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A Computer Network is a collection of interconnected autonomous computing devices in such a
way that they can exchange information or share resources.

Advantages of Networks Disadvantages of Network

1. Resources such as printers, scanners may 1. The system becomes more sophisticated
be easily shared with multiple devices. and complex.
2. Storage sharing also becomes possible. 2. If networks are badly managed, services
3. It also provides us the way to store share may become unstable.
software. 3. In case of central server fail, every
4. It also provides us a way to improve communication fails.
communication. 4. File security becomes more important
when online connected with internet.
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Components of a Computer Network
Major components of a Computer Networks are:
a. Host/Nodes ( Such as PC, Laptop, Smartphone )
b. Servers
c. Client
d. Network Hardware ( NIC, Router, Switch, Hub etc.)
e. Communication Channel (Cables, radio links etc.)
f. Software (Protocols, Network Operating System etc.)
g. Network Services (BNS, File Sharing etc)
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Components of a Computer Network
a. Host/Nodes ( Such as PC, Laptop, Smartphone )
Host or node refers to the computers that are attached to a network. It is also called as
workstation.
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Components of a Computer Network
b. Server
A server is a computer that provides services to the client i.e. Host/Nodes/Workstation.
A server facilitates sharing of data, resource sharing, communication etc.
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Components of a Computer Network
c. Clients
Client computer is a host computer that requests for some services from a server.
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Components of a Computer Network
d. Networking hardware
Networking requires specialized hardware to carry out various roles. There are different
types of hardware that are required in network. Some of the hardware that are required in a
network are:
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Components of a Computer Network
d. Networking hardware
a. NIC Card – It is a device which is connected to the host so as to establish Internet
connection. It is sometimes also called to be as LAN Card.
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Components of a Computer Network
d. Networking hardware
b. Hub/Switch/Router: These are the connectivity devices.
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Components of a Computer Network
e. Communication Channel:
Hosts in network are connected with each other and server using communication channel
or communication medium. Communication medium is divided into two parts:
a.Wired/Guided Communication Channel
b.Wireless/Unguided Communication Channel
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Components of a Computer Network
e. Communication Channel:
a. Wired/Guided Communication Channel: When hosts are connected with one another
through network cables, then it is called wired/guided communication channel. The Various guided
communication medium are: twisted-pair, coaxial cable, fiber optics cable etc.
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Components of a Computer Network
e. Communication Channel:
a. Wireless/Unguided Communication Channel: When hosts are connected with one
another through unguided media like radio waves, satellite, infrared, laser etc, then it is called
wired/guided communication channel. The Various guided communication medium are: radio waves,
satellite, infrared, laser, microwaves etc.
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Components of a Computer Network
f. Software
The software layers of network make networking possible. This consists of network
software and network protocols.
Network protocol is a set of rules using which data will be transferred from one place to
another place.
A Network operating system is a special operating system that can handle networking.
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Components of a Computer Network
g. Network Services
These refers to the applications that provides different functionalities over network such
as DNS (Domain Name System), File sharing,VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) etc.
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Types of Network
A network can be small group of linked computers to a chain of hundreds of computers of
different types spread around the world. Thus network vary in size, complexity and geographical
spread.
1. Types of Network Based on network span or geographical spread, network can be divided
into three basic types:
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3.WAN (Wide Area Network)
2.Types of Network Based on Communication Channel:
1.Wireless Computer Network
2.Wired Communication Network
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Types of Network
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
Small computer network that are confined to a local area viz an office, a building or a
factory, an university, a college are known as Local Area Network. The main purpose of LAN is to
share resource, hardware, printers etc. On most LAN’s, cables are used to connect the network
interface card.
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Types of Network
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Metropolitan Area Network is an another type of network which refers to a network that
is spread over an area as big as a city.
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Types of Network
3.WAN (Wide Area Network)
Wide Area Network is an another type of network which refers to a network that is
spread across the countries.
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LAN Vs MAN Vs WAN
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Types of Network
A network can be small group of linked computers to a chain of hundreds of computers of different
types spread around the world.Thus network vary in size, complexity and geographical spread.
1. Types of Network Based on network span or geographical spread, network can be divided into
three basic types:
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3.WAN (Wide Area Network)
2. Based on Component Roles
1. Peer to Peer Network
2. Client/Server Network
2.Types of Network Based on Communication Channel:
1.Wireless Computer Network
2.Wired Communication Network
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Types of Network (Role played by network computers in the network operation):
1. Peer to Peer Network: In its simplest form, a peer-to-peer (P2P) network is created
when two or more PCs are connected and share resources without going through a
separate server computer
2. Client/Server Network: A computer network in which one centralized, powerful
computer (called the server) is a hub to which many less powerful personal computers
or workstations (called clients) are connected.
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Difference between peer to Peer and Client Server Network
Client / Serer Network Peer to Peer Network
Server has the control ability while clients don’t. All computers have equal ability.
Higher cabling cost. Cheaper cabling cost.
It is used in small and large networks. Its is use in small networks only.
Easy to manage Hard to manage
Installation of software is done only in the server Software has to be installed in every computer.
while client share the software.
One powerful computer acting as server. No server is needed.
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Types of Network
A network can be small group of linked computers to a chain of hundreds of computers of
different types spread around the world. Thus network vary in size, complexity and
geographical spread.
1. Types of Network Based on network span or geographical spread, network can be
divided into three basic types:
1. LAN (Local Area Network)
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3.WAN (Wide Area Network)
2. Based on Component Roles
1. Peer to Peer Network
2. Client/Server Network
3.Types of Network Based on Communication Channel:
1.Wireless Computer Network
2.Wired Communication Network
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Types of Network
2.Types of Network Based on Communication Channel:
1.Wired Computer Network
2.Wireless Communication Network

