Chapter 10

USING OBSERVATION

Source: ScienceAid

The point of this chapter is to give the readers a chance to be acquainted to the idea of
observation. This chapter portrays the observational technique for unmistakable study and
examines the usefulness of it.

Learning Objectives:

1. Relaying the meaning of observation and its participation in research.

2. Learning how observation can be utilized in research.
3. Comprehension of the different kinds of observation method.
4. Explain the different means of recording information in conducting observation.
5. Describe the benefits of utilizing observation.

Overview:

1. Introduction.
2. Discussion on observation: a data collection method.
3. The different kinds of observation.
4. Structure of observation.
5. Utility of observation in research.
6. The value of observation.
7. The presence of rigour in observation.
8. How to conduct observation in research.

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1. Introduction

This chapter begins by tackling the concept of observation – a descriptive method for one
which is observation. It is one of the three known types of descriptive methods, the other being
the qualitative method and survey. However, this chapter puts more emphasis on observation due
to its purity in application. Observation is a precise data collection approach. Observation can be
a crucial aspect and technique in conducting research most significantly in a social sciences and
studies. Observation in other words data collection is a building block of the methodological
framework of the research paper.

When we start engaging on study in an area, it is a common approach to do ocular

investigation and examine first the research environment before doing actions that might
complicate things.  Researchers, as observers, use all of their senses in examining people or
animals in natural settings or normally occurring situations. However, simple and basic as it
sounds, observation is unpopular to some researchers particularly in sociology and psychology
due to its limitation in interaction and responsiveness. The limitation on the results of description
alone is a great disadvantage as researchers normally aspire to be able to do more. Observation
of a field setting involves the prolonged commitment by the researcher in a natural or social
setting. Recording one’s observation should be expressed spontaneously on the full
comprehension of the researcher and methodically transcribed in a manner of how observing is
performed.

2. Discussion on Observation: a Data Collection Method

In its simple literal form, observation is a method of

information gathering by means of watching an object of
research. This method shall take place where a minimum
participation of the observer and the object being observed
in a particular setting. Observation or data collection is
mainly made up of different stages and different types. In a
research setting, it starts with observation of the subject or
matter under research and investigation, noting down and
recording the data and what is being observed overall, and
in the end, understanding and critical analyzing what we
have observed and what we understand from it. The
observation data collection technique integrates exclusive
accessibility to investigate marvels, phenomena, and
behavioral patterns directly expressed by the one being
observed. In the meantime, this method can be hindered
with longer time requirements as the data needed will
Source: ScienceAid depend on the openness and voluntary volition of the
respondent. On the other hand, the high level of bias and
predisposition of the observer may impact the conduct of the observation.

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 Observation as a data collection method can either be structured or unstructured. The
information gathering that is directed utilizing specific variables is called the structured
observation. Some researchers name this as systematic observation due to its orderly manner by
having a pre-characterized plan of action. A script and outline of what the researcher needs was
already prepared beforehand. Unstructured observation is the exact opposite of the structured.
Applying this data collection method, the researcher has no pre-established objectives. The
observer is open at the beginning of the activity.

Observation as a data collection method can be designed in two ways - to produce

qualitative data and quantitative data. Qualitative research rides on social constructivism and
by doing so it allows for the research to explore while maintaining an organized structure where
it allows the reality to be different individually for everyone. It holds space for more than one
reality and perspective. It can be used to conduct studies during semi structured or unstructured
schedules. On the other hand, quantitative data has to be under stricter schedule for matters of
accuracy and validation and to avoid error this method is often carried out in a highly structured
observation schedules as there are a lot of data to record and process. The organizational
structure within this framework only holds space for a singular reality, and one that is objective
and does not consider individuality. 

Since the activity of observation permits the direct exposure to the respondent, issues to
certain ethical concerns might be related with the data collection strategy. The researcher must
follow a strict moral decorum in handling such an activity towards an individual or sample group
members. The output as expressed by the respondents should be accounted without negative
implications. When this happens, any issues that might affect the moral principles of the
samples, the intervention of a professional advisor should be demanded. Each step of the
observation process must be examined and assessed prior to the approval of the advisor.

3. The Different Kinds of Observation

The observation method to be followed depends on the degree to which the observer
controls or cooperates with the setting. The following list illustrates the three primary techniques
in observation selection as a method of collecting researcher data.

