SYLLABUS

AE6512 PROPULSION LABORATORY LTP

C
0032
COURSE OBJECTIVES:
 To familiarize students and to expose them practically to various aircraft piston and gas
turbine engines
 To give practical exposure to various testing methods of variable area ducts, propellants,
jet engine components and rockets
 To practically determine the flow behavior of jets
COURSE OUTCOMES
 Ability to identify components and information of piston and gas turbines
 Ability to perform various testing on ducts, jet engine components.
 To be able to distinguish subsonic and supersonic flow characteristics.
 Ability to analyze the flow behavior over supersonic nozzle

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Study of aircraft piston and gas turbine engines
2. Velocity profiles of free jets.
3. Velocity profiles of wall jets.
4. Wall pressure measurements of a subsonic ramjet duct.
5. Flame stabilization studies using conical flame holders.
6. Cascade testing of compressor blades
7. Velocity and pressure measurements in co-axial jets
8. Flow visualization of secondary injection in a supersonic cross flow
9. Wall pressure distribution in subsonic diffusers.
10. Wall Pressure measurements in supersonic nozzles
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES
PO1: Ability to solve the engineering problems of mathematics, science and engineering

Page No: 1
PO2: An engineering acumen in identifying, formulating, analyzing and solving complex
engineering problems.
PO3: Developing processes, solutions to the problems which are safe socially, culturally and
environmentally.
PO4: Ability to model, analyze and simulate operations of aircraft components and parts.
PO5: Capability of exhibiting sound theoretical and practical knowledge in core domains like
aircraft structures, aerodynamics and propulsion and are able to solve problems related to airflow
over fixed and rotary wing aircrafts.
PO11: Ability to manage the projects in various aerospace fields of structure, propulsion,
avionics.

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:

The graduates after completion of the degree will be able to
PEO1. Apply knowledge in emerging and varied areas of Aerospace Engineering for higher
studies, research, employment and product development.
PEO2. Communicate their skills and have a sense of responsibility to protect the environment
and have ethical conduct towards their profession and commitment to serve the society.
PEO3. Exhibit managerial skills and leadership qualities while understanding the need for
lifelong learning to be competent professionals

AE6512 Program Outcomes

Page No: 2
 (3 : High; 2 : Medium; 1 : Low)
Cognitive

PO10

PO11

PO12
Level

PO1

PO2

PO3

PO5

PO7
PO8

PO9
DIRECT METHOD
CO1– Ability to identify
components and information of Remember 01 01 03 02 02
piston and gas turbines Understand

CO2– Ability to perform Remember

various testing on ducts, jet 02 03 01 03 03
Understand
engine components
Analysis
CO3 – To be able to Remember
distinguish subsonic and Understand 02 01 01 03 03
supersonic flow characteristics. Analysis

CO4 – Ability to analyze the Remember

flow behavior over supersonic Understand 01 03 01 03 03
nozzle Analysis

POs and PSOs Mapping

Program Outcomes
PSO
PO10

PO11

PO12
PO1

PO2

PO7

PO8

PO9

PSO1 3 3 2 1 - 1 1 - - - - 1

PSO2 1 3 2 2 3 - - 3 - - - -

PSO3 - - - - - - - - 3 2 3 2

Experiment no 01 VELOCITY PROFILE OF FREE JET

AIM:

Page No: 3
 To determine the velocity profile of free jet setup.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

 Jet producing mechanism

 Pitot tube
 U-Tube manometer
 Meter scale

FORMULA:

V¿ √ ¿w∆ h÷ ρ a)

Where,

V=Velocity of the jet

g=acceleration due to gravity

∆ h=h1-h2

ρ w=density of water

ρ a=density of air

THEORY:

To study the distribution of velocity of free jet along the direction of flow and normal to the
direction of flow at different location and to draw the velocity profile.

PROCEDURE:

 Place the pitot tube a spark distance from the jet outlet.
 The motor is switched on and the flow rate will be kept constant by adjusting the valve.
 The pressure head in the U-Tube manometer is noted.
 By increasing the distance of the pitot tube from the initial position of the jet is noted.
 The Pitot tube is kept constant at a distance from the jet starting because the jet diverges only for
small portion initially.
 Reading are noted and the pitot tube is placed at a constant distance from the jet outlet.

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 The pitot tube is adjusted in the perpendicular upward and downward direction and tabulate the
readings.
 Then the Distance (vs) Velocity graph is plotted and the velocity profile is determined.

TABULATION:

1. ALONG THE AXIS

S.no Location of pitot Manometer readings Velocity(m/s)

tube(cm) Left(cm) Right(cm) ∆ h(cm)

2. ACROSS THE AXIS(UPWARD):

S.no Location of pitot Manometer readings Velocity(m/s)

tube(cm) Left(cm) Right(cm) ∆ h(cm)

3. ACROSS THE AXIS (DOWNWARD):

S.no Location of pitot Manometer readings Velocity(m/s)

tube(cm) Left(cm) Right(cm) ∆ h(cm)

Page No: 5
RESULT:

Thus the study on velocity of free jet is determined and graph for velocity profile is plotted.

Experiment no 02 VELOCITY PROFILE OF WALL JET

AIM:

To determine the velocity profile of wall jet setup.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

 Jet producing mechanism

 Pitot tube
 U-Tube manometer
 Meter scale

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  A vertical wall

FORMULA:

V¿ √ ¿w∆ h÷ ρ a)

Where,

V=Velocity of the jet

g=acceleration due to gravity

∆ h=h1-h2

ρ w=density of water = 1000Kg/m3

ρ a=density of air = 1.225 Kg/m3

THEORY:

To study the distribution of velocity of wall jet by keeping the obstruction (a vertical wall) in
the flow field to disturb the flow there by finding out its velocity profile to compare it with free
jet profile

PROCEDURE:

 Place the Pitot tube a spark distance from the jet outlet.
 The motor is switched on and the flow rate will be kept constant by adjusting the valve
 The pressure head in the U-Tube manometer is noted.
 By increasing the distance of the pitot tube from the initial position of the jet is noted.
 The pitot tube is kept constant at a distance from the jet starting because the jet diverges only for
small portion initially.
 Reading are noted and the pitot tube is placed at a constant distance from the jet outlet.
 The pitot tube is adjusted in the perpendicular upward direction and tabulate the readings.
 Then the Distance (vs) Velocity graph is plotted and the velocity profile is determined.

