R2000 Operations Manual DESIGN STANDARDS C

C-1 INTRODUCTION

The Roads 2000 involves the maintenance and spot improvement of classified roads
using local resources where technically and economically feasible. As the majority
of the classified road network is unpaved (about 85%), the focus in terms of
establishing effective maintenance and carrying out spot improvement is on
unpaved roads.
The contents of this manual are partly standards (which as a general rule should be
the target by steady improvement over a period of time) and partly guidelines and
recommendations to be considered. In some instances special conditions may
demand modifications to these recommendations at the discretion of the DRE.
Individual roads for inclusion in the programme will be selected according to pre-
described procedures (prioritisation).

• For selection of roads to be included in the programme refer to

separate guidelines of the Roads 2000 Management of the MRPW.
• Where possible, roads will be maintained and spot improved to
standards based on the MoRPW Design Manual Part I
• For some road sections in hilly terrain or constrained by physical
obstacles lower geometrical standards and consequently lower
design speeds will apply

The improvement (partial rehabilitation) of roads will as much as possible follow the
existing vertical and horizontal alignment. Realignment will only be carried out
where there is a very strong technical or safety justification. This is to minimise the
earthworks and land acquisition, and to reduce the overall cost of the improvement
works.

The aim of the Roads 2000 Programme is to bring as much of the road network
under effective maintenance as quickly as possible and at low cost. Because of the
expense and logistics of gravelling, this will normally be restricted to spot
gravelling. Where more extensive regravelling is required due to poor subsoil or
high traffic, separate justification and funding should be sought under the Periodic
Maintenance programme. In many cases gravelling might also not be a durable and
cost effective solution. For such cases alternative surfacing options should be
considered, especially for trouble section, e.g. steep gradients, poor soils, where
the gravel source is far away or the gravel quality is poor, etc.
It will not be possible to bring all roads immediately to an “all weather” standard
with the funds and resources available. However, the pilot projects demonstrated
that it is more important that roads are provided with adequate drainage capable of
collection and discharging surface water rapidly. With limited resources it is more
cost effective to ensure adequate camber to the road and that the drainage system
is functioning by installing/improving culverts where necessary.

It is the DRE’s responsibility to ensure that the guidelines set

out in this module are adhered to.

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C-2 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

The vertical and horizontal alignment criteria for classified roads are specified in
order to make the roads safe and compatible with the “all weather” requirements.
The roads shall be maintained or steadily improved over time to meet the following
geometric design requirements where possible.

For A, B and C category roads, refer to the Road Design

Manual.

The Road Design Manual does also specify alignment standards for classified D, E
and Rural Access Roads. However, the following alignment standards have been
adjusted through the MRP to comply with labour-based construction and
maintenance methods and are therefore recommended for adoption in the Roads
2000 Programme:

Table C.1 – Alignment Standards

Standard: Flat and Rolling Hilly Terrain
Classified D, E and RARs Terrain
Horizontal Curves:
Desirable minimum radius 100m 50m
Gradients:
Desirable minimum 2% 2%
Desirable maximum 8% 10%
Absolute maximum 10% 12%
Stopping Sight Distance:
Desirable minimum 80m 80m
Absolute minimum 40m 40m

• The desirable minimum gradient is required for adequate drainage and the
absolute maximum gradient will be acceptable over a maximum length of 100m.
Most loaded vehicles would be unable to safely negotiate steeper gradients than
those given above on a gravel surface. If the absolute criteria cannot be
achieved, the Provincial Road Engineer should be consulted with a view to
considering options such as hairpin bends, alternative surfacings, etc, and the
erection of warning signs in advance of the hazard.
• Gradients and crossfall can be checked simply using an Abney level or line-and-
level.

The following Figures show how the horizontal radius of curvature and stopping
sight distance of an existing road alignment can be checked:

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Figure C.1 – Check Method: Radius of Curvature (Horizontal)

A To check the radius of a horizontal curve

on an existing road, establish 3 points
on the centre line of the road at 10-
B metre spacing: A, B and C.
us r

X
Radi

Stretch a string between points A and C

and measure the distance (in cm)
C
sr between this string and point B.
Radiu

This offset (x) is related to the curve radius by the formula:

R (in metres) = 5000

X (in cm)

Curve Radius (m) Offset x (cm)

50 100
100 50

If the centre line of the road is difficult to determine, use the line of the side ditch
as an approximation.