1. Wired Network: In wired computer network, the hosts and other devices are interconnected
through wiring or cables.. Most wired computer networks are of LAN type. Most commonly
used wired networks are:
a.Twisted Pair Cable
b. Coaxial Cable (Coax)
c. Fiber Optic Cable ( Optic Fiber Cable)
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Types of Network
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Types of Network
2. Types of Network Based on Communication Channel:
1.Wired Computer Network
2.Wireless Communication Network

1. Wireless Network: The computer network that uses air as media for the transmission is
referred to as wireless network.
Most commonly used transmission media are:
a. Microwave
b. Radio waves
c. Satellite
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Types of Network
a. Microwave:
Microwave waves are high frequency waves that can be used to transmit data wirelessly
over long distances. It consists of transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere.
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Types of Network
a. Radiowave:
Radio waves are used to transmit television and radio programs. It uses continuous sine
waves to transmit audio, video, data. WiFi that has become a common word today uses radio
waves.
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Types of Network
a. Satellite (Satellite Microwave):
The satellite accept data/signals transmitted from an earth station, amplify them, and
retransmit them to another earth station.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
1. NIC (Network Interface Card)
2. WiFi Card
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway
8. Access Point
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
1. NIC (Network Interface Card)
NIC is a device that is attached to each of the workstations and the server and helps the
workstation establish connection with the network. The NIC is also called Terminal Access Point
(TAP) or Network Interface Unit (NIU).
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
MAC Address
The NIC manufacturer assigns a unique physical address to each NIC card which is called
as Media Access Control address i.e. MAC Address. It is a 6 byte address separated by colon:
10:C5:08:36:3E:CF
The First three are Manufacturer ID assigned to the manufacturer by IEEE.
(Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers )
The last three are Card-no which is assigned by the manufacturer.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
2. WiFi Card
A WiFi card is either an internal or external Local Area Network adapter with built in
wireless radio and antenna. It is also used to connect with the internet without having hard line
network access.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
3. Hub
A hub is a hardware device having multiple port which is used to connect several
computers together. A similar term is concentrator. A concentrator is a device that provides a
central connection point for cables from workstations, servers and peripheral devices. Hubs can be
either active or passive.
1. Active Hub:Amplifies the signal as it moves from one connected device to another.
2. Passive Hub:Allow the signal to pass from one computer to another without any change.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
4. Switch: A switch is an intelligent hub. Like Hub, Switch has also multiple port which is used to
connect several computers together.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
Difference between Switch & Hub:
1. A hub works on the physical layer (Layer 1) of OSI model while Switch works on the data link
layer (Layer 2).
2. Switch is more efficient than the hub.
3. Switch is smarter than hub to determine the target of the forwarding data. Since switch has a
higher performance, its cost will also become more expensive.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
5. Bridge:
A bridge is a network device that connects multiple LANs (local area networks) together
to form a larger LAN. The process of aggregating networks is called network bridging. A bridge
connects the different components so that they appear as parts of a single network.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
