequal, the vehicle will
not be as stable and will tend to wander (constant steering
wheel movement will be required to maintain straight-ahead
direction). If a vehicle is heavily loaded in the rear, caster
increases
• Caster can cause pull if unequal; the vehicle will pull
toward the side with the least positive caster. The pulling
force of unequal caster is only about one-fourth the pulling
force of camber.
• Caster is not adjustable on many vehicles.

• If caster is adjustable, it is changed by moving the lower or

the upper pivot point forward or backward by means of the
following:
a. Shims
b. Eccentric cams
c. Slots
d. Strut rods
• Caster should be equal on both sides; however, if
caster cannot be adjusted to be exactly equal, make
certain that there is more caster on the right side
(maximum 1/2-degree difference) to help compensate
for the crown of the road.
 Toe
• Toe is the difference in distance between the front and
rear of the tires
• As viewed from the top of the vehicle (a bird’s eye
view), zero toe means that both wheels on the same
axle are parallel.
• Toe is also described as a comparison of horizontal
lines drawn through both wheels on the same axle
• If the front of the tires is closer than the rear of the
same tires, then the toe is called toe-in or positive (+)
toe
• If the front of the tires is farther apart than the rear of
the same tires, then the wheels are toed-out, or have
negative (–) toe.
• The purpose of correct toe setting is to provide
maximum stability with a minimum of tire wear when
the vehicle is being driven.
• Toe is measured in fractions of degrees or in
millimeters (mm).
• Incorrect toe is the major cause of excessive tire
wear!
• If not correct, toe causes camber-type wear on
one side of the tire.
Incorrect front toe does not cause a pull condition.
Incorrect toe on the front wheels is split equally
as the vehicle is driven because the forces acting
on the tires are exerted through the tie rod and
steering linkage to both wheels.

Incorrect (or unequal) rear toe can cause tire wear.

If the toe of the rear wheels is not equal, the
steering wheel will not be straight and will pull
toward the side with the most toe-in.
• Normal wear to the tie rod ends and other steering
linkage parts usually causes toe-out.

Excessive front toe-out will cause wander (lack of

directional stability), especially during braking.
Incorrect toe will cause an uncentered steering wheel.
If toe is unequal in the rear, the vehicle will pull
toward the side with the most toe-in.
 STEERING AXIS INCLINATION (SAI)
• The steering axis is the angle formed between true
vertical and an imaginary line drawn between the
upper and lower pivot points of the spindle.
Steering axis inclination (SAI) is the inward tilt
of the steering axis. SAI is also known as kingpin
inclination (KPI) and is the imaginary line drawn
through the kingpin as viewed from the front.
SAI is also called ball joint inclination (BJI), if
SLA-type suspension is used, or MacPherson
strut inclination (MSI).
• The SAI provides an upper suspension pivot location
causing the spindle to travel in an arc when turning,
tending to raise the vehicle.
• It also helps center the steering wheel after making a
turn and reduces the need for excessive positive
caster.
 INCLUDED ANGLE
The included angle is the SAI added to the camber
reading of the front wheels only.
• Included angle is an important angle to measure for
diagnosis of vehicle handling or tire wear problems.
If the cradle is out of location due to previous service
work or an accident, knowing SAI, camber, and
included angle can help in determining what needs to
be done to correct the problem.
 SCRUB RADIUS
• Scrub radius refers to the distance between the line
through the steering axis and the centerline of the
wheel at the contact point with the road surface.
• Scrub radius is not adjustable and cannot be
measured. Scrub radius can be zero, positive, or
negative. Zero scrub radius means that the line
through the steering axis intersects the centerline of
the tire at the road surface.
• Negative scrub radius causes the tire to toe-in during
acceleration, braking, or traveling over bumps. Zero scrub
radius is acceptable; positive scrub radius is less desirable
because it causes the wheel to toe-out during acceleration,
braking, or traveling over bumps and causes instability.
Positive scrub radius is commonly used on rear-wheel-drive
vehicles and requires a toe-in setting to help compensate for
the tendency to toe-out.
Changing tire or wheel sizes can affect the centerline
location of the wheel or height of the tire assembly. When
larger-diameter tires and positive-offset wheels are installed,
the scrub radius becomes positive, causing wander, poor
handling, and tire wear.
 TURNING RADIUS (TOE-OUT ON
TURNS)
• When a vehicle turns a corner, the inside wheel has to
turn at a sharper angle than the outside wheel because
the inside wheel has a shorter distance to travel.
• Turning radius, a nonadjustable angle, is called toe-
out on turns, TOT or TOOT.
• It is determined by angle of the steering knuckle
arms, and should be measured to check
if the steering arms are bent or damaged.
• Symptoms of out-of-spec turning angle include:
1. Tire squeal noise during normal
cornering, even at low speeds
2. Scuffed tire wear
 PREALIGNMENT CHECKS
Before checking or adjusting the alignment, these items
should be checked and corrected, as part of the
prealignment checks:
1. Check all the tires for proper inflation pressures. Tires
should be approximately the same size and tread depth,
and the recommended size for the vehicle.
2. Check the wheel bearings for proper adjustment.
3. Check for loose ball joints or torn ball joint boots.
4. Check the tie rod ends for damage or looseness.
5. Check the center link or rack bushings for play.
6. Check the pitman arm for any movement.
7. Check for runout of the wheels and the tires.
9. Check for steering gear looseness at the frame.
10. Check for improperly operating shock absorbers.
11. Check for worn control arm bushings.
12. Check for loose or missing stabilizer bar
attachments.
13. Check the trunk for excess loads.
14. Check for dragging brakes.
Check for vehicle ride height (should be level front to
back as well as side-to-side). Make sure that the factory
load-leveling system is functioning correctly, if the
vehicle is so equipped. Check height according to the
manufacturer’s specifications.