TABULATION:

Page No: 7
 1.ALONG THE AXIS

S.no Location of pitot Manometer readings Velocity(m/s)

tube(cm) Left(cm) Right(cm) ∆ h(cm)

2.ACROSS THE AXIS

S.no Location of pitot Manometer readings Velocity(m/s)

tube(cm) Left(cm) Right(cm) ∆ h(cm)

Page No: 8
 RESULT:

Thus the study on velocity of wall jet is determined and graph for velocity profile is plotted.

Experiment no 03 CASCADE TESTING OF COMPRESOR BLADE

AIM:

To find out the pressure distribution over a compressor blade using cascade wind tunnel.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

 Cascade wind tunnel

 Compressor blade wanes
 Multi tube manometer
 Static pressure probes

PROCEDURE:

 Fix the required cascade model into the tunnel outlet.

 Keep the flap valve of the inlet fully open and start the cascade tunnel.
 Measure the static pressure readings over the compressor blade using multi tube manometer.
 Tabulate all the readings and perform necessary calculations.
 Sketch the graph showing the pressure distribution curve over a compressor blade element.
Page No: 9
TABULATION:

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Static
head(hsi)
Pressure
(Pa)

S.no X/C Pressure

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Page No: 10
 RESULT:

The pressure distribution over a compressor blade row is studied and graph of x/c vs Pv is plotted.

Experiment no 04 CASCADE TESTING OF TURBINE BLADE

AIM:

To find out the pressure distribution over a turbine blade using cascade wind tunnel.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

 Cascade wind tunnel

 Turbine blade wanes
 Multi tube manometer
 Static pressure probes

PROCEDURE:

 Fix the required cascade model into the tunnel outlet.

 Keep the flap valve of the inlet fully open and start the cascade tunnel.
 Measure the static pressure readings over the turbine blade using multi tube manometer.
 Tabulate all the readings and perform necessary calculations.
 Sketch the graph showing the pressure distribution curve over a turbine blade element.

TABULATION:

Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Static
head(hsi)

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Pressure
(Pa)

S.no X/C Pressure

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

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RESULT:

The pressure distribution over a turbine blade row is studied and graph of vs. Pressure is plotted.

Experiment no 05 PERFORMANCE STUDY OF A 2-D DIFFUSER

AIM :

To find out the following for a fixed divergence angle for a diffuser

 Ideal pressure recovery co-efficient.

 Actual pressure recovery co-efficient.
 Diffuser efficiency.
 Velocity profile.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

 2-D Diffuser.
 Blower.
 Pitot tube.
 U-tube manometer.

FORMULA USED :

 Ideal pressure recovery co-efficient

Cpi = 1-1/AR2
 Actual pressure recovery co-efficient
Cpa = (P2-P1 / ρ C12)
 Diffuser efficiency
η = Cpa / Cpi
P2 – P1 = 10 hsi
Where

Page No: 13
 AR = Area Ratio
Air velocity C1 = 0.836 √ ¿hoxi/ρ)
Pressure difference = P2-P1
Exit velocity = C2
Ρ = 1.225 kg/m3

PROCEDURE:

 Measure the diameter of orifice at suction part.

 Adjust movable top wall of 2-D diffuser for necessary divergence angle.
 Shut off flap valve at suction of air and start the motor.
 Open flap valve fully and fix it in desired position.
 From the manometer find the differential value and enter it in the observation chart.

TABULATION:

S.No Height from Dynamic Head (hd) Exit

diffuser floor (cm) Velocity
(cm) (m/s)

Left Right ∆hd

RESULT:

Thus the ideal pressure, actual pressure co-efficient, diffuser efficiency and velocity profile has
been determined.

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 Experiment no 06 PROPELLER PERFORMANCE

The selection of an appropriate propeller for a new aircraft should not be done without
considering several factors which characterize the performance of a propeller. The following
sections (EFFICIENCY, TIP SPEED, and PERFORMANCE MAPS) present a few basics
regarding propeller performance.

EFFICIENCY

The purpose of a propeller is to convert power (delivered by a rotating shaft) into thrust.
It does that by accelerating a large mass of air to a higher velocity. The effectiveness with which
a propeller performs this conversion is known as "efficiency".

As you already know, a propeller blade is a sophisticated whirling airfoil. At a constant RPM
and aircraft true airspeed, the speed of the air over any portion of the airfoil varies with the
distance from the center of rotation. The maximum velocity occurs at the point of maximum
thickness out near the tip.

Therefore, in an effort to provide an ideal angle of attack all along the blade, the blade has a
"twist" to it which varies the pitch angle of the blade from root to tip. The pitch angle of a blade
(β) is typically the angle measured at 75% of the radial distance from the center of rotation to the
prop tip.

As aircraft velocity increases, the angle of attack seen by the prop blade of a fixed-pitch prop
will decrease. That effect limits the maximum efficiency of a fixed pitch prop to a single
airspeed at a given RPM, as shown by the following plot of efficiency at different blade pitch
angles (β) shows.

