WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

TECHNICAL NOTE No. 17

NOTES ON
THE PROBLEMS OF CARGO VENTILATION
W.F. McDONALD

WMO-No. 63. TP. 23

Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization – Geneva – Switzerland

 THE WMO

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 WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

TECHNICAL NOTE No. 17

NOTES ON
THE PROBLEMS OF CARGO VENTILATION
W. F. IUcDONALD
(Consultant of the United States Weather Bureau;
Chairman of the Group for study of applied marine
meteorology and climatology, Commission for
Mal"itime Metcol"Ology of the WMOj

PRICE: Sw. fTo 7.-

Reprinted in 1967
Repl"inted in 1968

WMO· No. 63. TP. 23

SeCl'etariat of the World ~IeteOl'ological Organization ~ Geneva g Switzerland

1957
 © 1968, World Meteorological Organization

NOTE

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organi7.Ution concerning the legal status of any country or territory or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers.
 - III -

NOTES ON THE PROBLEMS OF CARGO VENTILATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary (French, Russian, Spanish) __._. ._.__....__..__. ~ .. _.. _ V

Limi tat ion of the problem discussed _. . .__. . .______ 1

Why ventilate (General problems) . . . ._._. ... ._.. 3

Simple principles of ventilation management ._. . _, , 5

Air temperature and moisture determinations for ship's ventilation 10

Summary and recommendations __.. .._. .. . . 17

Annex A . . . . .. ..._. . . . 19

Ann ex B . . . ~ . ._. .. . .. ~___ 25

Annex C • .. . . . .._._. . .______ 30

~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~ ~--
 -v-

NOTES SUR, LES PROBLEMES RELATIFS A LA VENTILATION DES CARGOS

Dahs la presente note, Ie meteorologiste s'efforce d1analyser - en ter-

mes non techniques - la nature des pr0blemes lies a la ventilation des cales
de navires. La protection et l'attention que necessitent les cargos mixtes en
particulier entralnent de grandes complications. Dans certains cas, Ie reg-
lage des conditions de la temperature de l'air peut rev~tir une tres grande
importance. Toutefois, 'lletude porte principalement sur la question, de ca-
ractere plus permanent, du contr~le de l'humidite, specialement dans les cas
ou il est necessaire de maintenir un degre approprie de secheresse dans les
cales de navires.

II est tenucompte du besoin de mesurer avec precision Ie point de ro-

see de l'air libre (exterieur) qui entre par les orifices de ventilation des
navires. II est essentiel de proceder a la lecture du point de rosee de l'air
exterieur pour pouvoir effectuer une comparaison directe avec les lectures du
point de rosee pour chaque courant de ventilation a la sortie des cales. Ces
comparaisons fourniront des indications pratiques des plus utiles aux offi-
ciers de la passerelle chaque fois que ceux-ci devront prendre des decisions
sur la question - qui se pose continuellement - de savoir s'il convient de
ventiler une cale particuliere du navire, et, si clest Ie cas, pendant combien
de temps il faut maintenir la ventilation. Etant donne que les methodes em-
piriques de ventilation peuvent souvent augmenter les dangers d'humidite dans
la cale au lieu de les reduire, il est instamment recommande que les decisions
prises a ce sujet se fondent sur les donnees fournies par les mesures propo-
sees, surtout dans tous les cas au la ventilation a pour but de modifier les
conditions dlhumidite existant dans la cale ou creees par les cargaisons ar-
rimees.

Cette etude attire l'attention sur Ie fait qu 1 en regIe generale, les

navires n'ont pas jusqu'ici ete construits d'apres des plans prevoyant de
petites prises d'air appropriees, facilement accessibles, sur les conduits
de sortie de l'air, afin de faciliter les mesures fondamentales importantes
du point de rosee, suggerees dans Ie cadre des pratiques de ventilation pre-
conisees.

La presente note recommande instamment que les navires soient equipes

de prises d'air facilement accessibles, sur les conduits de sortie d'air. En
l'absence de cette disposition, les lectures precises du thermometre mouil-
Ie et du thermometre sec ne peuvent pas servir de base aux decisions exactes
que d6ivent prendre les officiers de bord responsables des problames de la
ventilation des cargaisons. La note recommande aussi que les plans de cons-
truction des nouveaux cargos doivent prevoir de tels orifices simples et peu
co~teux (munis de mantelets etanches) pour permettre ces lectures directes
de la temperature a l'aide dlinstrillDents a main, conformement au progra~De
propose pour Ie contrBle de la ventilation. On souligne Ie danger qu'il y
a de se fier a des appareils fixes, dont la precision n' est pas souvent ve-
rifiee. ---
 - VI -

La note decrit egalement un nouveau drosometre moderne, ventile automa-

tiquement, qui echappe aux difficultes inherentes a la plupart des appareils
servant a mesurer le point de rosee a bord des navires.
Les annexes contiennent la documentation suivante

Annexe A - L'Annexe A fait le resume de certaines recherches scientifiques de

grande envergure concernant les conditions de la temperature et de l'humidite
a l'interieur et a l'exterieur des cales avant des repercussions sur les car-
gaisons de navires au large, recherches effectuees et communiquees par ·le See-
wetteramt, Deutscher Wetterdienst, Hambourg, Allemagne.

Annexe B - L'Annexe B contient un expose non technique sur la determination

des points de rosee del'air a l'aide de mesures precises de la temperature
effectuees par une couple de thermometres associes -il s'agit de la methode
des thermometres sec et mouille.

Annexe C - L'Annexe C cite un grand nombre de commentaires emanant des mi-

lieux maritimes sur les problemes debattus et les idees exposees anterieure-
ment. Dans chaque cas,la source des commentaires est pratiqtlement liee a un
ou a plusieurs aspects des questions concernant le transport sain et sauf et
la livraison sDre des marchandises empruntant des voies maritimes.
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 - IX·-

NOTAS SOBRE LOS PROBLEN~S QUE PRESENTA LA VEN,ILACION

DE LA CARGA EN EL TRANSPORTE MARITIMO

En estas notas se estudia desde un punto de vista meteoro16gico,y evi-

tando en 10 posible el uso de la terminologfa de los especialistas,la natura-
·leza de los problemas relacionados con la ventilaci6n de las bodegas de los
barcos. La protecci6n y el acarreo de cargas hetereogeneas, en particular,
presentan grandes complicaciones. En ciertos casos,la regulaci6n de la tempe-
ratura del aire en las bodegas es una de las condiciones m6s importantes
para el buen transporte de la carga. No obstante,este estudio se ocupa princi-
palmente del problema mucho mas frecuente que supone el mantener la humc~ad
dentro de ciertos Ifmites y especialmente en aquellos casos .en que eS necesa-
rio· que las bodegas conserven una sequedad adecuada.

Se justifica por que es necesario medir con exactitud el punto de rocIo

de la corriente de aire libre (del exterior) que entra en el sistema de venti-
laci6ndel barco. Esta medida es esencial para la comparaci6n directa con las
medidas del "punta de rodo" de cada corriente de ventilaci6n a bordo del barco.
Tales comparaciones serviran de indicacion, la maS practical y Gtil, para
los oficiales de guardia que deben tomar ded siones con respecto a la cuestion
qu", se presenta siempre, de saber si es necesario ventilar una bodega y,una vez
iriiciada la ventilaci6n cuanto Hempo debera mantenerse. A causa del riesgo
que existe de aumentar los danos causados por la humedad si la ventilaci6n de
las bodegas so hace de una manera empIrica, se encarece la necesidad de basar
las decisiones en el conocimiento del estado higrometrico relativo obtenido a
partir de las medidas a que se hace referencia,sobre todo en los casos en que
el objeto principal de la ventilaci6n es la modificaci6n de las condiciones de
humedad en la bodega 0 provenientes de la carga almacenada.

Se llama la atenci6n sobre el hecho de que,como regIa muy general,hasta

ahora los barcos se han construIdo con arreglo a pIanos que no preveIan la
existencia de pequenas ventanas,convenientes y de facil acceso,para la toma de
muestras de aire en la tuberIa de descarga del sistema de ventilaci6n, con el
objeto de facilitar las medidas del punto de rocio,fundamentales para 12 buena
marcha de las operaciones de ventilaci6n de acuerdo con 10 recomendado.
Se encareCe la conveniencia de proveer con dichas ventanas los siste-
mas de ventilaci6n de los barcos de carga; de otra manera no se podr~n efec-
tuar lecturas precisas de los term6metros seco y humedo, necessari2s para
que los oficiales de puente tomen decisiones correctas en relaci6n con los
problemas de ventilaci6n de la carga. En est a nota se recomienda tarnbien que
los proyectos para la construcci6n de nuevos transportes deben incluir, como
cosa corriente, estas ventanitas, sencillas y poco costosas, provistas de
cierres hermeticos, para perrnitir la lectura directa de los terrnometros, como
10 exige la realizacion eficaz del prograrna de regulaci6n de la ventilaci6n
que se indica. Se llama la atencion sobre el peligro que supone la utiliza-
cion de dispositivos fiios que, en general, no han sido verificados con reS-
pecto a la fidelidad d~ respuesta. Tambien se describe un medidor de punto
 - X-

de rodo, nuevo, moderno y autoventilado, que no presenta los inconvenientes

de la mayor!a ae los dispositivos utilizados hasta la fecha a bordo de los
barcos de transporte.

En los apendices se puede encontrar informaci6n sobre los siguientes

aspectos .:

hEi!:!£!i9Ji: A - En el se resumen alguiias de la extensas investigaciones cienU-

ficas sobre las condiciones de humedad y temperatura dentro y fuera de las
bodegas, llevadas a cabo y publicadas por el ·Seewetteramt, Deutscher Wetter-
dienst, Hamburg, Alemania.

Apendice B - Contiene une descripci6n, sin detalles tecnicos, de los metodos

de determinaci6n del punto de rocIo del aire mediante la medida exacta de la
temperatura con dos term6metros apareados (el metodo llamado de los term6-
metros seco y humedo.

hpendice C - Aquf se incluyen una serie de op~n~ones de circulos marItimos

interesados sobre los problemas tratados en esta nota y las ideas avanzadas
previamente. Los autores de estas opiniones est~n en todos los casos pr~c­
ticamente relacionados con uno 0 varios aspectos de los problemas que pre-
senta el transporte y la descarga en buenas condiciones de los productos em-
barcados.
 - 1 -

NOTES ON THE PROBLB~S OF CARGO VENTILATION

FOREWORD

This document has been prepared by Mr. W.F. McDonald (United States of
America) chairman of a working group of the Commission for Maritime Meteoro-
logy,under the presidency of Cdr. C.E.N. Frankcom (United Kingdom). The other
members of the working group wereMr, Montijn (Netherlands) and Mr. Shellard
(United Kingdom). The working group was constituted at the London conference
of the Commission for Maritime Meteorology in 1951 and its work was concluded
at Hamburg in October 1956, when it was submitted to the whole Commission for
their approval. During the preparation of this study Mr. McDonald did a world
voyage in a cargo ship and discussed the problem on the spot with experts in
various countries as well as with the other members of this working group and
the president of the Commission.

The contents of this document are now made available for international
purposes and it is hoped that Members of the World Meteorological Organization
may find means to make its information available to the maritime interests of
their respective nationalities. The purpose is practical,namely,to contribute
to the betterment of cargo ventilation (including the improvement of shipsl
architecture with respect to this important matter)and if possible aid in less-
ening deterioration and waste that arises from improperly controlled moisture
in shipsl holds. Maritime interests are fully aware of the economic importance
of preventing such losses which are often considerable on a single voyage.

LIMITATION OF THE PROBLEM DISCUSSED

Only a small part of the cargo space available in world shipping is

specially fitted for mechanical control of moisture and temperature in the
ship's interior. Although the present discussion is directed mainly towards
the problem of open ventilation, the principles here discussed are also ap-
plicable to the intelligent control of mechanical ventilation systems,includ~
ing those that are designed to maintain a predetermined set of conditions in
the atmosphere of the hold. These principles may therefore be usefully
studied by the officers concerned with such systems. (Where the word "cargo"
is used hereafter, it must be taken generally to mean those commodities that
fall within the technical category, "dry cargo").

Open ventilation of cargoes must be accomplished with the air that

surrounds the ship. The most common type of ventilation (all ships con-
sidered) is t;le now so,""what old-fashioned "co'll typ,," ventilato:.: systu", by
which the intake scoops are opened into, and discharge scoops are opened away
from the wind stream over the ship. ,!atches and other large ports are also
?t times opened to assist ventilation. A more effective system (used in most
of the larger modern sh~)s) employs forced ventilation driven by power fans.
These are usually installed so as to push air into the hold. In some systems,
however, the fans pUll air from the hold, thus reducing slightly the pressure
in the shipl s interior compared to thQ air outside. This allows replacement
air to flow naturally into the ship,
 - 2 ~

Considerable expense and effort have been expended by some shipping

companies to install specialized temperature and moisture measuring equip-
ment for ventilation management. The simplest of these plans consists in
the use of recording "hygro-thermographs". which are clock~driven drum-type
recording instruments on which continuous records of air temperature and
"relative humidity" are obtained from the cargo spaces under investigation
or control, Such instrumentation in ships' holds will,of course, be useful
for obtaining raw data to investigate the nature of the changes taking place
while cargoes are under transport,
However, readings from hygro-thermographs can hardly be made the basis
for the immediate day-to-day or hour~to-hour judgments by shipsl officers in
deciding whether or not to ventilate. As a rule,cargo spaces are closed from
easy and complete access between ports. If the recorder is placed at the top
of stowed cargo under an access opening,its indications will be merely those
representative of the space immediately beneath the deck through which the
opening is available. Such readings cannot be a satisfactory index to the
condition of the more critical, cooler portions of the hold.