6. Router:
A Router is a network device that forwards data from one network to another . Routers
perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
7. Gateway:
A Gateway is a network device that connects dissimilar networks. It establishes an
intelligent connection between local and external networks with completely different structure.
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NETWORK DEVICES/HARDWARE
8.Access Point:
An access point is also called a wireless access point (WAP), is a hardware device that
establishes connections(s) of computing devices on wireless LAN with a fixed wire network. It is
connected to a fixed wire network and it then broadcasts wireless signals. It receives as well as
transmits data and hence called transceiver.
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THE CLOUD
The term cloud was coined to refer to the collection of servers. The cloud is a generic term used
for Internet.
Cloud computing is Internet-based computing, whereby shared resources, software, and
information are provided to computers and other devices on demand. The “cloud” represents the
Internet. Cloud computing services are delivered through a network, usually the Internet.
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Types of Cloud
There are different types of cloud and depending upon need, one may take its services. The four
models of cloud are:
1. Private Cloud
2. Public Cloud
3. Community Cloud
4. Hybrid Cloud
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Types of Cloud
1. Private Cloud
The clouds that are for exclusively used by a single organization and controlled, managed
and hosted in private data centers are called Private Cloud. Private cloud remains for the exclusive
use of one organization.

2. Public Cloud
These are the clouds for use by multiple organizations on a sharing basis
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Types of Cloud
3. Community Cloud
These are the clouds for use by a group of related organization. This may be different
branches of military, universities etc.

4. Hybrid Cloud
When a single organization adopts both private and public clouds for a single application
in order to take advantage of both types of cloud, it is called Hybrid Cloud.
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INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)
IoT is a technology that connects the things to the Internet over wired or wireless connections.
Here the “Things” refer to every smart device of today’s age i.e. computer, smart phone, home
appliances, wearable, vehicles etc.
IoT allows people and things to be connected Anytime, Anyplace with Anything and Anyone using
Any path/network.
IoT is a phenomenon that connects the things (the smart devices) to the internet over wired or
wireless connections.
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Enabling Technologies for (IoT)
IoT is a phenomenon that can connect a variety of devices to Internet. To make it possible different
technological concepts are implemented together.These are called Enabling Technologies for IoT.
1. RFID
2. Sensors
3. Smart Technologies
4. Software
5. Efficient Network connectivity
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Enabling Technologies for (IoT)
1. RFID – It stands for Radio Frequencies Identification. This technology is designed to use radio
waves to read and capture information on a tag, called an RFID tag.
An RFID tag is a small microchip attached to an antenna. It identifies and tracks the data of the
“things”.
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Enabling Technologies for (IoT)
2. Sensors
A Sensor is a device that is able to detect changes in an environment. It is able to read and
measure physical phenomena viz temperature, pressure etc. Most common types of sensors used
in IoT are:
a. Temperature Sensor
b. Proximity Sensor
c. Pressure Sensor
d. Motion Detection Sensor
e. Smoke Sensor
f. Gas Sensor etc
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Enabling Technologies for (IoT)
3. Smart Technologies
Smart Technologies are the need of the hour, i.e. turning off or on a devices, stopping a
vehicle, locking/unlocking a door, adjusting the temperature etc.