Page No: 15
 FIGURE 1: propeller advanced ratio Vs Propeller efficiency ηp

The curves in Figure 1 suggest that if the blade pitch could be varied in flight, the prop
efficiency could be very high for a wide range of operating conditions. Therefore, many
propellers contain a mechanism in the hub to change the overall pitch of the blades in response to
a servo command from a control system. That control system is typically a propeller governor,
which maintains prop RPM at a pilot-set value (within certain limits) regardless of aircraft speed
or engine power setting.

Propeller efficiency is defined as:

eff =K∗Thrust∗Speed / Power

eff =K∗Thrust∗Speed / Power

Page No: 16
(Where "K" is a constant to account for units).

If the system of units is Pounds (thrust), Horsepower (power) and Knots True Airspeed (KTAS),
then the equation becomes:

eff =(Thrust∗KTAS)/(HP∗326)

(if you prefer MPH instead of Knots, use 375 instead of 326)

The equation for efficiency has other useful forms. Rearranging the terms, the equation for the
thrust produced at a known airspeed, engine power, and prop efficiency is:

Thrust=( HP∗eff ∗326)/ KTAS

To find the HP required producing a known thrust at a known airspeed and propeller efficiency:

HP=( Thrust∗KTAS)/(326∗eff )

To find the speed which can be reached with a known engine HP, prop efficiency and airframe
drag (thrust = drag in steady state level flight):

KTAS=(HP∗eff ∗326)/ Drag

It is clear from the relationship between power, thrust and speed, that if power and propeller
efficiency are held constant, then propeller thrust decreases as true airspeed increases. Add to
that the fact that aerodynamic drag increases with the square of speed, and it becomes clear why
it takes 8 times the power to double the airspeed ( 8 = 2 3 ) of a given airframe (oversimplified to
make the point).

Figure 2 shows a plot of the thrust generated by a particular (variable pitch) propeller as a
function of the airspeed (15 through 240 MPH) and power applied to it (250 through 500 HP).

In case you were wondering, the hump in those curves is due to the fact that at low
airspeeds, prop efficiency is very low. As airspeed increases, so does efficiency, quickly at first,
then more slowly, up to it's max (about 85-87%).

Page No: 17
 In general, the larger the prop diameter, the more efficient it will be. The following three
equations provide an estimate of the recommended prop diameters (inches) as a function of the
horsepower available to the prop. ("Fourth root" is the square root of the square root.)

Two−blade :d=22 x fourth root of (HP)Three−blade:d =18 x fourth root of ( HP)

Three−blade (agricultural application) :d=20 x fourth root of ( HP)

However, the maximum useful prop diameter will be limited by the speed of the prop tip.

FIGURE 2 THRUST VS MPH

TIP SPEED

Anytime the aircraft is in motion (and the propeller is turning, of course) the path of the
tip of a prop blade through the air is a helix, and therefore, it's velocity (the "tip speed") is the

Page No: 18
vector sum of the rotational velocity plus the translational velocity, or the helical tip velocity
(explained in detail below).

Maximum helical tip velocity is an important parameter for propeller selection. In the
absence of specific data from the prop manufacturer, it is safe to assume that (a) the maximum
prop efficiency will be about 87% (for any metal prop a non-governmental agency can afford),
and (b) that the prop efficiency begins to decrease dramatically when the prop is operated at a
helical tip velocity in excess of 0.85 Mach. That occurs because the local air velocity over the
surface of the prop (near the point of maximum airfoil thickness) will reach Mach 1, and create a
shock wave, separating the flow and dissipating prop energy.

It is actually quite simple to do the arithmetic necessary to determine the tip Mach of a
prop at a given RPM and true airspeed. First, calculate the helical tip velocity components.

The rotational velocity is the diameter of the prop times the RPM times a conversion
factor. Again using KTAS as the unit of speed, the rotational velocity in feet per second is:

Vr ( Secft )=RPM∗¿ Diameter ( inches12∗60

)∗3.1416
,∨¿

RPM∗¿ Diameter (inches )

Vr ( ft /sec ) =
229.2

The translational velocity is simply the aircraft TAS expressed in feet per second, or:

KTAS∗6076
Vt ( ft /sec )= ∨Vt =KTAS∗1.688
3600

With the rotational and translational speed (in the same units, of course) you can easily
calculate the helical tip speed:

Vht =√ (Vr ² +Vt ²)

Next, calculate the speed of sound (Mach 1.0). The speed of sound in air varies with the
square root of absolute temperature ONLY, as defined by the following equation:

Page No: 19
 Vs .= √(k∗g∗R∗T )

where k, g and R are constants (1.4, 32.17 and 53.34 for air)and T is the absolute temperature (°F
+ 460) of the surrounding air.

Now, to calculate the RPM at which a known tip mach occurs on your propeller, perform
a bit of simple algebra on those four equations (Vr, Vt, Vs1 and M) to solve for RPM, given
Prop Diameter, TAS, and outside air temperature.

PERFORMANCE MAPS

Propeller performance maps are 3-dimensional tables which list the efficiency of a
propeller at various combinations of advance ratio and power loading for various altitude
conditions. If you are fortunate to have access to a map for your prop, you can determine the
operating efficiency accurately for most every condition (as long as map data represent the actual
performance of the prop, which is not always the case!).

In order to use a performance map, you will need to calculate the advance ratio and
power loading.

TAS
Advance Ratio ( J )= ∧¿
N∗D

¿ HP∗550
Power Loading ( Cp )= 3 5
air density∗N ∗D

Where,
TAS ----- is true airspeed in feet-per-second;
N   -------is prop speed in Revs-per-second;
D --------is prop diameter in feet;
air density in is slugs-per-cubic foot ( sea level = 0.002376 )

Page No: 20
 Experiment no 07 STUDY OF GAS TURBINE
INTRODUCTION:

The gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that uses air as the working fluid. The engine
extracts chemical energy from fuel and converts it to mechanical energy using the gaseous
energy of the working fluid (air) to drive the engine and propeller, which, in turn, propel the
airplane.
WORKING:

 Air from the atmosphere enters into turbojet engine. The air velocity gets reduced and its
static pressure is increased by diffuser.
 Thentheairpassesthroughtherotarycompressorinwhichtheairisfurther compressed.