A more useful (and much more costly) method of measuring moisture con~
ditions in ships' holds uses modern electrical sensing devices. Such devices,
which are wired from the point of measurement to the recorder installed on
the bridge or at any other selected place,make readings immediately available
to the responsible deck officer for guidance in protecting the cargo aboard.
However, such installations, apart from the cost, present certain inherent
problems of management. The equipment is by nature delicate and to more than
a degree "perishable". Unless kept frequently checked and calibrated to assure
their accuracy in operation, the readings from these measuring devices may
drift and become entirely useless.

In addition, there are many difficulties to overcome in the placement

of sensing elements in the hold so as to give a dependable index for the state
of the air throughou;l; the cargo space concerned. The main difficulty rests
on the fact that meteorology of the hold is a complex and variable state
usually defying accurate definition in terms of any series of measurements
obtained from a single point. If sufficient sensing stations are established,
the average over-all condition in the hold can be dptermined including the
run of changes. However, the costs and difficulties of management grow in
proportion to the number of multiple indicators to be employed. The expense
of installing, maintaining, and managing a scientifically complete and accur~
ate set of multiple recorders of the type described, for revealing at all
times the over-all state of the hold, can be justified only when cargo of hig,
value and subject to ·extreme hazard is involved.

Regardless of physical equipment available, ships' deck officers re-

sponsible for cargo management have to decide, if, when, and how long the
ship's ventilating system or systems will be operated. Examination of the
literature and other available information reveals that the vast proportion
of maritime commerce is conducted without clear, logical instructions .for this
task, There are, of course, notable exceptions; some shipping companies have
worked out rather comprehensive rules for.the guidance of their responsible
 - 3 -

officers. Such regulations and instructions are almost invariably applicable

to the type of cargo and the special requirements of the shipping route, the
details of which for the most part are outside the general province of the
meteorologist. The winnowed experience gained by generations of mariners is,
of course, the basis of all eXisting rules of practice for cargo ventilation,
whether or not formulated as instructions.

Such practical guidance may fairly be stated in the following "Rule of

2..xperience: Ventilate vulnera!?le cargo whenever the sh.i,l2..~'ying from a warm-
er to a coole! area and the !I'.2.E.t..E~i:L.t.tle change the mor'LYigorous the effort
to ventilate". This rule is no doubt helpful and indeed for many purposes it
may be sufficient. However, if this rule should be applied when the dew-point
of the outside air is higher than cargo temperature,moisture will be deposited
on, not removed from, such cargo. (A discussion of the meaning and measure-
ment of "dew-point temperature" is given' in Annex B, to which any reader not
already familiar with this index to moisture in the atmosphere should refer.)

Considering the not uncommon situation when the dew-point of the a1:r is
higher than cargo temperature, and the fact that much moisture-damaged cargo
continues to be delivered at out-turn in port, we may say emphatically that
rule of thumb for management of ship's ventilation is inadequate and there
should be a better foundation for guidance in meeting this important problem.

Considerable effort is being expended on investigation* of the meteoro-

logy of ships' holds under varying conditions of environment and types of cargo.
If such work could be carri ed through the compl ete vari ety of ship designs, all
the range of climatic envirorunents for loading,intervening voyages and .unload-
ing,and the extremely complex and variable conditions inherent within differ-
ent kinds of cargo and diverse conditions of stowage,it should be possible to
produce a more or less complete "guide" that coUld,perhaps,recommend a prac-
tice for each probl.em of ventilation control under any given set of conditions.
However, the number of permutations and comBinations of these factors almost
surely would tax the limits of any practicable documentation for actual ship-
board use. Such co~prehensive documentation is nowhere available at present,
because sufficiently complete and rigorous studies have not been carried
through to practical conclusion.

We must therefore look in some other direction for making improvements

in existing ventilation management. !'undamentally,the problem involves con-
sideration of two questions : (1) "Why do we v?ntilate cargo at any time" and
(2) "How can we know whether ventilation when undertaken is actually improving
the condition of the hold?"

WHY VENTILATE (GENERAL PROBLEMS)

Aboard ships !'lot air-con9itioned for strict control to meet known cargo
problems, the main cause of ca~go damage arises from condensing atmospheric

Je Note: Comprehensive investigations at this time are being pursued by the

Hamburg Seewetteramt of the Deutscher Wetterdienst. A s~mmary of this work,
and of general plans and objectives, is appended as Annex A.
 - 4 -

moisture which forms interior "sweat", . either on the ship's structure or with-
in the cargo itself or both, To produce "sweat" always requires sUrfaces or
zones that are cooler than the dew~point of the air present in the hold, whe-
ther this be stagnant air or the air introduced by ventilation. In general,
it may be assumed that ventilation i.s ai.med primarily to remove moisture from
the ship's space concerned, although there are important exceptions where heat
or damaging gases must be discharged.
Moisture sometimes arises from the cargo itself, as in the case of many
natural products, such as fruit, vegetables, and green lumber to mention a
few. This is almost always the case when cargo has been wetted before or
during the loading operation.

Some types of cargo generate internal heat, and in this case, the re-
moval of that heat may become extremely important in avoiding spontaneous
combustion. Cargo temperatures in course of the voyage tend to adjust (often
quite slowly) to the general temperature of the ship and its outside climate.
This temperature adjustment proceeds even in the total absence of ventilation
but is of course greatly accelerated by forced air movement throughout cargo
spaces. However, cargo tightly stacked is almost immune to the accelerating
influence of ventilation except in surface layers, this fact should always be
borne in mind in planning cargo stowage, and where it is anticipated that
ventilation will be needed to assure the maintonance of proper condition, the
cargo concerned should be stowed to facilitate to the greatest practicable ex-
tent the movement of air through numerous planned interstices.*

It is especially important to recognize that cargo loaded at a port when

the weather is cold and then carried into a warmer environment will readily
generate condensation upon or within itself when it comes in contact with air
having a dew-point temperature above the temperature of that part of the carqo
or· ca~o space. Recognizing this there can be general agreement that under
certain conditions all air exchange in the hold should be kept at a minimum.
This is of course, a special case, to be solved only by the ship's responsible
officers with full knowledge of the temperature a~oisture conditions with-
in and outside of the ship, governing intelligent decision.

Some types of cargo arc "hygroscopic", that is, there is in the material
itself a natural affinity for airborne moisture, so ~rong that there iS~Drp­
tien of such moisture even from air not fully saturated by the contained vapor.
Fibers, such as jute, wool and cotton and also hides show this property to great-
er· or lesser extent. The capacity for absorption of added moisture is height-
ehed·if such materials are loaded from unusually hot dry ports of origin. Ship-
ping regUlations generally forbid acceptance of skins and fibrous materials if
these are offered in wet or unduly moist condition, because drying in the hold
of a ship is practicably impossible.

* Note : Although soft wood dunnage may be used for general purposes it seems
desirable that hard wood dunnage will be required to separate dry cargo from
all otherwise uninsulated decks .01' bulkheads, that are likely to be chilled by
cold seas or by adjacent refrigerated spaces·. Such cold surfaces are persistent
sources of wet condensa te. .
 - 5 -

There are a few very special instances in which a particular type of

cargo must be kept at a specified degree of moisture and not allowed to become
too dry. In other cases, cargo is to be maintained at a temperature above
some critical level as in the case of bananas. Such instances are the--;X:
ception rather than the rule. They are not dealt with at length here, be-
cause the general problem of cargo carried in ships' holds not equipped with
special air conditioning controls, requires that ventilation be conducted to
reduce moisture in the hold primarily~lthough sometimes heat or gases -££D-
erated by cargo must be removed from the hold and cargo concerned. By venti-
laHon • the air within the hold will be replaced by the outside a ir. If such
ventilation is to be useful the ventilating air must carry away from the
cargo the potentially damaging vapors or heat or both, and our problem is to
determine whether this improvement is actually taking place.
Scientific evaluation for practical everyday guidance of ships' venti-
lation though difficult is not a hopeless matter to be left solely to rule
of thumb. Keeping in sight the practical limitation in costs and time demands
on deck officers already burdened with numerous tasks the meteorologist can
nevertheless suggest a relatively simple and entirely feasible way to get vast-
ly improved guidance in ventilation practices with a minimum of cost and effort.
The diversities of cargo, the "in-and-out" requirements that often determine
where and to some extent how cargo is stowed, and the variable conditions that
affect cargo at loading port, etc., can be left aside as the meteorologist sug-
gests the following practical approach to answering the second question asked
above : "How can we know whether ventilation, when undertaken, actually pro-
duces an improvement in the condition of the hold?"

SI~WLE PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION MANAGEMENT

Be cargo in good or poor condition, well or poorly stowed for best car-
riage, ventilation draws into the ship the atmosphere that is present outside.
Therefore, the first and most important fact to determine is the state of the
air that will be pulled into the ship's ventilation system. It will be evident
that nearly saturated or saturated air introduced into the hold cannot pick up
additional moisture unless the air is considerably warmed as it passes through
the cargo spaces. On the other hand, should nearly saturated air be intro-
duced into cargo spaces significantly cooler than the outside, then water will
be deposited when the air reaches such cooler parts of the hold and cargo.

The frequency with which problems of sweat hazards are encountered must
not obscure the important fact that ventilation may be necessary for a variety
of reasons apart from sweat control. Foul odors, dangerous gases, and excess
heat often require air circulation regardless of dew-point factors.
In general, if the object is to remove or avoid interior sweat, venti-
lators should be opened only when the surrounding atmosphere shows a dew-point
definitely lower than the temperature of the cargo to be protected from moist-
ure damage, if this latter temperature is obtainable. Since cargo temperature
is quite difficult to measure, and the air in contact with cargo tends to as-
sume that temperature, or at least to become a fair indicator, we may for
practical purposes say that ventilation for moisture control should never be
 - 6 -

undertaken unless the air around the ship shows a dew-point significantly lower
than the dew-point of the air that it will displace when drawn into the cargo
spaces,
While not so essential as the condition just stated, it is also desir-
able that the outside air show a definite "moisture deficit" when introduced
into ventilation for moisture removal. Such a moisture deficit is indicated
by finding that the dew-point of the atmosphere is significantly lower than
its dry bulb temperature. A quick indicator of this, (the inaccuracy of which
is on the safe side) will be found in the "depression of the wet bulb";which
is simply the degree to which the wet bulb thermometer reading falls below the
dry bulb reading. (The dew-point can never be higher,though it will often be
lower, than the wet bulb thermometer reading,)

An entirely safe rule for ventilation directed towards moisture control

may then be stated as follows : Whenever accurate measurement shows the out-
side air has a dew-Eoint below the dew-Eoint of the air surrounding the cargo
to be protected, such outside air is capable of removing moisture from the
hold and the ventilation Erocess can be safely started. Whenever the reverse
is true, and the outside dew-point is higher than the dew-point temperature
around the cargo, then ventilation will increase the moisture content of the
hold and may readily result in sweating within the ship,

An elementary discussion of the use of a psychrometer, the name applied

to paired wet and dry bulb thermometers ventilated by the same air source,and
of the~·meaning of the values obtained for "dew-point" and "relative humidity"
derived from these two thermometer readings, is given in Annex B.
Ventilation should seldom or never be continued without constant watch
on the results shown by the discharged ventilation stream. A simple,practical
way to mainta in such watch is to take an accurate measurement of the dew-point
of :l;he~·exhaust air stream for comparison with the initial dew-point of the air
introduced at the intake. As soon as the ventilation circuit is well estab-
lishodthe air d:rscharged from the hold gives a partially integrated index of
the initial atniospheric condition in the cargo spaces, Later measurements must
thereafter be made to reveal whether, how much, and in what direction the pro-
cess of ventilation is affecting the atmosphere of the hold concerned. Con-
tinued ventilation will tend progressively to equalize the temperature and moist-
ure conditions within the hold and outside the ship.
If the air at exit from the hold is warmer than the air going in, then
~ is being brought out of the hold, , Similarly, when air at exit shows a
higher dew-point than the air fed into the ventilation system,moisture is be-
ing removed from the cargo space. Conversely, discharge air found cooler or
dryer than intake will show that heat or moisture is being added to the hold.

Cases arise in which air temperature is affected in one direction (either

up or down) when passed through the ship's hold, while the moisture content
changes in the opposite manner. In tropical oceans, adjacent to desert re-
gions, it maybe found that the temperature of the exhaust air is lower than
the intake but the discharge air nevertheless shows an increase in dew-point.
 ~ 7 -

If the purpose of ventilation under such circumstances is to remove moisture

rather than to' minimize danger from cargo heating,ventilation will be attain-
ing its practical objective.