Table 10.1 Different Kinds of Observation

1 Non-participant Observation
2 Participant Observation
3 Covert Observation

Non-participant or Naturalistic Observation – As straightforward as the name suggests,

this technique is generally done in watching human or animals conduct. It happens in the regular
surroundings like nature, a habitat, or every day setting of participants. In a non-participant
observation, the researcher has no intervention whatsoever to the sample subjects. This type of
strategy is used from time to time to naturalistic observation. There is a limited collaboration
with the general population from the one who watches. For example, some information simply

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by looking at it can be collected subtly. In reality, the researcher normally strives to complete the
activity even if it would take him a lot of his time just to record and collect data.

Researchers who dwell a lot on how participants communicate frequently must analyze the
subtleties of how people talk and act together. The use of video recording, sound recording and
other modern recording devices can be a solution for non-participant observation. It gives the
researcher a direct personal view of body languages, speech formations, expressions and even
annoyances from the participant. Such eyewitness reports cannot be recorded in so many
complications and details if the researcher used pure observation. The recordings are also a good
tool to repeat the review in order to collect details not captured in the first instance of the
observation.

The advantage of this kind of strategy is its environmental legitimacy while the weaknesses
of this method are reflected upon the observations for the most part is performed on a little scale
with not enough size. As a result, the participants may not really be an illustration and
representation of the bigger populace. This method is increasingly hard to replicate in other
researches. Non-participant observation can provide a limited understanding of the meaning of
the social context one is thinking about. (Example: a researcher can use non-participant
observation to reflect on the behavior of preschool students in a playground during the recess
period.)

Participant Observation – This kind of observation occurs when the study is being done
from the perspective of those involved in what is being investigated. The researcher essentially
takes the role and some action in what is being observed and investigated hence the name
participant observation. The information or data that is gathered from the subject actively
participating in activities under research are recorded and that information is the data gathered.

The perception in utilizing the participant observation is that the researcher mediates in its
surroundings in some way. Usually, the observer joins the gathering as a member of the group.
This is done to get the chance to see practices and behaviors that may be somehow unavailable to
the researcher. The advantage of participant observation is that it gives a deeper knowledge to
the participants. The disadvantages are that it can be difficult to get the time and the protection to
record the observations. Furthermore, the researcher could prove to be "too close" and lose
objectivity, leading to predisposition and prejudice.

In some references, some analysts trace a change in the definition between observation and
observation of the participants. The distinction is that participant observation "consolidates the
investments in the life of the general population under consideration by maintaining a separation
of experts that allows a satisfactory perception and registration of information" (Fetterman,
1998). Participant observation emphasizes the role of the individual as a participant in the social
context of the person in question. The scope of the roles that can be interpreted as participating
observers was represented by Gold (1958), followed by Adler and Adler (1984) and others.
Bernard (1998) proposes that participant observation should be learned in the field. In any case,
it recognizes various skills related to the perception of the members.

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 Covert Observation – This kind of observation as the name suggests is sort of like a secret.
As the other two kinds of observation are performed in an obvious manner, covert observation is
hidden. The researcher is undercover and his true personality and goal are hidden. The subject
under research is not necessarily aware or has been told that they are being observed or what is
the purpose of their observation. They are often just studied in secret without knowing their
action or activities are under close study. This kind of observation however can lead to some
many ethical issues.

4. Structure of Observation

Observation as a data collection method can either be structured or unstructured. The

information gathering that is directed utilizing specific variables is called the structured
observation. Some researchers name this as systematic observation due to its orderly manner by
having a pre-characterized plan of action (refer to Table 10.2). A script and outline of what the
researcher needs was already prepared beforehand. Unstructured observation is the exact
opposite of the structured. Applying this data collection method, the researcher has no pre-
established objectives. The observer is open at the beginning of the activity.

Table 10.2 Different Ways of Using Observation

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 Structured Observation – Researcher is aware of what they want to investigate and designs
a fixed structure of observation and schedule to collect the data that's to be analyzed. It has a sub-
type which is called semi-structured observation. In this kind of structure observation the
researcher is somewhat aware of what needs to be observed and what type of data needs to be
gathered as shown in Figure 10.1. So they design a semi-structured process to extract the data.
The collected information is the data that needs to be analyzed later on.