Page No: 21
 Then the high pressure airflows into the combustion chamber. In the combustion chamber,
the fuel is injected by suitable injectors and the air-fuel mixture is burnt. Heat is supplied at
constant pressure.
 The highly heated products of combustion gases are then enter the turbine and partially
expanded.
 The power produced by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor, fuel pump and
other auxiliaries.
 The hot gases from the turbine are then allowed to expand in the exhaust nozzle section.
 In the nozzle, pressure energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy. So the gases
coming out from the unit with very high velocity.
 Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit a reaction or thrust is produced in
the opposite direction. This thrust propels the aircraft.
 Like ramjet engine, the turbojet engine is a continuous flow engine.
 Because of turbine material limitations, only a limited amount of fuel can be burnt in the
combustion chamber.
COMPONENTS OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE:

AIR INTAKE
Preceding the compressor is the air intake (or inlet). It is designed to be as efficient as
possible at recovering the ram pressure of the air stream tube approaching the intake. The air
leaving the intake then enters the compressor. The stators (stationary blades) guide the airflow of
the compressed gases.

COMPRESSOR
The compressor is driven by the turbine. The compressor rotates at very high speed,
adding energy to the airflow and at the same time squeezing (compressing) it into a smaller
space. Compressing the air increases its pressure and temperature.
In most turbojet-powered aircraft, bleed air is extracted from the compressor section at
various stages to perform a variety of jobs including air conditioning/pressurization, engine inlet
anti-icing and turbine cooling. Bleeding air off decreases the overall efficiency of the engine, but
the usefulness of the compressed air outweighs the loss in efficiency.
Several types of compressor are used in turbojets and gas turbines in general: axial,

Page No: 22
centrifugal, axial-centrifugal, double-centrifugal, etc.
Early turbojet compressors had overall pressure ratios as low as 5:1 (as do a lot of simple
auxiliary power units and small propulsion turbojets today). Aerodynamic improvements, plus
splitting the compression system into two separate units and/or incorporating variable
compressor geometry, enabled later turbojets to have overall pressure ratios of 15:1 or more. For
comparison, modern civil turbofan engines have overall pressure ratios of 44:1 or more.
After leaving the compressor section, the compressed air enters the combustion chamber.

Figure: Schematic diagram showing the operation of an axial flow turbojet engine

COMBUSTION CHAMBER:
The burning process in the combustor is significantly different from that in a piston
engine. In a piston engine the burning gases are confined to a small volume and, as the fuel
burns, the pressure increases dramatically. In a turbojet the air and fuel mixture passes
unconfined through the combustion chamber. As the mixture burns its temperature increases
dramatically, but the pressure actually decreases a few percent.
The fuel-air mixture must be brought almost to a stop so that a stable flame can be
maintained. This occurs just after the start of the combustion chamber. The aft part of this flame
front is allowed to progress rearward. This ensures that all of the fuel is burned, as the flame

Page No: 23
becomes hotter when it leans out, and because of the shape of the combustion chamber the flow
is accelerated rearwards. Some pressure drop is required, as it is the reason why the expanding
gases travel out the rear of the engine rather than out the front. Less than 25% of the air is
involved in combustion, in some engines as little as 12%, the rest acting as a reservoir to absorb
the heating effects of the burning fuel.
Another difference between piston engines and jet engines is that the peak flame
temperature in a piston engine is experienced only momentarily in a small portion of the full
cycle. The combustor in a jet engine is exposed to the peak flame temperature continuously and
operates at a pressure high enough that a stoichiometric fuel-air ratio would melt the can and
everything downstream. Instead, jet engines run a very lean mixture, so lean that it would not
normally support combustion. A central core of the flow (primary airflow) is mixed with enough
fuel to burn readily. The cans are carefully shaped to maintain a layer of fresh unburned air
between the metal surfaces and the central core. This unburned air (secondary airflow) mixes
into the burned gases to bring the temperature down to something a turbine can tolerate.

TURBINE:
Hot gases leaving the combustor are allowed to expand through the turbine. Turbines are
usually made up of high temperature metals such as inconel to resist the high temperature, and
frequently have built-in cooling channels.
In the first stage the turbine is largely an impulse turbine (similar to a pelton wheel) and rotates
because of the impact of the hot gas stream. Later stages are convergent ducts that accelerate the
gas rearward and gain energy from that process. Pressure drops, and energy is transferred into
the shaft. The turbine's rotational energy is used primarily to drive the compressor. Some shaft
power is extracted to drive accessories, like fuel, oil, and hydraulic pumps. Because of its
significantly higher entry temperature, the turbine pressure ratio is much lower than that of the
compressor. In a turbojet almost two-thirds of all the power generated by burning fuel is used by
the compressor to compress the air for the engine.

NOZZLE:
After the turbine, the gases are allowed to expand through the exhaust nozzle to
atmospheric pressure, producing a high velocity jet in the exhaust plume. In a convergent nozzle,

Page No: 24
the ducting narrows progressively to a throat. The nozzle pressure ratio on a turbojet is usually
high enough for the expanding gases to reach Mach 1.0 and choke the throat. Normally, the flow
will go supersonic in the exhaust plume outside the engine.
If, however, a convergent-divergent de Laval nozzle is fitted, the divergent (increasing
flow area) section allows the gases to reach supersonic velocity within the nozzle itself. This is
slightly more efficient on thrust than using a convergent nozzle. There is, however, the added
weight and complexity since the convergent-divergent nozzle must be fully variable in its shape
to cope with changes in gas flow caused by engine throttling.