A prominent shi.pping executive in New York City who has given much at-
tention to cargo ventilation has briefly summarized his views as follows re-
garding the ideal to be sought. He considers that: (1) Hold ventilation
should aim ideally at keeping the interior condition equalized with the state
of the atmosphere'· outside. (2) To do this, he thinks, would require replace-
ment, 12 to 15 times per hour, of tte air in spaces around the cargo. (3)Air
movement must be assured thrOUGhout all sensitive ca"go to be ventilated,and
ventilation ducting, stowage and placement of dunnage must have as its object
the elimination of dead air spaces in and around ~he cargo. (4) ~ fans
drawing from ducts that take out from the normally coolest parts of the hold
to be ventilated, he believes, will secure the best resu1 ts for elimination
of dead air spaces.*

At a temperature of 25°C 1 kg At a temperature of 77°F one

of air will occupy about 0,83m3 of pound of air will occupy about 15
,space; if chea51' is saturated with cubic feet of space, if the air is
water vapour 'so that its dew-point al~ saturated with water vapour so that
sO is 25° there will be approximately its dew-point is also 77°F there will
20'g of water in the moist air. A ven- be approximately 1/3 ounce of water
tilating stream of 170 m3/min.or 10,000 in the Qoist air. A 'ventilating
m3 per hour comprised of air in this stream of 6000 cubic feet per minute
state can therefore ha'JI 240 Utrus of comprised of air in this state can
water per hour as entrained vapour. therefore haul two barrels of water
Should such air be cooled 5°C in pas- per hour as entrained vapour. Should
sing through a ship, it would leave such air be cooled 10°F in passing
behind about one-fourth of its vapour through a ship, i t would 1eave behind
~oad 60 lit"~s of \'later as condensate about one-fourth of i,ts vapour load
or "sweat", because air at 20°C can OT t barrel of water as condensate
carry only three-fourths as much wa tel' or "sweat", because air at 67°F can
vapour as it doe" at the higher tem-· carry only three-fourths as much water
perature. Warming from 20° to 25°C vapour as it does at the higher tem-
will, conversely, ir'.crease the moist- perc,tu:;;e. Warming from 67° to 77°F
ure bearing capacity of a ventilation will, c0nversely,increase the moist-
stream and at 10,000 0 3 per hour with u:~e bearing cQpaci ty of a ventilation
such warming, 60 litccs of added moist- stream 2nd at 6000 cubic feet per
ure per hour could be picked up and mir.ute with such warming, a half-
carried away from the ship I s hold. barrel of added moisture per hour
could be picked up and carried away
from the ship's hold,

This simple and somewhat exaggerated example is given to illustrate the

point that an air stream moving through a ship is also a potential water pump,
especially when air of relatively high temperature and correspondingly large
capacity for water vapour flows through the cargo spaces.

* Note ; These ideal conditions cannot practically be met in the average

cargo ship, it may nevertheless be useful to consider wha-t one authority deems
the ideal considerations.
 - 8 -

None but the roughest quantitative rules about temperature and dew-
point can be suggested for guidance in ventilation practice.
The following points should be borne in mind at all times :
(1) Ship's cargo will change its temperature more slowly than the change
in the ship's environment along its course.
(2) The interior adjustment will show the greatest lag at the middle of
tightly stowed cargo, and especially so in the lower holds.
(3) More open stowage and active ventilation will accelerate the tempera-
ture change within the cargo and hold although the lag of this change
compared to the rate of change on the outside cannot be entirely eli-
minated.
Deck officers will learn by experience how their ship's spaces and the
types of cargo carried behave under observed changes in temperature environ-
ment. The ship's course, whether from a cooler to a warmer environment or
vice versa, has an important bearing on the selection of temperature and dew-
point criteria for activating ventilation. In the case of a movement from wa:rm-
er to colder regions, temperatures of the ship's cargo and holds will lag l?~­
hing the outside rate of cooling, i.e. will tend to remain warmer;under such
a condition, it will be safe to ventilate even though the outside air shows
no depression of its dew-point below the dry air temperature, provided such
air introduced for ventilation is itself at least a few degrees cooler than
the hold.
When a ship moves from cooler to warmer sea areas,externalventilation
for moisture control should, as a rule, be closed off entirely. Ventilation
~r removal of higher internal heat will still be feasible provided the moist-
ure hazard is known to be the lesser hazard to cargo. There are rare occa-
sions in winter when a strong seasonal invasion of air from higher latitudes
brings deep into intertropical regions an air mass of sufficient coolness and
dryness to support ventilation for interior dehumidification. Since these
instances are infrequent, general guide lines for decision on ventilation con-
trol under these circumstances are lacking, It is assumed,however,that a safe-
ty factor of 4° to 8°F (20 to 4° Celsius) of "cooling margin" (difference be-
tween dry bulb and dew-point temperatures) should in these situations be main-
tained in the discharge ventilation stream, to take account of the tempera-
ture lag in cargo slowly warming up with the ship's passage from cool to pro-
gressively warmer waters.
A wide range of testimony on cargo outturn reveals that whether a ship
has comprehensive ventilation control or the simplest of ventilation systems
it is most important that deck officers have full knowledge regarding the basic
problems of moisture evaluation, and a comprehension of the limitations as
well as the capabilities of the ship's ventilation system. As one writer says:
"No system of ventilation can prevent damage if the ship's officers do not
know when to and when not to use it, and the simplest form of ventilation can
keep cargo in good condition in the great majority of circumstances if eniployed
to the maximum advantage."
 - 9 -

Both temperature and moisture tend towards equalization across bound-

aries of inequality (excluding those so-called "hygroscopic" substances that
have such an affinity for water that they will extract moisture from air even
when that air is not fUlly saturated). The variable sources of heat and
moisture present within the ship must therefore be carefully considered by
the responsible officers in their planning for cargo protection.

The temperature within a ship's lower holds will be governed princip-

ally by the sea water bathing the lower plates. Warmed spaces such as engine
rooms, shaft tunnels, hot tanks, etc., are localized heat sources to be borne
in mind. Other spaces may be fully or partially refrigerated; when undergoing
chilling, these tend at least slightly to create relatively cool environment,
within which the tendency to condensation will be correspondingly increased,
Considerable night-to-day variation in temperature of ship's structure above
the water line takes place, as there is a reversal from incoming heat of bright
sunshine to the outgoing radiation of clear nights. On bright days the sunny
side of a ship may be considerably hotter than the shady side.

These localizations of differing temperature within a ship have prac-

tical bearing on the moisture control problem because it will be found that
moisture will usually migrate from warmer to cooler spots, Condensate often
forms under the weather deck because of night cooling; this can also arise
~hen spray or wash from cold stormy seas is thrown over decks sheltering warm
moist cargo, Wet cargo or wet dunnage provides a moisture source within the
ship that can become particularly troublesome, When this source is located
'.vi thin one of the warmer parts of the shi.p's interior, although the wetness
may be unimportant with respect to cargo from which it originates, excess moist-
ure may, due to variations in temperature, migrate and become a damaging de-
posit of "sweat" elsewhere aboard.

On the other hand, the cooler spaces within a ship can be turned to
advantage by clever management of ventilat~on and be made places for deposit
of moisture unwanted elsewhere. This will be particularly true if at the
oooler spot the resultant condensate can be disposed of without damage. Some-
times a closed interior ventilation circuit can be set up to make use of the
cool spot for dehumidifying the air that afterwards will be passed around and
picle up wa:;.'mth and moisture from cargo needing protection. Instances have
been reported in which the ship's unusod or surplus refrigeration space has
thus been turned to good advantage for interior dehumidification by closed
recirculation of interior air when the state of the outside atmosphere was
such as to forbid its introduction into the ship's ventilation system.

Whatever the arrungement used for reducing interior moisture by

ventilation, its practical mamgement should as far as pass ible be
guided by the measurement of dew-points as the index to moisturE, I\ir
taken in for ventilation should show a dew-point lower than the
temperature of the curgo or space to be dehumidified. The air
dIScharged from the- controlled space should show the dew-point increas-
£~ by passage through the ship, if moisture is to be- removGd~
 -.10 -

When this is the case, the usefulness of any chosen ventilation process can
be gauged by proceeding through the following steps : *

(1) Measure the dew-point of the outside air that will feed into the ven-
tilators.
(2) Place the ventilation system into operation.

(3) Shortly after activating veCltilation,measure the dew-point of the air

flowing out from the ventilators;this is to· make sure that the output
stream shows a higher dew-point than that of the outside air,measured
in step (1). The outflowing air will afford a valuable index to the
moisture state of· the hold from which it comes. Unless the dew~point
temperature of this air that flows out from the hold is higher than
the dew-point of the atmosphere around the ship,that feeds the venti-
lation stream, there can be no removal of moisture from the hold and
it will be useless (or perhaps damaging) to continue ventilation.
(4) At reasonable intervals thereafter repeat the measurement of dew-point
in the discharge stream,to make certain that the outflow air continues
to show a dew-point higher than that of the ventilator input air, as
measured in s~ep (1).
(5) At longer intervals (not less than 6 hours apart) recheck the dew-point
of the atmosphere around the ship that feeds the ventilation system.
Use this up-to-the-minute reading as a new base of comparison to de-
termine whether continued ventilation still brings to view an increased
dew-point in the discharged air.
In general, repeated measurements are necessary to be sure that the
discharge ventilator air continues to be more moist (i.e. to have a higher
dew-point) that:l the input stream. 8.§ soon a§ the air at both intake and oyt-
~ventilators shows identical dew-point readings, or should it come to pass
that the exit stream shows a 19wer dew-point in comparison with input av, ven-
tilation should be stopQ§d. In the latter case, moisture will be deposited
in· the hold and sweat h~zards will be increased bY-£2ntinued ventilation. **

AIR TEMPERATUP~ AND MOISTURE DETERMINATIONS FOR SHIplS VENTILATION

The discussion above has tied the determination of atmospheric "dew-

point" to the practical judgments of the shipsl deck officers governing hold
ventilation. The manner of using a standard "psychrometer" (paired dry and

* .tl2.i€ :
If very cold cargo is known to be present in the hold, the above
procedure should be followed with care or a decision in advance might bomado
not to ventilate at all in such circumstances. Conditions under which the
cargo was loaded, its nature .and stowage, recent weather conditions and di
rection in which the ..ship is pro.cGGding should also be taken into account.
**.In vessels fitted with a recirculatory system the air in the hold may, of
course, continue to circulate.
 - 11 -

wet bulb thermometers) to obtain dew-point values is discussed in Annex B.

A condensed table of dew-point values is also given.

A significant fact, having important bearing on ventilation for cargo

dehumidification, stands out from a close examination of the dew-point table.
It will be seen that for the same "depression of the wet bulb" relatively
colder aIr shows "depression of the dew-point" greater than in warmer air.
In practice, this means that in the cooler instance there is a larger margin
for cooling-during ventilation without danger of moisture deposit on ship's
surfaces or in cargo zones.

Note then, that it is better to guide ventilation in terms of the "de-

pression of the 2.£.w-point" than to take the simpler, direct indicator, the
"depression of the wet bulb" as the guide. The dew-point will never be high-
er than the wet bulb teQperature, but it can be considerably lower, especial-
ly wi th relatively cold air.

This is best shown by two This is best shown by two ex-

examples, both involving wet bulb amples, both involving wet bulb read-
readings 3°C below the dry bulb tem- ings 5°F below the dry bulb tempera-
perature, a difference not too in- ture, a difference not too infrequent-
frequently found at sea. When the ly found at sea. When the dry bulb
dry bulb temperature is 27°e (with (air) temperature is aooF (with wet
wet bulb 24°e) the dew-point is 23 ° bulb 75°F) the dew-point is 73°F.
C. This means that 4°e of cooling This means that 7°F of cooling is re-
is required to produce condensate quired to produce condensate from
from such air. However, if the same such air. However, if the same de-
depression of wet bulb (3 oe)exists pression of wet bulb (5°F) exists in
in air at dry temperature of lODe, air at dry temperature 50°F, such
such air must be cooled 6° to 4°C air must be cooled 10° to 40°F be-
before moisture will be deposited. fore moisture will be deposited.
If we designate the differ- If we designate the difference
ence between the dry bulb tempera- between the dry bulb temperature and
ture and the dew-point as the mar- the dew-point as the margin for cool-
gin for cooling (before condensate ing (before condensate forms)then the
forms) then the examples above show examples above show an increase of 3°F
an increase of 2°C in this margin in this margin of safety for air at
of safety for air at lODe as com- 500F as compared with air at SooF with
pared with air at 27°C with depres- depression of wet bulb 5°F in each
sion of wet bulb 3°C in each case. caseJ

Given below are actual examples of dew-point observations made at ship's

noon during a winter voyage round the world from New York. These show again
the advantage in "cooling margin" that goes with air at lower as compared with
air at higher temperatures. Summer readings in the same waters would show con-
siderably different moisture conditions with less "cooling margin"because there
would be higher temperatures along the course of the voyage, especially within
the tropics. (See Table 1, page 13).
While the comparison principle of "in and out" dew-point measurement is
simple to the point of being obvious and has been often stated as the key to
 - 12 -

ventilation for moisture control, we find that shipping management, ship de-
sign and thefi tting out of ships seldom recognize this principle and provide
therefor the elementary means for obtaining easy, efficient and accurate
measurements requirsd.

?hip1s wet and. dry bulb thermometers,in design and installation aboard,
are often totally inadequate to afford reliable dew~point indications. The
usual shipboard thermometer installation is ~ in place and thus subject
to all the inaccuracy that arises because the instrument is not properly ex-
posed to air movement, Changes in shipt s course or shifts of the wind will
often cause the instrument to be exposed on the lee side of the vessel; as a
result temperature readings will be affected by heat from the ship. The wet
bulb thermometer often is found to have a dirty muslin cover, drawing on a
fixed well that may not even contain pure water. Determination of atmospheric
dew-point under such conditions will be accurate only by the chance that the
.several sources of errors run in opposite directions at the moment - a condi-
tion that is far from scientific and reliable.

Many ships now operated have not been provided with ID1nQmum standards
of arrangements in design and fitting to facilitate deck officers with their
problems of accurate dew-point determinations in the discharge ventilation
stream. Accurate air temperature and dew-point determinations on shipboard
require the use of portable instruments, so that the readings may always be
taken from the weather side of the deck or bridge, The sling psychrometer
(illustrated in Figure l*}is the best known form of hand instrument for se-
curing highly accurate readings. It must be whirled in the air, however, to
ventilate the thermometer bulbs properly and this procedure is somewhat awk-
ward and moreover often leads to breakage by collision with fixed environme~
The British Meteorological Office has developed a hand-crank operated fan ven-
tilated psychrometer (illustrated in Figures 2*), Most recently available is
an electrically ventilated version of the psychrometer (illustrated in Figure
3*)which also includes arrangement for night illumination of the thermometer
stems.

NOTE FOR TABLE OPPOSITE.