Figure C.2 – Check Method: Stopping Sight Distance

Stopping Sight Distances should be checked at hillcrests, on sharp curves and at

junctions using ranging rods. It should be possible to see the 10cm mark on the
target rod form 100cm on the sighting rod, throughout the road section. The
ranging rods are to be placed in the centre of the traffic lane in the more adverse
direction of travel.

If the desirable standards in Table C.1 cannot be achieved then warning signs
should be erected.

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C-3 CROSS-SECTIONS

Because Roads 2000 is primarily a MAINTENANCE programme, it is not possible to

set rigid standards for road cross-sections.
The following Table C.2 sets out the principle desirable dimensions for the cross
sections of the various categories of unpaved roads. As some minor roads have
never been properly constructed, the reduced width (temporary) cross section of
3.50 metres running surface may be used if the road reserve is restricted by
buildings, walls, trees or other obstructions.
Table C.2 – Cross Section Requirements;

CROSS SECTION REQUIREMENTS; UNPAVED ROADS

Overall Width Overall Width

Road Category + Running Cross
to Front of to Back of
Condition Surface Width Section
Ditches Ditches

A/B/C Main +
6.0m 8.4m 9.6m Standard
Secondary Roads
D/E Minor Roads,
5.4m 7.8m 9.0m Standard
Width Established
RAR Roads, Width
4.5m 6.5m 7.3m Standard
Established
Minor/RAR Roads,
3.5m 5.5m 5.5m* Temporary
Insufficient Width
* No ditch widening, only “V” ditch

Note:
• Paved roads should be maintained to their original constructed cross section.
• Cross-sections for the Main and Secondary Roads (A, B and C classification)
depend on the specific requirements of a particular road, mainly in terms of
traffic capacity.

For details on cross-sectional standards for Main and

Secondary Roads of classifications A, B and C seek advice
from the Design Section of the Roads Department, MRPW.

• Figures C.3 and C.4 set out the standard cross-sections to be maintained for
Minor Roads (D and E classification) and Rural Access Roads. The RAR cross
section is usually adequate for traffic of up to 20 vpd.
• Figure C.5 shows the cross-section to be applied for black cotton soil sections on
Minor Roads, Figure C.6 shows the embankment cross-section and Figure C.7
explains the superelevation.
• The measurements of the side ditches have been chosen to enable a constructed
camber crossfall of 8% to be achieved after compaction / consolidation, whether
there are one or two ditches. On sidelong ground the outer shoulder provides
sufficient material.
• Maintaining a reasonably steep crossfall is important especially if the road in not
gravelled. It is better to keep the crossfall steep to drain the surface and protect
its camber, rather than let vehicles rapidly destroy a flat, poorly drained camber.

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• The choice of cross section should be made at the Annual Work Plan stage. This
choice should be checked on site as works proceed.
• Many of the existing roads do not have an existing standard width over the
entire length of the road. Often the width is changing frequently. For Roads 2000
partial rehabilitation to be cost effective, it is advisable to only make minor
corrections to the existing width in order to avoid excess earth works.

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Figure C.3

CROSS SECTION (MINOR D OR E CLASS ROAD)

LABOUR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

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Figure C.4

CROSS SECTION (RURAL ACCESS ROAD)

LABOUR CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

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Figure C.5

CROSS SECTION;
BLACK COTTON SOIL SECTIONS ON MINOR ROADS

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Figure C.6

CROSS SECTION;
EMBANKMENT ON MINOR ROADS

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Figure C.7

CROSS SECTION;
SUPERELEVATION

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C-4 JUNCTIONS AND SIGNING

C-4.1 JUNCTION REQUIREMENTS

The alignment and crossfall on the Major Road remain unchanged through the
junction. The vertical alignment on the Minor Road should run smoothly in to the
Major Road crossfall. Crossfalls in the Minor Road junction splay are to be fixed to
ensure that surface water is shed effectively to the side drains. Side drains on the
Major Road should be re-routed to cross the Minor Road at the “neck” of the
junction splay, where the length of the culvert will be as short as possible.