Unstructured Observation – Researcher simply strolls the field of study and observes what
they can in order to form more defined opinions and perspective. The information absorbed or
observed are the data to be used in analyzing. Unstructured observation is used usually in cases
where areas being observed are too broad and activities to be studied cannot easily be defined.
This kind of observation is mostly used in the initial stages of study and ultimately has to lead to
a more specific and structured design. Its only purpose is to help identify the areas that should be
taken under investigation and almost always ends to remake into semi-structured observation or
structured observation. 

Figure 10.1 Structural approach of observation in research

5. Utility of Observation in Research

Observation in research is characterized as the strategy to scrutinize and the transcribing of

the activities and practices of the respondents. Said respondents can be taken from a sampled
group or participants from a select population. It has similarities as portrayed by a structured
observation method, which suggests that the techniques used in observing are reasonable and can
be replicated. The goal of using such methods of examination could be duplicated in any form of
observational research. As the word depicts, "observational" methods or techniques are all about
watching an object or in a much formal description of the respondents - the participants. The
observations are performed without subjecting the participants into a test or examination. There
are no pre-conditions and controlling factors to be set to the point of modifying the environment

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to influence the participants. Observers basically utilize the majority of their awareness, logic,
good judgement, and common sense to watch what is normally happening with the participants.

Observation in a research project is a very common pick as an appropriate method for

gathering data for a specific research objective. Listed down below are just some of its varying
reasons:

1. The statement of the problem is endeavoring to inquiries of "how" or "what type".

2. In the occurrence of a natural setting or scenario, the conduct of research is usually not
influenced. The gathering of information just comes out naturally.
3. At what moment it is essential to comprehend the place and scenario that the observation
is occurring in and how it could affect in its outcomes.
4. If an objective has not been recently contemplated, it might be ideal in any case
observation be set in a natural environment. This may give the hypothesis enough
grounds for further investigation and improvement.
5. The real conduct of the participants can possibly be not the same as what those
individuals may report in the event that they were inquired.

Figure 10.2 Settings of Observation (Source: ScienceAid)

Observation in a controlled environment or laboratory facility

This observation strategy is performed under controlled conditions, regularly in a research

facility or laboratory as shown in Figure 10.2. Controlled observations are obvious as the
researcher will clarify the motivation behind the examination and the members will realize they
are being observed. Each sample is presented as a comparison of a promotion so as to look at the

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contrasts between the individual answers. The advantage of this type of strategy is that the test is
repeatable and therefore can be examined for reliability. These examinations are regularly
sincere and can satisfy even a larger example estimate. The data collected is regularly coded so
as to be of a numerical nature which takes into consideration a less boring investigation of
information. The impediment to this type of strategy may have less legitimacy due to the impact
of Hawthorne, which expresses the fact that respondents can continue to behave differently when
they realize they are being seen. This is usually the case in a clinical context where a physician
like the observer is conducting sleep studies on trauma victims to analyze the effect of horrific
accidents on habits and sleep patterns.

Source: ScienceAid

Notwithstanding the sort of observational method utilized, the researcher must have an
arrangement for chronicling information. The sorts of information gathered may take numerous
structures:

1. Field notes written in narrative form – This is the most definite type of information
accumulation, yet additionally the most hard to break down and analyze.
2. Observation coding sheets – These observation registration structures can make it
possible to "codify" the observations of the practices so that they can be consigned in a
number. This makes both account and information examination a lot simpler.
3. Audio/Video Recording – It is frequently alluring to have recordings to allude back to as
the information is being analyzed. Sound/visual chronicles are regularly done related to
transcribed accounts.

Similarly, the researcher should decide the strategy to test and when to record the
information. In the sampling of events, the researcher identifies which practices are of interest
and records all events, ignoring other behaviors. With temporal sampling, observations occur for
predetermined periods, for example, 1 hour per day. Finally, instant sampling, choose, in
advance, specific occasions (occurrences) when observations will be conducted. The types of

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recording techniques and information sampling are fundamental for the repeatability of the
study.

Fieldnote Recording

Participant observers may utilize numerous strategies to acquire information. One simple but
effective technique is to write and compile fieldnotes. Setting up a template prior to conduct of
an observation is a good practice for the researcher. This will aid the user on how to account his
field observations. Utilizing a template is an important tool to guide a researcher's observations.
The practice of outlining the plan of action beforehand with the aid of formats or templates
(coding sheets) will greatly benefit the researcher particularly for unpracticed observers.
Theories and ideas can be guided by formats that will translate into a collection of targeted
information. Models can divert attention from anonymous classifications, unprecedented and
unexpected exercises that can be imperative to understand a phenomenon and a setting.