Groupings in the table are arranged in descending order of dry bulb
values, The most significant values derived from the observed readings are
those computed and shown in the last column under the heading "Cooling mar-
gin", These values indicate in each case how many degrees the dry bulb tem-
perature of the outside air can be reduced before moisture will condense from
the air,

* See page 15.

 - 13 -
TABLE 1

Sample readings for dew-point determination. Noon - Winter season;

(various positions on round-the-world sailing, New York to New York)
TEMPERATURE VALUES (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT)

Groups of Dry bulb Viet bulb Diff. Dew-point Coo l i ng margi n,

values (D) (VI ) (D-W) (DP) dry bulb to deW"'point
(D-DP)
GROUP I
Wet bulb 4° 81 77 4 76 5
or less below 75 74 1 74 1
dry bulb 64 60 4 57 7
62 58 4 55 7
54 50 4 47 7
GROUP II 84 76 8 73 11
82 77 5 75 7
Wet bulb 5°_ to 82 74 8 71 11
8° below 80 75 5 73 7
dry bulb 78 70 8 66 12
64 58 6 54 10
61 56 5 52 9
60 52 8 45 15
56 48 8 40 16
GROUP III 80 71 9 67 13
78 67 11 61 17
Wet bulb 9° or 76 64 12 57 19
more below wet 60 51 9 43 17
bulb 57 48 9 39 18
TEMPERATURE VALUES (DEGREES CELSIUS)
GROUP I
Viet bulb 27,2 25,0 2,2 24,4 2,8
2,50C or less below 23,9 23,3 0,6 23,3 0,6
dry bulb 17 ,8 15,6 2,2 13,9 3,9
16,7 14,4 2,3 12,8 3,9
12,2 10,0 2,2 8,3 3,9
GROUP II 28,9 24,4 4,5 22,8 6,1
27,8 25,0 2,8 23,9 3,9
Wet bulb 27,8 23,3 4,5 21,7 6,1
2,5 0C to 26,7 23,9 2,8 22,3 3;9
4,9°C below 25,6 21,1 4,5 18,9 6,7
dry bulb 17,8 14,4 3,4 12,2 5,6
16,1 13,3 2,8 11 ,1 5,0
15,6 11,1 4,5 7,2 8,4
13,3 8,9 4,4 4,4 8,9
GROUP III 26,7 21,7 5,0 19,4 7,3
25,6 19,4 6,2 16,1 9,5
Wet bulb 24,4 17,8 6,6 13,9 10,5
5°C or more 15,6 10,6 5,0 6,1 9,5
below wet bulb 13,9 8~9 5,0 3,9 10,0
 - 14 -

Figure 1. Common sling psychrometer.

The sling type psychrometer is commonly used for dew-point determina-
tions on land, and it can also be used (with care) on shipboard. However,
this type of instrument must be whirled vigorously to secure ventilation of
the bUlbs, and this can be a great disadvantage to use in a ship's hold or
. any othel:' relatively confined space. (Suited to insertion through a small
sampling port in a ship's ventilator, and capable of giving good dew-point
determinations when so used provided the airstream inside flows at least 1&
feet per second (5 m/sec)).

Figure 2 (al.. Picture of British hand psychrometer.

Hand-driven fan ventilated psychrometer suitable for open air reading'

and also for insertion of bulbs through a small sampling port, as diagrammed
below, for measurement of dew-point in air being discharged from the ship's
hold.

Sketch of sampling port on ventilator shaft.

Sketch of small sampling port installed on ship's ventilator shaft to

provide for inserting psychrometer bulbs into the discharge stream inside the
shaft. (Note: For accurate dew-point determination the ventilation stream
should have a speed of about 1& feet per second (5 m/set) but a higher rate
of flow is preferable,)

Figure 3. Self-ventilated psychrometer (battery powered).

Modern compact self-ventilated psychrometer powered by three dry cells

(common 1 1/2-volt hand torch batteries), Shown partly disassembled. The
thermometer bulb shield and intake guide shows at the right,removed from its
working position covering the exposed thermometer bulbs, as necessary for
wetting the wet-bulb muslin, The cover removed from the battery and distilled
water bottle compartments (left end) is shown removed,below,and the top ther-
mometer assembly is shown loosened from its normal contact with the main body
of the instrument and slightly elevated on the hinge-screw (left) to display
channel to the fan and discharge ports. (Available for either Fahrenheit or
Centigrade determinations,)
 -- 15 '-

--< ./
- "'C ~

Ir
i:
-, -- --~
--- ---
Hingld CDVllr

- - - -- k-

.~ 5'A",/X V,nJlIIJl",s ,
~
':.1_
I tl

-,
: ~

_____ DICit
-.I
FRONT SIDE

d Fig. 2 b

Fig. 1

Fig. 2 a

Fig. 3
 - l6 -

An increasing number of ships under construction are being fitted with

devices for electrically sensing and transmitting (and in some cases for re-
cording) temperature and dew-point or humidity information at readily access-
ible points on shipboard. These installations, however, permit little if any
provision for allowing frequent comparisons of the sensing elements with re-
liable readings obtained from mercury thermometers. Such checks made at fre-
quent intervals are highly essential to insure against the undetected develop-
ment of "errors of .dri ft" or other accidents of deterioration to which much
sensitive equipment is subject. Since so much depends on the careful and re-
liable measurements of ships' outside and hold temperatures,it is unsafe,with-
out such measurements, to conduct ventilation under the relatively small mar-
gins of safety that so often exist at sea. Ventilation conducted on the basis
of readings supplied by instruments even slightly in error will risk all pos-
sible gains of good ventilation .2ractice.

If then, there is one vastly important matter to be brought home to

ship owners, ship operators, and their design engineers, it is an important
requirement that cargo ships shall be constructed to make easy and accurate
the sampling of hold air temperatures by actual first-hand access to each dis-
charge ventilation stream. Such design should provide a well engineered sam-
pling port (with proper closure) on each discharge duct with the port to be
conveniently placed for easy access by the deck officers. Such ports are not
now in existence on many or indeed on most ships in use or under construction
according to information now available. A facility of this kind should be
designed and built into new ships coming under construction; to do this would
add little or nothing to the first cost of the ship. The cost of modifying
existing ships to make the sampling port a standard feature would, we believe,
usually be found insignificant in comparison with the total cargo damage that
can arise in course of time from improperly controlled ventilation.
Since the dew-point is the most suitable practical indicator for water
vapor content (and related potential drying action) of air passing through a
ship's ventilation system, the means of determining dew-point on shipboa~d
wi th a high degree of accuracy should come into topmost consideration. In ge-
neral, fixed thermometers are unreliable for day-to-day determination of the
dry and wet bulb temperatures, for the reasons set forth above, so a good
portable psychrometer (wet and dry bulb combination) is quite essential.

The most common type of portable instrument for dew-point determina-

tion is the so-called "sling psychrometer" which suspends the thermometer
holder on a chain or cord to permit ventilation by swinging the bulbs in a
circle, or pivots the instrument at one end on a handle allowing fast rota-
tion of the bulbs around that pivot. This type of instrument when properly
handled is capable of the most accurate indications, but there are drawbacks
to be met, the most important of which is the vigorous motion and likelihood
of breakage by collision with nearby objects. Moreover, this type of instru-
ment cannot be used to determine the state of a confined air current such as
that going through or just emerging from a ventilation duct.
A modern adaptation of the Assman psychrometer (free from these draw-
backs) has been brought to view in a practical form for use on ships, and is
 - 17 -

now being widely introduced into use aboard merchant ships of United States
registry as the basis for obtaining thermometric elements of weather observa-
tions at sea. 'This design compact!y assembles (1) a small 4-vo'lt electri c motor
and fan actuated by threecstandard dry cells of the type used in electric
torches; (2) a simple duct to lead the air ,stream past the bulbs of the two
thermometers needed for dry bulb and wet bulb indications; and (3) on the
same dry battery with the fan motor, a switch and small lamps that can be
brought into use for illuminating the stems of the thermometers for night
time (or dark space) readings. In use, the muslin on the wet bulb is moistened
with a medicine dropper and thereafter without 'physical effort on the part
of the observer the adjustment of mercury columns in the thermometer stems
can be continuously observed, and the point of stability for each (dry and
wet) can be readily noted.

Being portable this psychrometer, when not in use, is stored safely

(and in cleanliness) inside a closed compartment. When needed for weather ob-
servation i t is taken to the open air on the weather side of bridge or deck
where it can be ventilated by air approaching the ship and therefore not af-
fected by the ship's temperature. At the same time the instrument can be sel-
ectively oriented and shielded so as to avoid or at least largely minimize
the wetting influence of airborne particles of rain or spray, which so often
make two wet bulbs out of any fixed exposure of wet and dry bulb thermometers.

Moreover, this kind of portability will allow the same meteorological

instrument to be used in the measurement of dew points in air within a hold,
or air being discharged from a ventilation duct. An intake extension tube can
very readily be adapted to fit the nozzle of this psychrometer for sampling
air through a small port or in an otherwise inaccessibly confined or remote
spaces

It is anticipated that other nations besides the United States,have

now or will soon produce such compact and easily used psychrometer designs.
It is strongly recommended that this type of instrument be made available fur
dual use on shipboard, that is, (1) to take weather observations for weather
'l'ep0l'ting from ships a'Esea, and--f-2')--fer application 'EO -t-he-p:poBlems-e-f Ga-rgo
ventilation along the lines suggested in this paper. In the latter connexion,
this psychrometer would provide adequate means of calibrating and keeping watch
on the reliability of any electrical sensing instrumentation installed on ship-
board for watch on the state of the air in ships' holds and for the guidance
of ventilation practice.

SU~~ARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Briefly summarizing the foregoing, this study has undertaken a review

of the basically simple but practically difficult principles that must be
brought to bear on the problems of controlling or at least reducing the hazards
for ship's cargo that arise in ships' holds from unwanted heat, moisture, or
both. The key to successful ventilation, including the management of any air-
conditioning apparatus that may be in use for cargo protection, is shown to
rest upon careful measuror<lent and continUing watch on the tempcrature and the
dew-point of th~ dir circulated over cargo vulnerable to heat or sweat damage.
 - 18'-

There is emphasi s on the conclusion that ship design can and should be
brought to iecogn1ze, and to meet in ship-building, the simple but hitherto
neglected means that will facilitate control measurements in samples of the
air entering or leaving ships' ventilation systems. Even in ships on which
design and fitting will have provided the most modern facilities for the dis-
tant sensing and reporting of temperature and moisture states, it is still
essential'to provide the same access to ventilating air in order to assure
accurate calibration of these complicated instrumental installations, and
thus avoid the hazards that arise from instrumental deterioration.

The weather services of maritime nations are here confronted with an

opportunity to offer another practical 'contribution to betterment of our world
economy through bringing to attention of all interests concerned, these simple
but, eminently practical suggestions for the improved outfitting of cargo ships,
and their efficient operation to bring about an undamaged outturn of their
cargoes~
 -19 -.

ANNEX A

METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CARGO VENTILATION

(the following notes, furnished by the Deutscher Wetterdienst, See-

wetteramt, Hamburg, Germany, summarize some of the outstanding investi-
S.c-tio/'(; conducted by that institution concerning the meteorology of
ships' holds and a scientific approach to the problems of rendering
meteorological assistance towards the protection of ships' cargoes
in transit over the oceans. An extended exposition of their work has
been published as is indicated below in the "Introduction".

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 There is scarcely any kind of cargo which on transport by overseas cargo
ships is wholly safe from damage and decay, and in many instances spontaneous
combustion in cargo has caused fires and at times total losses of ships as
well as loss of life. The problem under discussion therefore may be regarded
as a matter of the ship's safety, over and above the risks of damage to cargoes
in transit.

While th~ United States of America and the United Kingdom have been en-
gaged especially in this problem, the Deutscher Wetterdienstalso, in close
co-operation with shipowners and ships' officers has gone into it in recent
years. From its studies the Seewetteramt has drawn certain conclusions which
are summarized here. These findings in more detailed form were brought before
shipowners and representatives of ship-yards, insurance companies, research
institutes, and members of industry and con~erce, at a meeting arranged by
the Seewetteramt at Hamburg in June i956. The iectures and discussions at
that meeting are to be found in published form under the title, "Laderaum-
"jeteoroloqie" (Deutscher Wetterdienst, Seewetteramt, Einzelveroffentlichung
N;::9;lfumburg, 1956).

1.2 General remarks

It is not intended to enter into particulars of the physical origin of
ship and cargo sweat. There should be brought to mind however what a big heat
and moisture reservoir a cargo proves to be, as it tends to maintain in ships'
holds the initial climate of the loading port and/or of the goods themselves,
This above all applies to vegetable cargoes, within which biological respira-
tion causes origination of heat, moisture and carbon dioxide and other gases.
As the ship's boards by their coC'duetivity readily adopt the temperature of
the outside air and especially of the surrounding water, a layer of discon-
tinuity in temperatures arises in the hold on the board-side, by differences
between the outside temperature and that which is carried by cargo within
the ship's holds.
If the temperature of the board-side falls below the dew~point of thu
air in the ship's hold condensation water is produced on the board-side
 ~ 20 -

(and on decks or ceilings) with which the cargo may be wetted either by direct
contact or by water dropping down. The seaman makes every possible effort to
protect his cargo therefrom by careful dunnaging and cargo covering. Moreover,
he attempts with the aid of various ventilation systems to produce a climate
for the ship's hold which roughly corresponds to the outside air or water
temperature. Adequate ventilation can do much to protect cargo from damaging
condensation in the hold. However, it is possible to ventilate too much in
attempting to make the most of the available ventilation capacity and there
may arise one or more of the following dangers ;

(a) The critical layer of temperature discontinuity, which causes condensa-

tion, can be moved artificially from the board-side to the cargo cover-
ing (or even into the cargo) whereby the condensation of water, instead
of being originated on the inner board-side, is to be found under the
covering or on the cargo itself, this being especially the case near the
ventilation shafts where effects most quickly appear.