AFTERBURNER:
An afterburner or "reheat jet pipe" is a device added to the rear of the jet engine. It provides a
means of spraying fuel directly into the hot exhaust, where it ignites and boosts available thrust
significantly; a drawback is its very high fuel consumption rate. Afterburners are used almost
exclusively on supersonic aircraft – most of these are military aircraft. The two supersonic
civilian transports, Concorde and the TU-144, also utilized afterburners but these two have now
been retired from service. Scaled Composites White Knight, a carrier aircraft for the
experimental Space Ship One suborbital spacecraft, also utilizes an afterburner.

THRUST REVERSER:
A thrust reverser is, essentially, a pair of clamshell doors mounted at the rear of the
engine which, when deployed, divert thrust normal to the jet engine flow to help slow an aircraft
upon landing. They are often used in conjunction with spoilers. The accidental deployment of a
thrust reverser during flight is a dangerous event that can lead to loss of control and destruction
of the aircraft (see LaudaAir Flight 004). Thrust reversers are more convenient than drogue
parachutes, though mechanically more complex and expensive.

DIAGRAM:

Page No: 25
RESULT:

Thus we study about the aircraft gas turbine engine.

Page No: 26
 Experiment no 08 STUDY OF PISTON ENGINE

AIM
To Study the Piston Engine Components

FOUR STROKE CYCLE OPERATION

The four strokes of a four stroke cycle engine are the
 Intake stroke
 Compression stroke
 Power stroke
 Exhaust stroke
Intake stroke: During the intake stroke, the piston starts at TDC with the intake valve open and
exhaust is closed. A mixture of fuel and air from the carburetor is drawn into the cylinder.
Compression stroke: The piston moves back toward the cylinder head after it has reached BDC
and the intake valve closes because of crankshaft rotation after BDC. Since both valves are closed,
the fuel-air mixture is compressed in the cylinder. Ignition takes place when crankshaft travels a
few degrees before the piston reaches the TDC.
Power stroke: The piston moves downward as the fuel burned and a maximum pressure would not
be developed. The burning gases moving down the walls of the cylinder would heat the cylinder
walls and the engine would develop excessive temperature.
Exhaust stroke: The exhaust valves opens when piston reaches BDC and hot gases begin to escape
from the cylinder. The gases that remain in the cylinder are forced out the open exhaust valve as the
piston moves back toward TDC. This is the exhaust stroke and is also called the scavenging stroke
because the burned gases are scavenged during the stroke.

1. CRANKCASE
The crankcase of an engine is the housing that encloses the various mechanisms surroundings the
crankshaft; therefore, it is the foundation of the engine.
The following are the functions of the crankcase:
 Supports itself

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 27

  Contains bearings in which the crankshaft revolves
 Provides a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil
 Supports various internal and external mechanisms of the powerplant
 Provides support for the attachment of the cylinders
 Prevents the misalignment of the crankshaft and its bearings because of its rigidity and
strength.
The nose or front section supports a propeller thrust bearing, a propeller-governor drive shaft
and a propeller reduction-gear assembly, also includes an oil scavenge pump and provides
mountings for magnetos and magneto distributors.
The main power section is the highly stressed section of the engine and provides mountings for
pistons.
The fuel induction and distribution section is located behind the main section and is sometimes
called the blower section or the supercharger section because it houses the blower or supercharger
impeller and diffuser vanes.
The accessory section provides mounting pads for accessory units such as fuel pumps,
lubricating oil pumps and other accessory equipments.

2. CYLINDER
The Cylinder of an internal-combustion engine converts the chemical heat energy of the fuel
to mechanical energy and transmits it through pistons and connecting rods to the rotating
crankshaft. In addition to developing the power from the fuel, the cylinder dissipates a substantial
portion of the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel, houses the piston and connecting-rod
assembly, supports the valves and a portion of the valve-actuating mechanism, and supports the
spark plugs.
The Cylinder assembly usually includes the following components:
 Cylinder Barrel
 Cylinder Head
 Valve Guides
 Valve seats
 Spark plug bushings

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 28

  Cooling Fins

The following the are the principal requirements for the cylinder assembly
 Sufficient strength to withstand the internal pressures
 Light Weight
 Heat conducting properties to obtain efficient cooling
 Design which makes easy
 Inexpensive manufacture, inspection and maintenance.

2.1. Cylinder Barrel: The barrel in which the piston reciprocates must be made of a high-strength
steel alloy, good bearing material and have high tensile strength.
2.2. Cylinder Head: The cylinder head encloses the combustion chamber for the fuel-air mixture
and contains the intake and exhaust valves, valve guides, and valve seats. The cylinder head also
provides a support for the rocker shafts upon which the valve rocker arms are mounted. The
openings into which the spark plugs are inserted are provided in the cylinder head at positions
designed to provide the best burning pattern.