Figure C.8

JUNCTION LAYOUT

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C-4.2 ROAD SIGNS

STOP sign (R1), or GIVE WAY sign (R2), must be placed at a junction to control
access from the Minor Road.
A warning sign (W27) (Road Junction Ahead) should be placed 50 – 75 metres
before the road junction and on the Minor Road.

For road sign construction details and requirements for other

warning signs see Volume II of the MRP Technical Manual.

Figure C.9; Road Signs

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C-5 RUNNING SURFACE

Gravel will be provided for roads where funding, physical resources and logistics
allow. Normally only spot gravelling will be feasible.
Where provided, gravel should be laid to a minimum compacted thickness of 10cm
on Rural Roads and 12cm on other roads.
In certain locations gravel material may be found insitu on the road, therefore
avoiding the need for a gravelling operation. In other locations good quality gravel
may be far away and thus the haulage costs can become very high, in many cases
even uneconomical as gravel layers have to be replenished every 5 to 6 years. In
such cases alternative surface options may be more economical.

For alternative surface options refer to G; Spot Improvement

The quality requirements are described in Road Design Manual and are further
specified in the contract document.
The minimum quality requirements for Gravel Wearing Courses may be defined
as follows (TRL guidelines):
Table C.3; Grading Table C.4; Plasticity
Grading Requirement After
Plasticity Requirement (PI)
Compaction
% by Weight
Sieve (mm) Zone Minimum Maximum
passing
40 100 Wet 5 20
28 95 – 100 Dry 10 30
20 85 – 100 Plasticity Index (PI) =
14 65-100 Liquid Limit (LL) minus Plastic Limit (PL)
10 55 – 100
5 35 – 92 Mechanical Stabilisation
2 23 – 77 If suitable natural gravel is not available, it may be
1 18 – 62 possible to achieve the above requirements by mixing
or mechanical stabilisation of different materials. The
0.425 14 – 50 requirements will apply to mixtures of natural gravel
and sand or up to 30% of stone (crushed or not)
0.075 10 - 40

Table C.5; Bearing Strength

Bearing Strength Requirement
Traffic DCP Equivalent
CBR
(Commercial VPD) (mm/Blow)
≥ 15 20 11
< 15 15 14
• California Bearing Ratio (CBR) at 95% Maximum Dry Density (MDD),
Modified AASHTO, and 4 days soak.
• Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) suing 60° cone.
• Commercial vehicles are defined as having an unladen weight of more than
15 KN.
• The lower quality material (CBR 15) may be accepted if not better material
can be economically found.

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For gravelling works the following construction procedures apply:

Min. thickness of • A, B, C, D and E Roads = 12cm

compacted layer: • Rural Access Roads = 10cm
• Black Cotton Section = 24cm (two layers of 12cm)
Processing: Use of roller or sledgehammer may be necessary to break
down oversize material.

Compaction: Minimum Dry Density = normally 95% MDD (Modified

AASHTO)
Higher relative compaction may be specified, to increase
bearing strength, provided the nodule hardness is adequate
Compaction moisture content = between 80 and 105% OMC
(modified AASHTO)

• For compaction equipment and recommended thickness of

compaction layers refer to Module E; Partial Rehabilitation
Works, Section F-2.6 Compaction
•

Where reliable testing facilities are available, gravel material should be tested
against the criteria given in the Roads Department, Road Design Manual. However,
in practice it is usually not possible to organise testing of all gravel surfacing
material.

Practical guidelines on how to test material in the field is

detailed in the MRP Technical Manual, Module J; Gravelling
Works.
The summary requirements as shown in tables C. 3, 4 and 5 have
been extracted from the MORPW Road Design Manual, Part III,
Materials and Pavement Design for New Roads. They have been
modified for Roads 2000 requirements.

Particular situation may require that more gravel be placed on the road than the
minimum thickness quoted above. The reasons for this include:
• Weak Insitu Soil: Certain soils require a greater thickness of gravel to spread
the traffic load to remain within the bearing capacity of the soil, especially when
moist (e.g. Black Cotton Soil).
• High Traffic: High traffic will cause faster gravel loss.
• Steep Sections: Rate of loss of gravel on section steeper than 8% is
significantly higher than on flatter road sections.
On such problem road sections the recommended thickness of gravel is 20cm
compacted.