(b) On too-much cooling of cargo surfaces the layer of the temperature dis·
continuity will be moved into the interior of the cargo with damaging
consequences, difficult to remedy by any process.

The seaman accordingly faces a dilemma from which only a knowledge of

meteorology can relieve him, by application of physico-meteorological consi-
derations that will tell him how to operate reasonably his particular venti-
lation system with respect to the various cargoes in dependence on the out-
side climate and weather condi Hons.

1.3 Two extremes of air-conditioning

There are two extremes of air-conditioning arrangements on ships: (a)
the natural ventilation of ship's hold at one end, and (b) the fully air-con-
ditioned cargo space at the other end.

In the first instance the effect of natural ventilation is practically

difficult of control and often amounts to no ventilation at all, as when a
ship runs fUlly with the direction and speed of the wind so that the apparent
wind on the ventilator heads equals zero; or when the ship encounters calm
and rainy weather conditions which make hatch ventilation impossible (espe-
cially when waiting before a port, often for days, to be unloaded); or, again,
when the ship in consequence of heavy sea or bad weather conditions has to
shut down the ventilator heads lest spray or rain water should enter into the
ventilation system. Moreover, there can be the case where the ship's holds
have been stowed to a height that, even if mechanical ventilation is available,
the restricted air movement becomes ineffective.

At the other extreme the fully air-conditioned ship's hold requires that
the space be heat insulated against temperature influences from outside. As
far as outside air has to be supplied to such air-conditioned holds such air
must be tempered and/or dried to satisfy those temperature and humidity con-
ditions suited to particular cargo requirements. At this extreme there arises,
 ~ 21 -

in consequence of the ftrst'cost, the question whether this expense will turn
out to be profitable as against the possibility that putting up with the po-
tential cargo hazards remaining with less costly ventilation might not be the
lesser of two· evils. Fully air-conditioned ships' holds for certain cargoes,
e.g. for corn in bulk, would be overdone, and in general fully controlled air-
conditioning· will be uneconomical except for certain quite specialized cases.

In most instances, for general cargo, the best ventilation system is to

be found between the fully air-conditioned system and old-fashioned natural
ventilation. What may be done in the single case will depend on the normal
route, and on the kind of cargo chiefly carried, and becomes definitely a
matter of calculat1.on and planning. Thus, "all weather" ventilator heads are
being constructed which need not be shut down even in bad weather conditions.
We also find ventilator heads being mounted at the top of masts unaffected
by ·the spray from heavy seas, and in ·some cases mechanical ventilators fitted
with drying·devices.

2 POSSIBILITIES OF ASSISTANcE BY METEOROLOGICAL SCIENCE

There still remains the question : What can meteorological science do to
help shipping reduce its cargo damage to a point where, though not prevented
entirely perhaps, there·may be reduction so as to·escape from installing ex-
pensive new equipment that puts costs out of proportion to cargo hazards ?
Several possibilities appear to be worth while.

2.1 Supply of physico-meteorological· data toship$' officers

Ships' officers mostly ventilate to the best of their knowledge and be-
lief based on experiences won by themselves and by others in the past. Each
ventilation system, however, must be used according to i t·s peculiari ti es and
many a rule applicable to conditions in one ventilation system will not apply
in the same way to a different or greatly modified· systeni. For instance the
old rule of thumb, to operate natural ventilation as often as wind and weather
allow, will be· dangerous with forced ventilation for it is well established
that too much ventilation by a mechanical system may increase rather than re-
duce moisture daillage to cargoes.

The ships' officers often are unaWilre of the physical processes which
cause sweat. In this situation the meteorologist can assist shipping by pro-
viding scientific data to show how to pass over rrom rule of thumb procedure
to the reasoned use of the special ventilation equipment aboard ship. It is
especiall y important that, at the navigation school s, student mari ners become
well acouainted with recent scientific knowledge as regards the complicated
and difficult meteorological problems of cargo care, together with modern
findings on methods of reaching scientific decisions about management of ship's
cargo ventilation.
2.2 Elaboration of a climatology of danqerous zones, and the necessity of
water temperature measurements
The sea routes over the oceans, analysed as to climatological conditions,
 - 22 -

show certain dangerous Eones in which there are found rapid changes in water
temperature which through the ship's boardsides affect the climate of the
lower holds. When carefully studied these dangerous zones show, in the same
month of different years, varying intensity and situation. It is, for instance,
important for the ship's officer to know whether the past records of various
ships have shown that water temperatures have fallen rapidly within the next
24-hour portion of the ship's prospective course, and to know wi thin about
what limits of change the records havl! varied.

Such facts, so helpful for cargo care, are still generally unavailable
to ships' officers, as they are not now shown in the usual climatological at-
lases. Past records are now available, however, from which the meteorologist
may produce such climatological data for the chief zones of danger. In recent
years the Seewetteramt has been occupied with such a climatology for the main
sea routes in the Atlantic and round Africa. (An example is found in Dr.Billlig's
lecture, No.3, in the paper, "Laderaum Meteorologie" cited above.)

Such a climatology of the special dangers to which the lower holds are
exposed by changing water temperatures could point out to ships' officers in
which areas of the oceans their cargoes in lower holds are likely to be espe-
cially endangered, In the actual sailing, however, the ship's officer will do
well with his ventilation arrangements only if, in such areas, he takes measure-
ments of water temperature, as these alone can show the real extent of danger.

From the meteorological point of view it should therefore be recommended

that, at least in the dangerous zones and also in their vicinity, water tem-
perature measurements be carefully carried out by all freighters as a guide
t~ ventilation management. It would be immensely helpfUl if arrangements could
be made for the various national weather services to add to their weather trans-
missions for all ships, information of existing zones wherein water tempera-
tures are found to change rapidly, as reported in the daily collection and dis-
semination of wiT information for the benefit of world shipping.

2,3 Warning of outbreaks of cold air

Cargoes in the 'tween deck are especially affected by invasions of cold
air arrlvlng at the route of the ship. Foreknowledge of this event would enable
ships' officers to plan for reasonabie ventilation measures before the actual
encounter with the chilling condition. Here also, the ocean radio services of
the various maritime countries could render a most helpful service by includ-
ing in their marine weather bulletins, appropriate warnings of cold air inva-
sions, and especially when strong and continuous outbreaks are to be expected.

2.4 Meteorological ship service for problems of cargo

The Hamburg Seewetteramt is preparing, at present, a lecture on the "Me-
teorological Basis for Ventilation Procedures". Yet it is obvious that in a
single paper not all the combinations of influences of the various factors
in the varying conditions within a ship's holds can be mentioned, not even
the effects of all cargoes on each other. It will be proposed that in addi~on
 - 23 -

to the already existing -programs of the meteorological liaison officers at

major world ports, there should be established the means for conti~u6uS· sup-
ply of advice to ships' officers - and current exchange of information - in
a manner somewhat similar to the briefing services rendered to aviation traf-
fic. Thus the port meteorologist might before the departure of a ship Carry-
ing vulnerable goods, discuss with the responsible officer on broad lines
the ventilation procedures likely to become necessary on the prospective voy~
agell

2.5 Measur~lent of the moisture content of a cargo

For the correct operation of each ventilation system the knowledge of the
moisture content of the cargo has turned out to be of fundamental importance.
The experience of the ship's officer will, in the main, refer to goods with
a moisture content normally accepted in the trade. As a rule there is avail-
able no real knowledge of the actual moisture content of the parcel of cargo
to be loaded, although this content may be significantly different from the
normal. Deficient knowledge can throw normal ventilation management seriously
out of gear inasmuch as a cargo carrying excessive moisture content requires
ventilation procedure differing very much from that for the same goods with
normal or less than normal moisture content when loaded.

It remains to develop instruments to enable the ship's officer to examine

in a simple and swift way the moisture content of a cargo. Such instruments
:,ave been developed and practically tested for measuring moisture in wood and
cocoa beans. There can be little doubt that from these it might well be pos-
sible to go on to develop similar instruments for other goods.

2.6 Research voyages

To improve the knowledge of the origin of peculiar climatological condi-
tions in a ship's hold, and particularly of the climate within the cargo, me-
teorological science has to carry out direct studies in the holds of ships.
This calls for research voyages, on which there should be used, if possible,
instruments specially developed for the problems. As it seems impossible for
the national meteorological services by themselves to carry out as many measur-
ing voyages as would be required to study the behaviour of all the various
goods under all different conditions of courses and seasons, testing different
ventilation and air-conditioning arrangements, it will be necessary that ship-
owners themselves see to it that good measuring series be carried out under
the direction of the meteorological services, the shipowners providing the
specialized instruments developed and sui ted for these purposes. It is there-
after of paramount importance that full records be reported to the co-operating
meteorological service.

Since the use of specialized instruments at the outset is limited to

quite specialized research problems, these arrangements are not now to be
thought necessary for normal shipping in regularized trades, and therefore
the simple instrument and procedures proposed in the foregoing main paper by
Mr. McDonald will be found extremely valuable on all cargo ships.
 - 24 -

3. CONCLUSION
The Seewetteramt hopes to continue its p~ograms of investigation and
formulation of suggested procedures by which damages to cargo may be reduced
to a minimum without extensive outlay by shipowners for modification or ex-
tensive amplification of existing ventilation systems. We shall hope to ac-
cumulate pertinent data from all possible sources, the study of which may be
expected to guide further steps based on all accumulated experience, looking
toward the development of the best possible aids to the safe carriage of shipsl
cargoes.
 - 25 -

ANNEX B

THE PRACTICAL MEANING AND THE MEASUREMENT OF DEI POINT TENIPEHATURE.§

(Prepared by W. F. McDonald)

Air is a mixture of gases including water vapor. Of these several con-

stituent gases, all 'except the water vapor maintain their relative proportions
in the mixture substantially unchanged through a wide range of temperatures.
In contrast, the water vapor constituent is highly variable as a proportion-
ate part of the air-vapor mixture, and the top limit on the amount of water
vapor that can be present changes very rapidly with change of temperature.

This is shown by the following simple table that gives for an air sam-
ple under normal pressure the highest percentage of its total volume that can
be made up by water vapor at the temperature indicated.

Temperature Approximately
FO Co %
100° (38") 6-1/2
800 (270) 3-1/2 Maximum percentage, by volume, which
600 (160) 1-3/4 fully saturated vapor can provide in
400 (40) 4/5 of 1 air space concerned.
200 (-70) 2/5 of 1

If ~e have present in an air mixture the maxim~~ amount of water va-

por which the mixture can hold at the given temperature (as shown above) then
the air space is said to be "saturated with vapor", and the "relative humidi-
ty is 100 per cent". Air may be passed over chemicals that will remove all
trace of water vapor: such completely dry air would be described as having
a relative humidity of "zero per cent". Any percentage of vapor between 0 pel'
cent and lOG per cent of capacity can be present in an air sample but whenev-
er the amount present is less than 100 per cent of the maximum fixed by the
temperature of the gases, more vapor can evaporate into the gas mixture until
it becomes saturated, that is, holds 100 per cent of its capacity for mois-
ture at that temperature.

Looking back now at the table above, we must be clear in seeing that
the percentage figures given there are not "relative humidity" but are "ab-
solute humidity" values, each of which indicates the proportionate part of
a saturated vapor-air mixture that (by volume) is water vapor present.
Should there be less than sat- 'Should there be less than
uration, say "50 per cGnt relative hu- saturation, say "50 per cent rela-
midity" at temperature 27°C,then the, tive humidity" at temperature 80°F,
absolute percentage of ~eter vapor then the absolute percentage of wa-
present-in the mixture will be 50 % of ter vapor ]2!.§gnt in. the mixture
3-1 %, or 1-374 % of the total volume. will be 50 % of~2 %, or 1-374 %
 - 26 ~

Observe in the same table that 1-3/4 % of the total volume. Observe in the
is all the moisture the mixture could same table that 1-3/4 % is all the
contain at 16°C, and it will be seen moisture the mixture could contain
that cooling from 27°C to 16°C would, at 60°F, and it will be seen that
without changing tne amount of water cooling from BooF to 60°F WOUld,
present as vapor increase the "rela- without changing the amount of wa-
tive humldity" from 50 per cent (half ter present as vapor, increase the
saturation) to 100 per cent relative "relative humidity" from 50 per
humidity or full saturation for the cent (half saturation) to 100 per
cooler point. cent !_~lat_~ve humid~~y or full sat-
uration for the cooler point.
The table indicates then, that
between -7°C and 38°C the capacity of The table indicates then,
an. air space to hold water vapor ap- that between 20°F and 100°F the ca-
proximately doubles with each increase pacity of an air space to hold wa-
of 11°C in temperature. That is to say, ter vapor approximately doubles with
the space can hold twice as much at 4° each increase of 20°F in temperature.
as at -7°G, twice as much again at 16° That is to say, the space can hold
as at 4°C and so on, until at 38°C twice as much at 40°;: as at 2( LF ,tvHGe
there is capacity for 16 times as much as much again at 60° as at 40°F and
vapor as at -7°C. so on, until at 100°F there is capa-
city for 16 times as much vapor as
at 20°F,

Turn this around, and noting that the capacity for moisture is halved
with each 11°C (20°F.) decrease in temperature, we may ask : ". :hat happens
when air fully saturated pith vapor is cooled 11°C (20°F.)?" Cooling from t:le
higher temperature with saturation will at once begin to force moisture to
leave its gaseous state in the air mixture and to show up as a film or drop-
lets of liquid water. This process in the free air of a natural setting un-
derlies the formation of dew on grass, "sweating" of windows and cold pipes,
and other such well known examples of the sudden appearance of atmospheric
moisture directly deposited uS wetness on cold surfaces.