3. PISTON
The piston transmits the force of the burning and expanding gases in the cylinder through the
connecting rod to the engine crankshaft. To obtain maximum engine life, the piston must be able to
withstand high operating temperatures and pressures and is usually made of aluminum alloy. It is
classified according to the type of piston head used.
The types of heads are,
 Flat
 Recessed
 Concave
 Convex and
 Truncated cone.
Grooves are machined around the outer surface of the piston to provide support for the piston rings.
The metal between the grooves is called a groove land or simply a land.
Functions of piston rings:

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 29

  To provide a seal to hold the pressures in the combustion chamber
 To prevent excessive oil from entering the combustion chamber
 To conduct the heat from the piston the cylinder walls.
Piston rings may be classified according to function as
 Compression rings
 Oil rings
The purpose of compression rings is to prevent gases from escaping past the piston during
engine operation. The compression rings are placed in the ring grooves immediately below the
piston head. The number of compression rings used on a piston is determined by the designer of the
engine, but mostly two or three compression rings for each piston.
The purpose of oil rings is to control the quantity of lubricant supplied to the cylinder walls and
to prevent this oil from passing into the combustion chamber. The two types of oils rings are
 Oil control rings
 Oil wiper rings (oil scrapper rings)
Oil control ring is to control the thickness of the oil film on the cylinder wall. The groove of the
oil control ring is often provided with holes drilled to the inside or the piston to permit excess oil to
be drained away. The oil flowing through the drilled holes provides additional lubrication for the
piston pins. Oil control rings are placed in the grooves immediately below the compression rings.
Oil wiper or oil scraper rings are placed on the skirts of the pistons to regulate the amount of oil
passing between the piston skirts and cylinder walls during each of the piston strokes.
4. CONNECTING ROD:
The connecting rod is the link which transmits forces between the piston and the crankshaft of an
engine that is it converting the reciprocating motion of the piston to a rotating movement of the
crankshaft in order to drive the propeller. The end of the rod connects to the crankshaft is called the
large end, or crankpin end and the end which connects to the piston pin is called the small end or
piston-pin end.
5. CRANKSHAFT
The crankshaft transforms the reciprocating motion of the piston and connecting rod to rotary
motion for turning the propeller. It is a shaft composed of one or more cranks located at definite
places between the ends. It is the backbone of an internal-combustion engine since it is subjected to
all the forces developed within the engine. During each stroke it rotates 180º.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 30

The following are the parts of crankshaft:
 Main journal
 Crankpin
 Crank cheek
 Counterweights
6. CAMSHAFT
A device for actuating the valve lifting mechanism is called cam. The camshaft is mounted along
the top of the cylinders and is driven by a system of bevel gears through a shaft leading from the
crankshaft drive gear. Usually there are a number of cam lobes sufficient to operate all the intake
and exhaust valves of the engine. The ramp on each side of the cam lobe is to reduce opening and
closing shock through the valve operating mechanism. The pushrod raises one end of the rocker
arm and lowers the other end, thus depressing the valve, working against the tension of the valve
spring which normally holds the valves closed.
7. VALVES
A valve is any device for regulating or determining the direction of flow of a liquid, gas etc by a
movable part which opens or closes a passage. The word ‘Valve’ is also applied to movable parts
itself. The main purpose of valves is to open and close ports, which are openings into the
combustion chamber of the engine. The intake port is to allow the fuel-air charge to enter the
cylinder; the exhaust port is to expel the burned gases from the cylinder. The shape and form of all
valves are determined by the design and specification of the particular engine in which they are
installed.
7.1. Exhaust valve: Exhaust valves operate at high temperature, and they do not receive the
cooling effect of the fuel-air charge. Therefore they must be designed to dissipate heat rapidly. This
is accomplished by making the exhaust valve with a hollow stem and in some cases with a hollow
mushroom head and by partly filling the hollow portion with metallic sodium. The face is made up
of a material called stellite (a very hard heat resisting alloy). The tip of the valve stem is made up of
high carbon steel so it can be hardened to resist wear because it is continuously receiving the impact
of the rocker arm.

7.2. Intake valve: The intake valves are not generally required for the intake port of an engine
because the intake valves are cooled by the fuel-air mixture. The intake valve stem has a hardened

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 31

tip similar to that of the exhaust valve. The intake valve for low power engines usually have flat
heads and for high power engines tulip heads are used.

7.3. Valve guides: The valve guides are positioned to support and guide the stems of the valve and
is made of aluminum bronze, tin bronze or steel.

7.4. Valve seats: The aluminum alloy used for engine cylinder head is not hard enough to with
stand the hammering produced by the opening and closing of the valves. For this reason bronze or
steel valves are shrunk are screwed into the circular edge of the valve opening in the cylinder head.

7.5. Valve springs: Valves are closed by helical-coil springs. Two or more springs one inside the
other are installed over the stem of each valve and they differs in pitch and also it reduces the
possibility of failure by breakage from heat and metal fatigue.

DIAGRAM:

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CRANKSHAFT

CONNECTING ROD

PISTON

PUSH ROD
GEAR

Topic group Topic Summary

The cylinder block is the largest part of the engine. Its
Cylinder upper section carries the cylinders and pistons. Normally,
Cylinder block
blocks the lower section forms the crankcase, and supports the
crankshaft.
Cylinder block Cylinder blocks made of aluminum are lighter than cast-

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 33

 iron blocks of the same size. They usually have cast-iron
construction liners which provide a hard-wearing surface for pistons
and piston rings.
Engine blocks & The major engine components include the cylinder block,
pistons cylinder head, pistons, connecting rods and crankshaft.
A dry sleeve can be cast or pressed into a new block or
used to recondition cylinders. A flanged, dry sleeve has a
Cylinder sleeves
flange to fit a recess in the block. A wet sleeve has an
outer surface directly exposed to coolant.
Grey iron is a cast iron that contains carbon in the form
Grey iron
of graphite, plus silicon, manganese and phosphorus.
The cylinder head bolts onto the top of the cylinder block
Cylinder heads Cylinder head where it forms the top of the combustion chamber. It
carries the valves and, in many cases, the camshafts.
Cylinder head combustion chambers are designed to help
Cylinder head improve the swirl or turbulence of the air-fuel mixture,
design and prevent fuel droplets settling on the surfaces of the
combustion chamber or cylinder walls.
Direct-injection diesels inject into the combustion
Diesel combustion chamber formed in the top of the piston. For indirect
chambers injection, the combustion chamber is a separate chamber
formed in the head.
Smaller intake and exhaust passages and ports allow
Intake & exhaust more torque at low engine speeds. At high speeds,
passages smaller passages restrict airflow. Larger passages
produce greater power at high engine speeds.
Gaskets form a seal by being compressed between
stationary parts where liquid or gas could pass. Gaskets
Gaskets
around a rotating part would quickly wear out. Oil seals
are used to seal these parts.