Source: ScienceAid

Utilization of an audio or video recording

In the event that a participant cannot avoid being seen in a closed environment, the observer
is not a participating eyewitness, and recording with the use of a video camera or audio recorder
is permitted, so this information recording approach might be suitable (common example is
doctor-patient experiences). By video recording, a setting will largely depend on what is
permissible in that environment. There are, however, a couple of things to remember:

1. Sound and video accounts manage the cost of the researcher the possibility of
translating what happens in a setting and reproducing it again and again. This can be
extremely useful in the investigation procedure.

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 2. Decisions about how to record observational information depend largely on the focal
point of the exploration application and the proposed analytical methodology.
3. Sound recording of a telephone counseling session bodes well in light of the fact that two
individuals (observer and participant) have access only to verbal correspondence.
4. If the objective of the researcher is to see how people continue to live together and the
general population referred to can be seen, then video recording could be prescribed. This
is the result of the significant role played by bodily conduct in our social strategies.
Without these visual data, the observer may not completely comprehend what is going on
(for example, doctor-patient experiences). Furthermore, it will be difficult to grasp the
subtleties of this conduct in the field notes.

6. The Value of Observation

Immersion and delayed inclusion in a particular environment can prompt the improvement
of compatibility and encourage free and open interaction between the observer and the
participant. A conducive setting shall permit a free flow of expression with ease.

Observation cultivates an inside and an outside that is rich in understanding a phenomenon

including the conduct of the members in that environment. Observation is a fundamental element
to create a spontaneous ability to capture the essence of what surrounds us and interpret its
effect. Observation can lead to the foundation of the hypothesis and the development of the
theory.

1. Observation allows the researcher to understand and capture the context in which people
interact.
2. Rather than guessing what the context is like, direct experience with an environment
allows researchers to open up to discovery.
3. Research can see things that usually escape the participant's awareness using a different
method.
4. It offers the possibility to learn things that people might not be willing to discuss in an
interview.

7. The Presence of Rigour in Observation

One quality that observation should have is rigour. In a setting of a research, it implies that
the research needs to thorough investigation while meeting and using strict standardized means
of gaining information. It needs to submit to scientific principles of investigation and research
along with systematic methods that are valid and have been in place already. The designed
methodology needs to collect sufficient and validated data to be considered as the appropriate
method to be used for the research. The key factors are defined well and clearly. Like matters
concerning population count have to be comprehensive and well suited to the study. If there are
samples used they must be appropriate and accurate to the population being studied. If

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limitations have risen, they need to be clearly stated and explained. The potential steps to
overcome those said limitations have to be discussed and outlined. The data gathering method
that's used also needs to be explained and validated. 

It is important that the field work involved is kept systematic and continually meets the
standards of scientific principles and research investigation in every step of the way.  The course
of the written research needs to follow an organized structure that goes over appropriately stored
or recorded information and a well critiqued analysis of the information. All that's stated above
requires the researcher to be a person who has the ability and skill set to produce that kind of
work. After all it will be very easily visible in the written paper in how students tackle the
writing and different parts of the research. If students are new in undertaking a research its very
good for them to acknowledge and seek help to gain access to proper guidance in finding their
way and voice in writing a well written and well voiced or mannered paper. Seeking guidance
can be intimidating for some but to be assured and reflected on their steps they can build a
beautiful foundation for their research topics. Remember you don't always have to climb a
mountain to know it’s tall. Sometimes it is brave and wise to call on the previously acquired
expertise of others in the field you will be working in. There is no shame in learning from those
who are masters in what you are trying to do. It can really build on the rigour and validity to
have your steps reviewed and analyzed. The reflection and guidance are all part of efficient
learning.

Another tool in increasing validity and rigour in a research paper is having a pilot study. A
pilot study is at its core built to test various parts of your research plan, from chosen setting to
methodologies used to collect data and to check the appropriateness of theoretical frameworks
involved. It fine tunes the instruments you have found and or designed in order to conduct your
study. For example, researchers often use pilot study to test the efficiency of their observation
style and method and schedule to see how sufficiently it can work in relation to the research and
the entire project. Following pilot study methods u can improve on your ways in senses you had
not thought possible. It is good practice of checking your tools and assumptions in regard to your
study and investigation.