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The Transport Research Laboratories (TRL) estimates the annual gravel loss to be:
TA 2
G = F(4.2 + 0.092TA + 3.5R f + 1.88VC) 2
( TA2 + 50 )
Where TA = total annual traffic in both directions measured in thousands of vehicles
Rf = annual rainfall in metres
VC = average percentage road gradient
F = 1.5 for coral gravels / 1.29 for lateritic gravels / 1.51 for quartzitc gravels / 0.96 for
volcanic gravels / 1.38 for sandstone gravels
Gravel Loss is measured in mm/year

The following Figure illustrates the gravel loss relationship graphically:

Figure C.10; Example Annual Gravel Loss

It should be remembered that a residual thickness of gravel must remain on the

insitu soil for the gravel surfacing to function properly.

Alternative surfacing options may be used for problem

sections. These are described in Module G; Spot Improvement.
These surfacing options should be used when the steep
gradient limits set out in Section C.2 cannot be adhered to,
when gravel haulage distances/costs are excessive, or in
other special situations, such as in urban areas.

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C-6 DRAINAGE AND STRUCTURES

The drainage system is the most important feature of the road under the Roads
2000 Programme. Roads that become impassable usually do so because of poor
drainage.
Drainage consists of side drains, mitre drains (or turnout drains), culverts, catch
water drains and scour checks.

For description and details refer to Module A, Section A-1

Figure A.3 and Section A-2 Definitions and Terms

It is essential that adequate provision be made throughout the road to efficiently

collect and discharge rainwater falling onto the area of the road. Rainwater should
be discharged as frequently as possible to minimise erosion damage to the road,
the drainage system and to the adjoining land. Discharge should be Little and
Often.
• As a general rule mitre drains should be provided every 20 metres, where
possible. This ensures that the quantity of water being discharged at each mitre
drain is small, and does not cause erosion damage in the drainage system or on
the adjoining land. Where it is difficult to place mitre drains frequently, attention
should be paid to providing at least one drainage outlet for a side ditch (using a
mitre drain or culvert) every 100 metres. The maximum distance between side
drain outlets should normally not exceed 200 metres. It is not possible to meet
this requirement, erosion control measures, such as ditch widening and lining,
should be considered.
• Concrete culvert rings are to be provided to allow water to cross from one side
of the road to the other. Due to maintenance problems with smaller sizes, the
standard rig size is 60cm diameter. As a general guide, it is evident that many
existing culverts are either too small (in diameter) or installed too low.
As part of the partial rehabilitation exercise, it will probably be necessary to
replace or rebuild at least one culvert per km of unpaved road. The road should
not be ramped up steeply over the culvert to form a hump. This would be
unacceptable for classified roads on grounds of safety.
The levels of the culverts must be fixed with careful consideration of the existing
watercourse levels. The objective is to make the least change to the vertical and
horizontal alignment of the watercourse. The vertical levels of the road should be
adjusted, if necessary, up to 30 metres either side of the culvert to achieve a
smooth vertical alignment. Minimum cover to the culvert should be ¾ of barrel
diameter (i.e. 45cm minimum cover for 60cm pipe).
Permanent or seasonal watercourses may need large (90cm diameter) multiple
culverts or other structure solutions.
• Often drifts, vented drifts or box culverts are ideal structures for Rural
Access and Minor Roads. They are relatively ease to construct, are cost effective
and nearly maintenance free. The DRE should specify these alternative
structures in consultation with the Provincial Roads Engineer.

For simple and low cost structures also refer to the MRP
Structure Manual and to the TRL Manual ORN 9; Design of
Small Bridges.

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• Where vehicle access is required to land or properties adjacent to the road, the
ditch should be lined with stone pitching or a small culvert (30/45cm
diameter) should be provided.
• Scour checks are to be provided in side ditches of gradient greater than 4%
according to the following guidelines.

Table C.6; Scour Check Spacing

Scour Check Spacing
Gradient of Road Scour Check Spacing
4% or less Not required
5% 20m
8% 10m
10% 5m

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