Gaskets and oil Gaskets can be made of soft materials such as cork or

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 34

 rubber, or they can be made of soft alloys and metals.
seals Most gaskets are made to be used only once. Oil seals
must also be replaced when a component is overhauled.
Head gaskets seal and contain the pressures of
Head gaskets combustion within the engine, between the cylinder head
and the block.
Turbulence refers to the swirling motion of a liquid or a
Turbulence
gas.
Valves & valve Engine valves control the intake and exhaust flow to and
Valves
trains from the combustion chamber.
A narrow valve seat is desirable because a thin circular
contact with the valve face forms an efficient seal. But a
Valve seats
wider seat transfers heat better from the valve to the
cylinder head.
In some cast-iron cylinder heads, valve seats are cut
Valve seats in
directly into the edge of the valve port. Valve seat inserts
cylinder heads
are metal rings that match the shape of the valve.
An operating valve tends to rotate and keep seating in a
new place. This helps keep its face and seat free of
Valve rotation
carbon, and reduce sticking in the valve guide. It also
spreads heat around the valve seat.
Coil springs normally hold valves on their seats. Their
coils are usually closer at the bottom than the top. Oil
Valve stem oil seals
seals on valve stems or guides prevent too much oil
passing into the combustion chamber.
Intake valves are usually larger than exhaust valves
because pressure forcing charge into the cylinder is much
Intake valves
lower than that forcing the exhaust gases out. Different
engines use different valve combinations.
Valve trains An overhead valve or pushrod system has the valves in
the cylinder head and the camshaft in the block near the

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 35

 crankshaft. Many engines use hydraulic valve lifters to
quieten the engine and eliminate valve clearance
adjustments.
The time valves in a 4-stroke engine cycle actually open
Valve-timing
and close can be measured by angles. These angles can
diagram
be easily read using a valve-timing diagram.
Valve overlap is the amount of time the intake and
exhaust valves are both open at once. Less overlap
Variable valve
produces a smooth idle and more slow speed torque.
timing
More valve overlap allows better engine breathing at
high speeds.
The camshaft can be cast or machined. It drives the
Camshafts & valves and the distributor. It has a cam for each valve.
Camshafts & drives
drives Some also have a cam known as an eccentric to drive the
fuel pump.
The overhead camshaft is located in the cylinder head.
Double overhead cam systems often use a bucket tappet.
Overhead camshaft
Some overhead cam engines use a hydraulic lash adjuster
to eliminate need for valve clearance adjustment.
The cam lobe opens a valve at the proper time and gives
it proper lift. It lets it stay open for a sufficient time, then
Cam lobes
lets it close at the proper time. Accurate valve timing is
crucial.
Timing belts and chains are used on overhead camshaft
Timing belts & engines, because the camshaft is further from the
chains crankshaft. Timing belts are quieter than chains but
usually require regular tensioning and replacement.
The toothed, or synchronous timing belt is used for
Timing belts &
driving camshafts, balance shafts, water pumps and
tensioners
diesel injection pumps.
Pistons Pistons The piston assembly transfers the force from the power

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 36

 stroke to the crankshaft. Its design depends on the type of
engine, its speed and compression ratio.
Piston rings keep a tight seal within the cylinder to stop
Piston rings the heat and pressure in there from escaping. They also
stop oil passing up into the combustion chamber.
The connecting rod joins the piston to the crankshaft. It is
fastened to the piston at its little-end by a piston pin, or
Connecting rod
gudgeon. It must be very strong, rigid, and as light as
possible.
An engine's compression ratio can be a guide to the
Compression ratio power it can generate, the higher the engine's
compression ratio and the more powerful the engine.
The crankshaft rotates in the main bearings in the
Crankshaft crankcase. Connecting rods are attached to offset areas
Crankshaft
assemblies called throws where the reciprocating motion of the
piston is changed into rotary motion.
Bearings support and protect rotating parts and let them
turn freely. Bearings can be either plain, usually called
Engine bearings
bushes, slippers or shells, or they can be anti-friction
with rolling balls or rollers.
The flywheel is mounted on the rear of the crankshaft. It
links the crankshaft to the transmission, through the
Flywheel clutch. With manual transmission, the flywheel is very
heavy, and its momentum helps smooth out engine
operation.
Reciprocating means going back and forth over the same
Reciprocating
path. Reciprocating action is used to make rotary action
action
and has many applications.
The crankshaft turns because of the forces transmitted
Crankshaft &
through the connecting rods. It is held in place by
bearings
bearings.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 37

 In the 4-stroke gasoline engine, the inlet and exhaust
Valve train
ports are opened and closed by valves. These valves need
overview
a system to control how they work.
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to
safely perform a cylinder compression test. Make sure
Engine
Testing cylinder the compression tester will safely handle the compression
component
compression of the engine you are testing. Diesel (CI) engines operate
procedures
at much higher compression pressures than Gasoline (SI)
engines.
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to
check and compare engine idle speed with the
Checking idle
manufacturer's specifications. Checking the idle speed
speed
can only be done with a tachometer, which measures the
engine revolutions per minute (rpm).
The objective of this procedure is to show you how to
retrieve, record and clear stored OBD I & II diagnostic
Obtaining & trouble codes using a scan tool. Remember, when
interpreting scan retrieving codes for an OBD I vehicle, clear the codes
tool data then start the vehicle and recheck for any codes that
reset. When diagnosing and OBD II vehicle, do not clear
the codes until the vehicle is repaired.
Cam belts are primarily used on overhead camshaft
engines. Always follow manufacturer's recommendations
Removing &
regarding cam belt change intervals and replacement
replacing a cam belt
procedures. The objective of this procedure is to show
you how to safely remove and replace a cam belt.
There are two types of drive belts: V-type and Serpentine
Inspecting &
type. The objective of this procedure is to show you how
adjusting an engine
to inspect and manually adjust engine accessory drive
drive belt
belts.