The temperature at which with cooling, a surface will begin to show

visible condensate from the air-vapor mixture in contact with that surface,
is called "the dew point temperature" of the air mixture. The drier the mix-
ture before it is cooled, the greater the amount of cooling through which the
temperature must fall before liquid water appears.

The greater the difference is, between the temperature and the dew
Eoint valuG of an air mixture, the gr~ater the capacity of the gas mixture
(air sample) to pick up additional moisture, and the more rapidly such drying
pOWEr will operate. Evaporation into a moving air stream proceeds alsO at a
more rapid rate than into a stagnant air sample, for the same per cent of rel-
ative humidity. These facts are brought into use in the instrument (called the
"psychrometer") by which dew point is determined.
 .. 27 -

The psychrometer
Heat energy must be supplied to change water (or any other fluid) from
the liquid to the gaseous state. This heat energy for evaporation must be sup-
plied by the liquid source of thevnpbr, which is thus cooled b~yaporation.
The more intense the evaporation, the greater the cooling. This principle has
been mad~ the practical and reliable basis for arriving at a devise useful for
evaluating humidity and the relatGd dew point temperature. This Instrument,
the "psychrometer", 'is simply a pair of thermometGrs under equal ventilation
either by swinging the thermometers through the air to be tested or by passing
the air over the bulbs of the two thermometers. OnG bulb is wrapped with clean
g2uze and ~etted by pure water) this is the source of heat and moisture for
evaporation as the wet bulb cools when ventilated in air. The rate of evapora-
tion (and degree of wet bulb cooling) will depend on the relative humidity, or
more accurately the water vapor deficiency in the air mixture that controls
the 2£1 thermometer's indications.

By careful experiment with various percentages of relative humidity re-

peated over a wide range of temperatures, investigators found that the differ-
ence in temperature between the dry thermometer and its twin having the mois-
tened bulb, can be used as a reliable indicator for obtaining the true dew
point temperature of the air-vapor mixture. Dew point and humidity tables have
been constructed to make readily available the results of such experiments.
The use of a psychrometer thus brings to view three separate temperature va-
lues, two from the thermometers and the third derived from a ','dew, point table".

'The first (and the basic reading) is the temperature shown by the dry
bulb thermometer, which is the "air temperature" or "dry bulb temperature".
~Jhen the wetted thermometer has had time to show that cooling is complete and
the reading is down to the lowest possible point, this second value is read
off and recorded as the "Viet bulb temperature", T2,l<ing these two thermometer
readings into the dew point table (an abbreviated version of which is given'
here for illustrative pUl'poses) the "dew point temperature" is obtained for
the particular air-vapor mixture being tested for moisture condition,*

Two other common expressions related to these values need mention. It

the wet bulb or the dew point temperature value is subtracted from the dry
temperature reading,the'difference is in the first instance called the "de_
pression of the wet bulb", and the second is the "depression of the dew
point", This latter value is an index that shows, for the air under consider-
ation, how far it has to be cooled to induce the appearance of the liquid
condensate that can arise from the vapor carried by the particular air-vapor
mixture.
The careful determination of dew point within the air passing into, as
compared with similar readings in air passing out from, ventilated spaces will
furnish an accurate index to any change in moisture content of the air thus
p"ssed through such spaces, This will give an 2,nswer to the question: "Is

" Table of dew point temperatures, see next. page.

 - 28 -

TABLE OF DEW POINT TEMPEPJ,TURES (Degrees cnhrenheit)

-_._----
Air Depression of wet bulb (dry-bulb minus wEt-bulb)
temp.
(dry-
bUlb) .
OF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
'~--'-------' --"--'~- -- .-- _.~------

20 15 10 5 -2
25 21 17 13 8 2
30 27 24 20 16 11 6 -1
35 33 30 27 24 20 16 11 5 -4
40 38 35 33 30 27 24 20 16 11 4 -4
45 43 41 39 36 34 31 28 24 21 16 11 5 -4
50 48 46 44 42 40 37 35 32 29 25 21 17 12 5 -3
55 53 51 50 48 46 43 41 39 36 33 30 27 23 18 13
60 58 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 40 38 35 32 28 25
65 63 62 60 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 42 40 37 34
70 69 67 66 64 62 61 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 42
75 74 72 71 69 68 66 65 63 61 59 58 56 54 52 49
80 79 77 76 74 73 72 70 68 67 65 64 62 60 58 56
85 84 82 81 80 78 77 75 74 72 71 69 68 66 64 63
90 89 87 86 85 84 82 81 79 78 76 75 73 72 70 69
----- ---------'-------

TABLE OF DEW POINT TEwWERATURES (Degrees Celsius)

Air Depression of wet bulb (dry-bulb minus wet-bulb)

temp.
(dry·
bulb)
DC 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

-5 -5 -8 -13 -19
0 0 -3 - 6 -10 -15
+ 5 5 3 0 - 3 - 6 -10
+10 10 8 6 4 1 - 2 - 5 -10
+15 15 13 12 10 8 5 3 0 - 4 - 8
+20 20 19 17 15 14 12 10 7 5 2 - 1
+25 25 24 22 21 19 18 16 14 12 10 8
+30 30 29 27 26 25 23 22 20 13 17 15
+35 35 34 33 31 30 29 27 26 24 23 21
+40 40 39 38 36 35 34 33 31 30 29 27
 - 29 -

ventilation actually romoving any moisture from tho ventilatec: s!)ace ?"

,':hat is called here "the cooling margin", (which is the same as the
figur" for "depression of the de,'1 point"-dry bulb minus dew point tempera-
ture) is the most valuable guide for deciding whether or not it will be
safe to pass outside air into a ship's·hold containing relatively cold car-
go. It is certain that [!)9Jstu.r..Q...~iJ)-E.e_depogtod \!ithin the ship on any
cargo or any of the ship's interior surfaces lhat_sl~2_j~mY~!2.ture_~eI9j¥
th~_dew--.E9lnt of the L~.2rn)ng air. This is the fundamental principle on
which intelligent decision regarding ship's ventilation must be based;
 ~ 30 -

ANNEX C

COW~ENT~ THE DISCUSSED PROBLEMS

Introduction

A preliminary version of tl1B preceding Notes was given wide circulation

to ships' officers and the shipping industry, with request for criticism and
comment. A considerable body of constructive discussion developed. Some of
these comments added practical information,. specifically applicable to the
problems faced on shipboard, and a number of these follow, by direct quota-
tion with permission from the sources indicated.

From the Marine Superintendent, Shaw Savill Line

"As you know I have been dealing with this subj ect for several years and
I find that so far as our vessels are concerned officers are far too much
inclined to handle the matter by "rule of thumb" method, In the case of com-
posite ships such as ours, i.e, refrigerated and general cargo, the rule of
thumb method simply will not apply owing to the special conditions which rule
between tho hard frozen compartments and the generally adjacent general cargo
spacGSa

One point, howe\'er, that Mr. lif,cDonald does not mention is a system which
we have in our later vessels of determining the difference between cargo com-
partment dew point and atmosphere, This is done by means of taking a sample
of the air drawn through the Lux Ri ch Smoke Detecting System and comparing
its dew point with that of the atmosphere, This sample, however, only gives
the average condition of the compartment and in our vessels we are not so
concerned with the average condition as the worse condi Hon, i, e. the deck
or bulkhead adjacent to the hard frozen compartment.

DunnaqiJ:!g, Obviously, i f cargo is allowed to come into contact with a

relatively cold surface, i.e, a steel deck over a hard frozen compartment or
steel bulkhead adjacent to a hard frozen compartment, condensation damage is
bound to occur, but by the intelligent use of dunnage damage can be reduced
to a minimum, It should be here remarked that soft wood dunnage merely acts
as a conductor or moisture and therefore hard wood dunnage should be used in
posi tions where condensation can bo anti cipated.
It must be realized that in the examples quoted above - that is general
cargo compartments adjacent to refrigerated compartments under hard frozen
refrigeration - the cold surfaces i.n the general cargo compartments can be
termed local, and it is desirable that such areas be kept localized as much
as possible. To this end it is preferable, when this ~ area is a bulkhead,
to have close spaced 6" xl" forming a cofferdam rather than wide spaced 2"
x 2". When the local area is a steel deck sawdust should be used on the deck
as an absorbent,
 ~ 31 -

Nature of cargo. It must be borne in mind that if the natural element

- moisture - is removed from a commodity, i.e, milk powder, dried fruits, etc.
then such commodity has an affinity for moisture and will absorb it in an ef-
fort to return to its natural state, In addition, dehydrated packing materials
- cartons - are extensively used to-day and these also have an affinity for
moisture. This must be borne in mind when allocating stowage to such commodi-
ties.

General cargo ventilation. It may not be out of place here to discuss

general cargo ventilation and :the principles which govern it, although, as
previously indicated special circumstances may govern special cases.
It is important to remember that correct ventilation of general cargo
spaces depends upon the relationship between the dew-poiD! of the air in the
cargo spaces and that of the outside air. This should be the guiding factor
when ventilating or restricting ventilation. Having found the dew-point of
the air in the cargo spaces and that of the outside air, personnel should be
guided by the following ~
(1) If the dew-point of the outside air is higher than the dew-point of the
cargo space, ventilation must be restricted.
(2) If the dew-point of the outside air is lower than the dew-point of the
space, ventilate.
(3) After loading in a cool climate and proceeding into warmer weather, great
care must be taken and ventilation restricted. Cargo temperatures are slow
to rise and the temperature will have to be carefully watched. When the
cargo has warmed up and the conditions of dew-point are as in (2) above,
then normal ventilation can· commence.
(4) After loading in warm, or moderately warm weather and then proceeding
into colder weather, ventilate.

The above are rule of thumb principles and can be divided into three
phases ~ (A) General cargo carried in uninsulated spaces above the waterline,
where the hull is exposed to the heat of the sun and syrface weather condi-
tions. (B) General cargo carried in uninsulated spaces bE'low the water line
where the temperature of the surrounding sea water influences the temperature
. and relative humidity within the space. (C) General cargo carried in insulated
spaces where the insulation forms a barrier against the effects of the outsidE'
atmospheric conditions.
This of course takes no account of possible fumes or gases in the compart-
ment. In such cases discretion must be used.
In vessels fitted with the brine grid system of refrigeration the ship
should be treated as a whole, but in vessels fitted with the battery and fan
unit compartments should be treated individually. In this latter case when
atmospheric conditions are such that ventUation is closed then the fans should
be used to re-circulate air in the compartment ."
 - 32 -

From Thos~~Jn£, Brocklebank Ltd.

"(1) There is nothing really new in Mr, McD:Jnald's paper, Rather is
there a shift of emphasis towards the importance of qew point and the measure-
ment of in and out characteristics of ventilating air. I am wholly in agree-
ment with this change in emphasis and with the omission of mention of relative
humidity. There is in fact very good advice for the guidance of ships' offi-
cers ..
(2) Agreed there is no need for electric recording instruments. They
are expensive initially and need much maintenance and constant checking. Also,
and I think important although not directly relevant to the purpose of the
pamphlet, if the routine measurement made by readings of hand instruments in-
serted in sampling ports is established, a very high degree of fire protection
is automatically included, It is impossible to make such measurements without
the operator's nose being in contact with the ventilating air concerned and
the human nose is the most sensitive fire detector known,
(3) On presentation, I would suggest that the pamphlet would be improved
by the inclusion of a few graphs which result from logging air in and out,
also with illustrations or sketches of sampling ports and the various types
of psychrometers." (Editor1snote ; This has been done,)

From Marine Superintendent, Clan Line Steamers Lt1.

"The following comments are put forward in regard to "ordinary" dry cargo
ships ;
(a) Generally speaking ships which load in a temperate or cold climate
and proceed and discharge at a port in a warmer climate, experience no appre-
ciable trouble in regards to either sweat or mildew, provided ordinary routine
ventilation is carried out in periodS of fine weather,
(b) Generally speaking, ships which load in tropical climates and pro-
ceed into temperate or cold climates to discharge, as for instance ships load-
ing on west coast of India during ~N monsoon, in hot and humid conditions and
proceeding to NW European ports for discharge, will experience a good deal of
condensation on exposed steel surfaces, particularly about the deck heads.
The degree of condensation will vary according to the class of ship, and the
war-time Ocean and Liberty ships which are not very well equipped with venti-
lators are more troublesome in this respect than ships designed to our own
speci fications, where a good deal more "natural" ventilation is available.
In either case damage is avoided to cargo, by experienced officers who
take care to see that no cargo is in contact with metal surfaces and that
there is an ample air space between the cargo and the ship's structure; some
sort of protection usually in the form of heavy rush mats is provided over
the top of the cargo, to insulate it against possible drips."