8. How to Conduct Observation for Research

Observations are a significant research technique for managers, organizations, and

researchers alike to decide how individuals cooperate and carry on in various situations.
Observation can enable researchers to all the more likely figure out what individuals do given
various situations and ecological variables. Discussed below are the six steps for conducting
powerful observations for research.

1. Identify Objective - Observation is an old and traditional way of collecting data. First
step in observation as a way of data collection method is to know what it is you want to observe.
The data collected needs to enlighten or shed some light on a question or create an answer for a
problem. Figure out what you need to observe and why. Are hoping to perceive how
understudies react to a new environment? How clients connect with workers? How supervisors

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cooperate with subordinates? When leading observations, you are attempting to learn
propensities, designs, practices, responses, and general data about individuals in a specific
domain to all the more likely comprehend what they do and, ideally in the end, why they do it
(however observations alone frequently won't let you know the "why").

2. Gain Access – Observation can also be known as field research. Hence, access plays an
important role in how to identify the objective - access to the social community, different
organizations and or entities or some individuals and persons. Observation requires access not
only for observing the information but most importantly in preparing and design a way to carry
out the observation in regards to many different potential points to consider. Access can usually
be gained by writing or composing a formal letter to the officials of set organization in mind and
requesting for a permission or authorization to undertake their group for research. It is really
important to acquire permission before one moves onto or begins carrying out the observation.
Which I also believe is the polite and respectful thing to do which only adds to the integrity and
validity of your research. Furthermore, it is one way to also increase cooperation and sail through
steps with more ease and help from the community under the study. 

3. Establish Recording Method - It is regularly least powerful to video record observations

in circumstances where the general population being watched realize they are being filmed
(however it's typically dishonest to film without letting them know. Note-taking is the most well-
known strategy; however in some open spaces you can take photos, sound accounts, and
different techniques).

4. Develop Questions and Techniques - Decide if you are directing an informal or a formal
observation. Knowing your target, decide whether there are explicit inquiries you have or on the
off chance that you are going in totally receptive. What you would like to learn will enable you
to recognize what explicitly to search for. Be readied when entering an observation space by
having a sound comprehension of the kind of data you are attempting learn.

5. Observe and Take Notes - Visit the space you are planning to get data from. Be as subtle
as could reasonably be expected, taking notes, photos, sound, and film, just where it is permitted,
you have consent, and it bodes well for the examination without upsetting the environment. In
the event that you are doing formal observations, will you have to code certain practices,
activities, words, visuals, and other observed information.

6. Analyze Behaviors and Inferences - Separate the contrast between what you watched
(which are real practices) and why what you watched occurred. Normally, to comprehend your
observed information, you should be meeting individuals in nature you are watching, either
during the observation itself, or a short time later. Make associations between connections,
reactions, practices, and other phenomena.

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End of Chapter Questions

 Name the three different kinds of observation. Briefly explain each.

 Describe what you think are the strength and weaknesses of adopting observational methods
in a research project.
 How can audio and video recordings be useful in your research?
 In naturalistic, nonparticipant observation, how does the researcher perform an observation
without the knowledge of the participants?
 Which type of observational method would a researcher use if wanting to study the behaviors
of a cult or gang?
 A sleep study would be an example of what kind of observation.
 Which has more flexibility, naturalistic or laboratory observation?
 How do you define the term covert observation? Are there any possible ethical issues
concerning this method?
 Discuss one possible hindrance that observation could not provide output.
 Discuss the value of observation in a research project.

References

Adler, P.A and Adler, P. (1987). Membership roles in field research. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications.

Bernard, H.R. (1988). Research Methods in Cultural Anthropology. Newbury Park, CA:
Sage Publications. pp. 152-160.

Dudovskiy, J. (2018). The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: A

Step-by-Step Assistance. E-book.

Fetterman, D.M. (1998). Ethnography Step by Step (2nd Edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, pp. 34-35.

Gold, R. (1958). "Roles in sociological field observation."  Social Forces, pp. 36, 217-213.

Holloway, I. (1997). Basic Concepts for Qualitative Research. London: Blackwell Science.

Jackson, S.L. (2003). Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach, Fourth
Edition, Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. pp. 80-86.

Jackson, S.L. (2015). Research Methods: A Modular Approach, Third Edition,

Wadsworth/Cengage Learning

Nation, J.R. (1997). Research Methods, Prentice Hall. pp. 16-17, 276-283.

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