Replacing an Many vehicles require the technician to manually adjust

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 38

 the tension on the belt. Other vehicles have an automatic
spring tensioning system. Depending on the system used
on the particular vehicle, you should always follow the
engine drive belt
manufacturer's service instructions. The objective of this
procedure is to show you how to remove and replace an
engine accessory drive belt.

RESULT:

Thus we study about the aircraft piston engine.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 39

 STUDY OF FORCED CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER
Experiment no 09
OVER A FLAT PLATE

AIM: To determine the theoretical and actual heat transfer coefficient using forced convection
apparatus

INTRODUCTION
Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by the movement of
fluid particles relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid particles is caused by means of
external agency such as pump or blower that forces fluid over the surfaces, then the process of heat
transfer is called forced convection.
In convection heat transfer, there are two flow regions named laminar and turbulent. The
non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used as criterion to determine change from
laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller value of Reynolds number viscous forces are dominant and
the flow is laminar and for larger value of Reynolds numbers the inertia forces become dominant
and the flow is turbulent.
Flow over a flat plate is illustrated in Figure. The undisturbed fluid velocity and temperature
upstream of the plate are V∞ and T∞, respectively. The surface temperature of the plate is Ts and L is
the length of the plate in the direction of flow. The fluid may flow over one or both sides of the
plate

PROCEDURE

1) Switch on the mains and the console

2) Start the blower and control it so that the airflow is set to some desired value (say
3m/s)
3) Switch on the heater and regulate the heat input by operating the dimmer (50 V
and note down the current value). Wait for about 10-15 min to allow temperatures
to reach steady value.
4) Wait till temperature and airflow attains steady state condition.
5) Note down all the temperature readings, air flow, voltmeter, ammeter reading.
6) Repeat the experiment for different air flow and heat input

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 40

TABULAR COLUMN

S.No Voltmeter Ammeter Heat Manometer reading Velocity Temperature at dif positions of
Reading Reading Input Vair the plate
(V) (A) Q H1 H2 H2-H1 m/s T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

CALCULATIONS:
Surface temperature Ts=(T1+T2+T3+T4+T5)/5
Mean film temperature, Tf=(Ts+Ta)/2

√ ρ
Velocity of air flow Vair= 2 g (h 2−h 1)× water

Volume of air = Va = Cd×Aplate×Vair

ρair

Air velocity at ambient temperature = V = Va / Duct area

Velocity of air at mena film temperature = Vmf = V × Tf / Tambient
Reynolds Number = Re = Vmf Lplate / µ
Nusselts Number = Nu = 0.683 × Re0.466 × Pr0.333 ; Re<1×105
Nusselts Number = Nu = 0.683 × Re0.466 × Pr0.333 ; 1×105>Re
Heat transfer coefficient = h = Nu × k /Lplate
RESULT TABLE:
S.N. Air velocity Reynolds Convective Heat Convective Heat
in m/s (V∞) No. (Re) Transfer Coeff. hth (W/m2 0K) Transfer Coeff. hexp
(W/m2 0K)

RESULT
Thus the theoretical and actual heat transfer co-efficient using forced convection
apparatus are calculated.

STUDY OF FREE CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Experiment no 10
OVER A FLAT PLATE
AIM

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 41

 To find the surface heat transfer coefficient for a vertical plate losing heat by free
convection

THEORY
When a hot body is kept in a still atmosphere heat is transferred to surrounding fluid by free
convection. The fluid layer in contact with the hot body gets heated, rises due to the decrease in its
density and the cold fluid rusher in from bottom side. The process is continuous and the heat
transfer for place due to the relative motion of hot and cold fluid particles.

FORMULA USED
Rate of heat input, q = V × I
Surface area of heat transfer = As = L × B
Surface temperature = Ts = (T1+ T2 + T3+ T4 + T5+ T6 +T7)/7
Heat transfer coefficient = hexp=q / As (Ts-Ta)
Tf = (Ts + Ta) / 2
β = 1 / (Tf + 273)
Gr = gβL3(Ts – Ta)/ν2
Nu = hl /k =0.56(Gr Pr)1/4 for 105 < Gr Pr < 108
Nu = hl /k =0.13(Gr Pr)1/3 for 108 < Gr Pr < 1012
Gr – grashoff’s number – β g ∆T L3 / γ2
Pr – Prandtl number
ν – Kinematic viscosity
k – Thermal conductivity
Nu – Nusselts number = hL /k

TABULATION

S.No Voltmeter Ammeter Heat Ambient Temperature at different positions of

Reading Reading (A) Input Temp the plate
(V) Q Ta T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7

PROCEDURE

Switch on the unit and adjust the regulator to provide suitable power input.
Allow some time for the unit to reach steady state condition
Note the surface temperature (T1, T2 , T3, T4 , T5, T6 ,T7) and ambient temperature (Ta)
Note ammeter and voltmeter reading.
Repeat the procedure and take 3 sets of readings

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 42

 Calculate the theoretical and actual heat transfer co-efficient using the given formula

RESULT TABLE
S.No As hexp Gr Pr Gr . Pr Nu htheo
m2 W/m2K ×108 ×108 W/m2K

RESULT
Thus the theoretical and actual heat transfer co-efficient using natural convection apparatus
are calculated.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering 43