I!0m Technical Committee of the Honourabl~ Company of Master Mariners (London)

"The memorandum has now been carefully studied by the members of the
 - 33 -

Honourable Company's Technical Committee, who express the opinion that while
the memorandum contains nothing new or revolutionary, it presents all the
essentials of the problem in a more compact form than they have observed else-
where. Basic scientific facts are wedded to practical shipboard experience
in a simple, clear manner and the dissemination of this knowledge in this
form would be extremely beneficial provided it eniisted the enthusiastic,sup-
port of 'the shipowner. The committee is confident that the minor modifications
to design and relattvely simple rules of shipboard practice proposed would
have a beneficial effect on the economics of seaborne transport out of ali
proportion to the effort and expense involved, but unless the shipowner throws
his fuli weight behind them it seems unlikely that anyone else will do so
for the following reasons :
(1) The shipowner must approve and pay for the structural modifications
and supply the instruments which make humidity control possible.
(2) He would have to insist upon and meet the cost of the provision of
adequate dunnage, without which other measures could have only limited value.
(3) In a ship carrying a hetercgeneous cargo the variations in condi-
tions from hold to hold caused by difference in contents and local conditions,
such as proximity to engine room or refrigerated spaces, would necessitate
each cargo compartment being treated as a separate unit. It is estimated that
in the average 7,000-10,000 ton ship the simple but careful routine of humi-
dity and temperature measurement would require supervision by an officer (or
a more reliable and intelligent petty officer than is available in most ships)
for at least one hour every watch. Unless the employer considers this neces-
sary and is willing to meet the increased costs it may never be widely intro-
duced.
(4) Because the majority of shipowners have never indicated to their
staffs that they consider ventilation of major importance, it is probable
that most ships' officers have not studied the subject very deeply and, al-
though basically simple, the underlying principles of humidity control have
never been as thoroughly understood by the majority of seafarers as they
should be. A vigorous lead by employers is necessary to remedy thi s , I f

From Superintendent's D3partment, The New Zealand Sbippinq Company, Ltd., and
Federal St~am N~viqatinq 'CompanYi Ltd.
"As you probably know, we heve been doing experiments on cargo space ven-
tilation for about 25 years now. I waS the chief officer of the first ship in
which Mr. Duly, who was at that time a professor at London University, made
a passage in the "TEKOA" to study the problem of dew-point and hull ventila-
tion. As a result of this voyage, and a number of records which were kept in
various ships, we brought out our first instruction regarding the ventilation
of holds based more or less on the same principles as the,paper which Mr.
McDonald is about to publish. From time to time we have slightly modified the
instructions, but basically they remained the same until about four years ago,
We were then a little dissatisfied with the outturn of cargo stowed in
general cargo space above or adjacent to refrigerated compartments as there
 II

r
- 34 -

appeared to be a certain amount of condensation damage on the lower tiers of

this cargo. With the co-operation of the Cambridge Research Department, with
whom we have carried out a number of investigations in various fields, we
arranged to record the temperature of the steel of the decks in the various
compartments. These records gave us very interesting results, as the tempera-
tures of the steel and the air i~nediately surrounding it was up to seven or
more degrees (F) less than the temperature of the compartment. After two or
three voyages of these experiments we corrected the C.O. Cir.cular dealing
with ventilation, from which i t will be seen that when the compartment is
adjacent to frozen deck we do not ventilate the space at all. It will also
be seen that when the compartment is adjacent to a deck filled with apples,
cheese, or other chilled cargo, ~e ventilate only when the temperature of
the cargo space minus ten degrees (F) is above the dew··point of the atmo-
sphere.
Company Document No. C.O. 14B dated March 1955, carries the following
recommendations on procedure for ventilation of holds containing general cargo:
Insulated spaces carrying general cargo ;
(1) To take the dew-point readings of the atmosphere each watch.
(2) To take the temperature of the space once a day,
(3) Plot these readings on graphs.
(4) Ventilate when (1) is below (2).
(5) Cease ventilation when (2) is below (1).

Uninsulated spaces:
(a) Above fro~~rqo. Sto~ with dry agricultural produce such as wool
and do not ventila·ce.
(b) Above chilled c~rqo, Stow with dry agricultural produce such as wool
and only ventilate ~hen the temperature of the cargo space minus 100
F is above th] de,v''Poi nt of the atmosphere.
(c) Havin2-!!9 0:'0 fi.0"]'JLfold_§J!L~' Take the dew-point of the air
issuing from the compartment and do not ventilate unless the atmo-
sphere is drier as shown by its lower de~-point. Compromise venti-
lation only WIlen the temperature of cargo space minus 50 F is above
the dew·'point of the atmosphere.
On both the outwa~0 u~d homeward passages, all spaces must be ventilated
as required by the p~evailing conditions. In the general cargo spaces natural
ventilation should be used and in the insulated spaces carrying general cargo
the fans should be used in conjunction with the fresh air vents, where fitted,"
(Copy of the graph for dew-point values prescribed above is reproduced on page
35) •

~E~~_~~!~§_f~E0!~b~9_~Y_!b~_~E~~Eb_0~!~~E~!~9!S~!_§~E~!s&
Some distinguished members of the French merchant navy are aware of the
dangers entailed by ventilating in bad temperature and hyg:rometric conditions
 N. I.S. co. LTD.
S.S.lM.Y. "ilUAHIlIlE" Yay. No. 7 From LOI<lDOIII 10 "WELLiNGTON F. S. til. CO. LTD.

D~TE SEPTEMBER OCTOBER

4th 5 5 7 S 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 IS i1 1i5 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 26 29 30 lilt 2 J 4
·F

COMPARTMENT >-.
~i:l
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I \ I OOTE: On the outward pasgage two copiem ~t dew point
56 I --J gr~ph must be conetructed on these lines, for
~4 I 0ach or the following group~:-
52
50
, I
(1) All lower Holdw.
46 (2) All ~in Tween Deck~, including lockers.
4. (3) All Upper Tween Decks, including lockers.
(4) All Bridge Dec~a.
4.
••
40
On the homeward passage, two copies of dew point
graph must be constructed as per the outward
:;s pas8Dge, to cover compartments in which general
36 cargo ia stowed.
~4
CARGO TElIlPEilATURE IN FULL LINE
Care should be taken on the' homeward passage that
~2 DEW POINT TEMPERATURE IN PASHED LINE the ventilation of spmces containing general
.0 cargo, above chilled or frozen cargo, Is 1n

f accordance with the recom~ndat1one laid down

in C.O.14A.
 - 36 -

shown by comparison between air in the holds and air outside. But on the one
hand the commercial courts do not yet take account of these risks, and on
the other hand the cost of proper equipment to avoid such dangers is thought
by the companies too high in relation to the advantages which might be derived
from it.

Results of inguiries pursued with French shiPeing companies

"These companies have taken warning from the fact that, for some years
past, the commercial courts have not considered the whole of the damage due
to vapor in the hold as sea risks. They are as a rule conversant with scienti-
fic procedures for the protection of cargoes against humidity, and they are
documented largely from Anglo-American services, upon this subject. Their view-
poi nt may be summari. zed as follows :
(1) CNling to precautions taken to ensure good ventilation, and care taken
by the captains, very little damage to cargo is caused by humidity. The compa-
nies consider that most of the damage is due to bad storage before shipment
and to weather conditions prevailing at time of shipment.
(2) Installation of psychrometers and thermometers with remote transmis-
sion is an ideal solution, but too expensive, for finding out the dew-point in
holds. When such devices have been tried out over a long period, and i f they
prove worth while, it may be possible to install them on vessels specializi.ng
in the transportation of hygroscopic freights. Meantime the companies think
it sufficient to provide for regular records of humidity and temperature when
ai.r is drawn off from the holds, They consider that the air in vessels with
forced ventilation has the same characteristi\s as the air in holds."

Result? of inguiries pursued with insurance companies

"The commercial courts in their recent judgments (1951, 1952) consider
that vapour in the hold does not in itself constitute a case of force .maj eure
because vessels are or· should be equipped with eHid ent ventilation to remedy
t:1is dufect. But there is nothing in jurisprudence to prevent the carrier
held responsible, from putting forward one or the other of the following pleas
to release him from such responsibility:
(a) That the vessel encountered exceptional weather conditions, making
it impossible to employ normal means of ventilating the cargo;
(b) That the cargo has deteri.orated, despite the fact that the captain's
report specifically states that ventilation has been carried out daily by open-
ing the holds and air vents;
(c) That the percentage of damage to the cargo is less than the permi tted
figure of 1 per 1000,

It appears, therefore) that the commercial COlll~ts hav(; so far not contem-
plated penalizing a carri er for ventilating a cargo in bad conditions 2S re-
gards temperature and hyg~cometry~

It is certain th<Jt a modern vessel with a well planned ventilating systern

 - 37 -

and instruments for measuring temperature and hygrometry,· int·ernal and external,
will. transport hygrometric freight with a very high degree of safety. It will
certainly have the advantage of benefiting by reduced insurance premiums; on
the other hand if damage does occur the captain is liable to incur a penalty
if it can be. proved that he has committed an error of seamanship in carrying
out ventilation.!'

From H.W, Cqurtney, of Courtney, Sullivan and Associates, Inc. (New York Q1iy)
"We are well aware of the problems of the shipping companies in stowing
and ventilating mixed cargoes to various destinations but proper stowage of
any cargo, with due regard to its compatibility to other cargo in the same
compartmerrt and its requirement as to ventilation or non-ventilation, is the
responsibility of the shipping company. That is their business and they should
know i t and accept liability for their errors or for the risk of exposing cargo
to damage in lieu of making necessary expenditures to· protect it.
Fibers such as jute, wool and cotton are shipped in high density bales
. with the exception of some Argentine wool, and almost all of them are subject
to "normal shrinkage" during transit. As for instance, jute invoices at 410
Ibs. per bale but frequently runs an average of 400 or even down to 380 Ibs,
per bale when landed. Cashmere wool has a "normal shrinkage" in the neighbor~
hood of four per cent. This does not necessarily mean that i t loses four per
cent in moisture during transit as shippers are well aware that cashmere wool
shipped in the monsoon season is apt to land in New York actually weighing
more than when shipped. With a value in the neighborhood of $4 per lb., there
is little question they discount probable gain when packing and actually pack
less pounqage per bale than they invoice figuring it will pick up enough moist~
ure during transit to arrive at what they guess it will gain. No doubt, in many
instances they overestimate probable gain so that i.t arrives weighing less than
the invoice weight and the assumption is that it lost weight during transit~"

From an engineer for Bethlehem ShipbuUdinq Division, Quincy, Mass.

"It is interesting to note your observation that ship design should take
into account the necessity for accurate and easy sampling .of the temperature
and humidity state of the various holds, preferably through ready access to
at least a part of the exhaust ventilation air. I heartily agree.
Whether or not dehumidification equipment is installed, we agree that pro-
vision should be made which permits deck officers to conveniently determine
hold conditions. A major problem is the training of the ship personnel to fol-
low even simple rules regarding proper ventilation to minimize sweat damage.
A program of this nature is being conducted in general throughout the industry
and in the course of time all ship operators will be expected to do a fair job
in this field,
We are now busy designing and installing dehumidification equipment on
board tank ships for the purpose ·of preserving the tank structure against cor"'
rosion as well as preventing contamination of the cargo by condensed moisture.
Instrumentation is being installed to provide permanent records of the perfor-
mance of the equipment, the condition of the atmosphere and sea water tempera-
ture." .
 - 38 -

from a surveyor for the Board of Underwriters of New York

. "In the post-war years underwriters have been concerned with the so-called
"condensatiot1 damage" to canned goods moving by steamer from the Pacific coast
to the Atlantic coast (of the United States). Much effort and much thought have
been given to this problem. The resulting investigations were particularly dis-
heartening when it was found that the condition was present not only in vessels
fitted with "cowl type" ventilating systems but also in the better equipped
vessels with modern dehumidification apparatus.
A youthful and progressive steamship executive made the observation si-
multaneously with the findings of underwriters investigations that the pre-
sence of dehumidification devices and related appurtenances was not enough to
control the problem. Rather, it depended upon the operator and his ability to
evaluate the de~point relationships of the outside and inside atmospheres.
Some time subsequent to the studies made by Mr. S.J. Duly of Great Britain
on the matter of "ships' sweat", a prominent and progressive American steamship
company performed some experiments and made exhaustive studies of practical si-
tuations in their own fleet. Their vessels were all fitted with the "cowl type"
ventilators and nothing more than a wet and dry bulb thermometer. These studies
continued for a period of several years. At the conclusion, it was found that
in their parti cular trade (from coast to coast of the United States) better
outturns generally were found on those vessels whose cowls were completely
closed and no ventilation of any sort permitted at any time during an IS-day
voyage.
Several years after World War II this same method of closing off cargo
spaces was attempted on a bulk cargo of copra going from the tropics to North
Atlantic ports in December. The interior of the vessel literally rained upon
reaching cold climates, causing a serious cargo damage and a resulting loss
to marine underwritters. Here was an operator repeating a system of closing
ventilators but who was totally lacking concerning the basic application of
the dew-points of the respective atmospheres inside and outside of the vessel.
Literature of the type of Mr. McDonald's memorandum should be widely dis-
seminated among ships' officers. All too often this information reaches the
Uptown Operating Department of the steamship company but there it dies in a
shoreside "file 13". Not only should ships I offi cers be educated in thi s acti-
vity but steamship companies should encourage investigation and if need be,
informed experimentation, so that these findings in turn can be infiltrated
throughout fleet personnel charged with the ventilating responsibility.
The dew-point should be as familiar a phrase on board ship, inside and
out, as is the temperature of these areas. And what is more important, a
cogent and knowledgeable meaning of their relationship should be made a part
of every officer's watch performing activities."
 WMO TECHNICAL NOTES
Price
No. 10 The forecasting from "weather data of potato blight and other plant diseases
and pests. P.:WI. Austin Bourke . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .
No. 11 The standardization of the measurement of evaporation as a climatic factor.
G. W. Robertson . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .
) Sw·fr· 2.-

No. 13 Artificial control of clouds and hydrometeors. L. Dufour - Ferguson Hall -

F. H. Ludlam - E. J. Smith . Sw·fr. 3.-
No. 17 Notes on the problems of cargo ventilation. W. F. McDonald (reprinted 1968) Sw·fr. 7.-
No. 18 Aviation aspects of mountain waves. M. A. Alaka (reprinted 1967) . . . . . Sw·fr.15.-
No. 20 The climatological investigation of soil temperature. Milton L. Blanc . . . .
No. 21 Measurement of evaporation, humidity in the biosphere and soil moisture.
N. E. Rider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .
} Sw·fr. 5.-

No. 24 Till'bulent diffusion in the atmosphere. C. H. B. Priestley - R. A. McCormick -

F. Pasquill . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fr. 7.-
No. 25 Design of hydrological networks. Max A. Kohler· (reprinted 1967). . . . . . t Sw·fr. 6.-
No. 26 Techniques fm· surveying surface~waterresources. Ray K. Linsley (reprinted 1967) I
No. 28 Seasonal peculiarities of the temperature and atmospheric circulation regimes
in the Arctic and Antarctic. Professor H. P. Pogosjan . Sw·fr. 3.-
No. 29 Upper-air network requirements for numerical weather prediction. A. Eliassen
- J. S. Sawyer - J. Smagorinsky . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . .
No. 30 Rapport prcliminaire du Groupe de travail de la Commission de meteorologie Sw·fr.14.-
synoptique sur les reseaux. J. BessemouIin, president - I-I. M. De Jong -
W . .T. A. Kuipers - O. Lonnqvist - A. Megcnine - R. Pone - P. D. Thompson-
J. D. TorTance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .
No. 32 l\'Icteorological sCl'vice fOT aircraft employed in agriculture and forest1'y.
P. M. Austin Bourke - H. T. Ashton - M. A. Huberman - O. B. I,ean -
W. J. Maan - A. H. Nagle . Sw.fr. 3.-
No. 33 Meteorological aspects of the peaceful uses of atomic energy. Part I - J\rleteoro~
logical aspects of the safety and location of reactor plants. P. J. Meade
(reprinte,1 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw.fr. 7.-
No. 34 The airflow over mountains. P. Queney - G. A. Corhy - N. Gerbier - H. Koseh-
mieder - J. Zierep (reprinted 1967) . Sw·fr.30.-
No. 35 Techniques d'analyse et de prevision des champs de vent et de temperature a
haute altitude (edition fraul{aisc) . . , , . Sw.fr. 8.-
No. 36 Ozone observations and their meteorological applications. H. Taba Sw.fr. 5.-
No. 37 Aviation hail problem. Donald S. Foster .
No.
No.
No.
No.
38
39
40
41
Turbulence in clear air and in cloud. Joseph Clodman . .
Ice formation on aU·craft. R. F. Jones . . . . . . . . .
(reprinted 1968)

Occurrence and forecasting of Cirrostratus clouds. Herbert S. Appleman

Climatic aspects of the possible establishment of the Japanese beetle in Europe.
I Sw·fr.17.-

No. 42
No. 43
P. Austin Bourke (reprinted 1968). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forecasting for forest fire sel'vices. J. A. Turner - J. W. Lillywhite - Z. Pieslak
Meteorological factors influencing the transport and removal of radioactive
debris. Edited by Dr. W. Bleeker. . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . .
I Sw·fr.ll.-

Sw.fr. 8.-
No. 44 Numerical methods of weather analysis and forecasting. B. Bolin -
E. wI. Dohrishman - K. Hinkelmann - K. Knighting - P. D. Thompson
(reprinted 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw.fr. 7.-
No. 45 Performance requirements of aerological instruments. J. S. Sawyer • . . . Sw.fr. 4.-
No. 46 Methods of forecasting the state of sea on the basis of meteorological data.
J. J. Sehule - K. Terada - H. Walden - G. Verploegh .
Precipitation measurements at sea. Review of the prescnt state of the problem
prepared by a working group of the Commission fOl, :Mal'itime Meteorology .
) Sw.fr. 6.-

No. Lt8 The present status of long-range forecasting in the world. J. 1\'1. Craddock -
H. Flohn - J. Namins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , Sw.fr. 4.-
No. ,19 Reduction and use of data obtained by TIROS meteorological satellites. (Pre~
pared by the National Weather Satellite Center of the U.S. Weather Bureau) Sw.fr. 6.-
No. 50 The problem of the professional training of meteorological personnel of all
grades in the less-developed countries. J. Van Mieghem (reprinted 1967) Sw.fr. 6.-

Note: Publications ill the "Technical Note" series not appearing in this list are out of print, and will not be reprinted.
 No. 50 Le problema de In fOl'mation professionnellc du personnel metcorologique de
tout grade dans les pays insuffisammcnt dcveloppes. J. Van Mieghem . . . Sw.fr. 4.-
No. 51 Protection against frost damage. l\L L. Blanc - H. Goslin - 1. A. Holzberg -
B. Th'Iason . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . Sw.fT. 6.-
No. 52 Automatic weather stations. H. 'freussart - C. A. Kettering - M. Sanuki -
S. P. Venkiteshwaran - A. Mani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SW.fT. 3.-
No. 52 Stations mcteorologiques autolllutiqucs. H. 1'rew.s£U't - C. A. Kettering -
M. Sanuki - S. P. Venkitesh"waran - A. Mani. . , . . . . . . . . SW.fT. 3.-
No. 53 The cHcct of weather and climate upon the keeping quality of fruit . . . SW.fT. 8.-
No. 54 :Meteorology and the migration of Desert Locusts. R. C. Rainey . . . . . SW·fT.25.-
No. 55 The influence of weather conditions on the occurrence of apple scab. J . .T. Post-
C. C. Allison - H. Bm'ckhardt - T. F. Preece, , ' . Sw.fr. 5.-
No. 56 A study of agroclimatology in semi-arid and arid zones of the Near East.
G. Penin de Bl'ichambaut and C. C. Wallen (repTinted 1968) , . . . . . . , Sw·fT.12.-
No. 56 Une etude d'agroclimatologie dans les zones mides et semi-arides du Proche-
Orient. G. Perrin de Brichambaut ct C. C. Wallen , . ' . . , ' , . . . , Sw.fr. 6.-
No. 58 Tidal phenomena in the upper atmosphere. B. Haurwitz. . . . . . . . . . SW.fT. 3.-
No. 59 \Vindhl'caks and shelterbelts. J. Van Eimern - R. Karschon - L. A. Razumova -
G. W. Rohertson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fT.10.-
No. 60 -Meteorological soundings in the upper atmosphere. "\V. W. Kellogg . . . • . SW.fT. 8.-
No. 61 Note on the standardization of pressure reduction methods in the international
network of synoptic stations. 1\1. Schuepp - F. W. Burnett - K. N. H.ao-
1-\.. Rouaud , ' ......•....... SW.fT. 3.-
No. 62 Problems of tropical meteorology. 1\-1. A. Alaka . SW.fT. 5.-
No. 63 Sites for wind-power installations. B. Davidson - N. Gel·bier - S. D. Papagia~
uakis - P. J. Rijkoort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SW.fT. 5.-
No. 64 High-level forecasting for turbine-ellgined au'craft operatiolls over Africa and the
Middle East. Proceedings of tho Joint ICAOj\VlYIO Seminar, Cairo-Nicosia, 1961 Sw·fr.24.-
No. 65 A sUTvey of human biometeorology. Edited by FredN'ick Sargent, II, and
Solco W. 'Il'omp . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . • . . . . Sw·fT.14.-
No. 66 W:MO-I~GG symposium on research and development aspects of long~range
forecastrng. Boulder, Colorado, 196/1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . Sw·fr·40.-
No. 67 The present situation >..ith regard to the application of numerical methods for
routine weather prediction and prospects for the future. Bo R. Doos -
E. M. Dobrishman - A. Eliassen - K. H. Hinkelmann - H. Ito - F. G. Shuman SW.fT. 6.-
No. 68 lYIeteorological aspects of atmospheric radioactivity. Edited by \V. Bleeker. Sw·fT.18.-
No. 69 Meteorology and the Desert Locust. Proceedings oIthe WMOjFAO Seminar on
Meteorology and the Desert Locust. Tehran, 25 November-ll Decembcr 1963 SW·fT.30.-
No. 70 The circulation in the stratosphere, mesosphere and lower thernlOsphcre.
R. J. l'Ilurgatroyd - F. K. Hare - B. W. Boville - S. Teweles - A. Kochanski Sw·fT.18.-
No. 71 Statistical analysis and prognosis in meteorology. Proceedings of the WlVIO
inter-regional Seminal' on Statistical Analysis and Prognosis in Meteorology.
Paris, 8-20 October 1962. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fT.41.-
No. 72 The preparation and use of weather maps by mariners. . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fT.18.-
No. 73 Data processing in meteOl'ology. Proceedings of the WlVIOjIUGG Symposium
on Meteorological Data Processing. Brussels, 1965. . . . . . . . . . . • . Sw·fT.11.-
No. 74 Data-processing by machine methods (Report of the eel Working Group on
Data~Proces8ing by Machine Methods,!.repared by J. F. Boscn, chairman-
P. E. Kamenskaja - K. N. HaD - E. . Sumner - T. Werner Johannessen) Sw.,(r. 5.-
No. 75 The use of sal:ellite pictures in weather analysis and forecasting.
R. K. Anderson - E. W. Ferguson -V. J. Oliver (Applications Group, National
Envh'onmental Satellite Center of the Environmental Science Services
Administration) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . Sw·fr.24.-
No. 76 Instruments and measurements in hydrometeorology. Lectures given at the
second session of the Commission for Hydrometeorology, Warsaw, 29 Sep-
temher -15 October 19M . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . Sw.fr. 7.-
No. 77 Lower troposphere soundings (Report of a working group of the Commission
for Instruments and Methods of Observation, prepared by D. H. Pack, chair-
man - G. Cena - A. Valentin - M. F. E. Hinzpetel' - P. Vockeroth and
P. A. Vorontsov) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • Sw.fr. 5.-
No.78 (Revised version of Technical Note No. 27.) Use of ground~based radar in
meteorology (excluding upper-wind measurements) (Report by two working
groups of the Commission for Instruments and Methods of Observation, pre~
pared by R. F. Jones, chairman - J. P. Henderson - R. Lhermitte - H. Mitra -
A. Perlat - Y. D. Rockney - N. P. Sellick and revised by S. G. Bigler, chair-
man - H. N. Brann - K. L. S. Gunn- 1. Imai - R. F. Jones - L. S. Nlathur -
H. Trens'art) (reprinted 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fr.18.-
No. 79 Climatic change (Report of a working group of the Commission for Clima~
tology, prepared by J. M. Mitchell, Jr., chairman - B. Dzerdzeevskii - H. Flohn-
W. L. Hofmeyr - H. H. Lamh - K. N. Rao - C. C. Wallen) . Sw.fr. 7.50
No. 80 Utilization of aircraft meteorological reports (A revised edition of Technical
Note No. 57, published under the same title) (Report of a working group of
the Commission for Aeronautical Meteorology, prepared by S. Simplicio, chair-
man, and Y. Hoem) . Sw.fr. 6.-
No. 81 Some methods of climatological analysis. H. C. S. Thorn. . . . . . . . . . Sw.fr. 6.-
No. 82 Automatic weather stations (Proceedings of the WMO Technical Conference
. on Automatic Weather Stations, Geneva, 1966) . Sw·fr.32.-
No. 83 Measurement and estimation of evaporation and evapotranspiration (Report
of the ClMO Working Group on Evaporation Measurement, prepared by
M. Gangopadhyaya, chairman - G. Earl Harbeck, Jr. - Tor J. Nordenson -
M. H. Omar - V. A. Uryvaev) (reprinted 1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fr.18.-
No.84 A note on climatological normals. Report of a working group of the Commis-
sion for Climatology, prepared by P. Jagannathan, chairman - R. ArIery -
H. ten Kate - 1\'1. Y. Zavarina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw.fr. 4.-
No. 85 Precisions des mesures pyrheIiometriques. Communications et discussions
presentees au conrs de la troisieme session du GI'oupe de travail du rayonne-
ment de l'Association regionale VI qui a'est tenne a I'Institut Royal Meteoro~
logique de Belgique a Bruxelles, 23-27 mai 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fr.22.-
No. 86 An agroelimatology survey of a semiarid area in Mrica south of the Sahara.
J. Coeheme and P. Franquin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sw·fr.15.-
No. 86 Etude agl'oclimatologique dans une zone scmi·aride en Afrique au sud du
Sahara. J. Cocheme et P. Franquin. , . Sw. fr.15.-
No. 87 Polar meteorology. Proceedings of the WMOjSCARjICPM Symposium on PolaI'
NIeteOTo1ogy, Geneva, 5-9 September 1966. . . . . . , . . . . . . . , . Sw. fr. 78.-
No. 88 La meteorologla aeronautica en America Latina. Procedimielltos del Seminario
de formaci6n regional de la OMM, Costa Rica, 29 de :i:lOviembre - 17 de diciem~
hre de 1965 (In preparation)
No. 89 Meteorological problems in the design and operation of supm'sonic aircraft.
R. F. Jones, R. M. McInturff and S. Teweles. . . . . . , , . , . . . . . Sw.fr. 9.-
No. 90 Measurement of peak discharge hy indirect methods. Prepared by M. A. Benson Sw. fr. 10.-
No.91 Methods in use for the reduction of atmospheric pressm'e . Sw . .I'. 10.-
No. 92 Hydrological fm'ecasting (Proceedings of the W:i\iOjUNESCO Symposium on
Hydrological FOl'ecasting, Suders' Paradise, Australia, 1967) (In preparation)
No.93 Vel' tical "wind shear in the lower layers of the atmosphere (In preparation)
No. 94, Measurement of atmospheric radioactivity. O. Suschny . , . . . , . , , Sw. Jr. 30.-
No, 95 Ael'onautical meteorology (Proceedings of the Scientific and 'l'eclmical Confer-
ence on Aeronautical Meteorology, London, 18-29 March 1968) (In preparation)
No. 96 Air pollutants, meteorology, and plant injury by E. 1. Mukammal (Chair~
man), C. S. Brandt, R, Neuwirth, D. H. Pack and W. C, S"w"inbank . , . , . Sw. fr. 10.-