4. Software
The software provides the reusable solution for connecting, taking actions and solving
issues that may arise.

5. Efficient Network Connectivity

IoT is formed through interconnections of devices to the Internet. Hence, the connectivity
is very important
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Devices that can for IoT

Any device that has a RFID tag, can be a part of IoT.

a. Home Appliances: Fridges, Cookers, Coffee Makers, Heaters,TVs, Lights, doors, windows etc.
b. Wearables: Clothes, shoes, hats, watches, heart monitors etc.
c. Vehicles: Cars, buses, bicycles, train etc.
d. Factories: Machines, robots, warehouse shelves etc.
e. Agriculture: Biochip transponders on farm animals and plants, farm humidity and temperature
sensor
f. Food: Sensors for monitoring the condition of the food
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Modulation Techniques

Radio waves and microwaves etc are used for carrying data or messages. How these waves carry
messages, is the result of a particular technique called modulation.
Modulation is a process of changing the characteristics of the wave to be transmitted, i.e.,
the carrier wave, by superimposing the message signal of a high-frequency signal.
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Modulation Process

A carrier wave by itself doesn’t carry much information, to include a message, another wave, a
message signal that carries the data to be transmitted, needs to be imposed on top of the carrier
signal.This process is termed as modulation.
The super imposing of message signal and carrier wave results into a new wave called the
modulated wave.

Major types of Modulation:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
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Collision in Wireless Networks

Many devices (nodes) are connected with one wireless network. If multiple nodes on the same
network transmit data at the same time, it leads to a condition called collision and data gets lost. In
a computer network, collision is a specific condition that occurs when two or more nodes on a
network transmit data at the same time.

It is something like when two or more people are quarrelling with each other and speaking at the
same time, but no one is listening to no one.
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Half-Duplex and Full Duplex Communication

The type of communication which is two way communication where sending and receiving takes
place simultaneously, is called FULL DUPLEX communication.
The type of communication which is one way communication where either sending or receiving
only one takes place at the same time, is called HALF DUPLEX communication.
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Half-Duplex and Full Duplex Communication

If collision occurs, wireless network can not detect in a wireless network it cannot listen while
transmitting means wireless network uses Half Duplex communication medium. Thus, for wireless
networks, strategies are adopted that avoid collision rather than detecting it. Wireless networks
implement it using a special protocol called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Avoidance).
Wired network used collision detection methods such as CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection) as wired networks are FULL DUPLEX and hence can receive item
while transmitting.
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How CSMS/CA Works?

The basic principal of CSMA/CA is described as:

1. Node ready to transmit/talk.
2. Listen other nodes, if any transmission is taking place, one of the two possibilities are:
a. Busy:
i) Increase back off / wait time (Called BEB (Binary Exponential Backoff))
ii). Sleep as per BEB
iii) Wake up and go to step 1.
b. Free:
i) Send Message
ii) Verify whether transmission took place correctly or not using.
a.ACK (Acknowledgement) Method
b. Request to send/Clear to send (RTS/CTS) Method
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CSMS/CA with ACK (Acknowledgement) method:

The ACK signal is generated by the receiver node, only if the data frame is received in valid form
withing a specific time frame.
If the sender node does not receive ACK in specified time, it considers it as a failed
transmission and retransmits the data.
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CSMS/CA with RTS/CTS (Ready to Send/Clear to send) method:

In this method, the sender node first sends an RTS signal to its receiver. Receiver confirms the
readiness to receive by sending a CTS signal to the sender as well as all other nodes.
a. Other nodes upon receiving a CTS will now not transmit (will wait) as they now know
that some transmission is taking place and communication channel is busy.
b.The sender node upon receiving a CTs goes ahead with transmission
Once the transmission ends, the receiver node sends ACK signal to all nodes.
a.The sender node takes ACK as confirmation of successful transmission.
b. Other nodes take ACK signal as end of transmission and can resume their work.
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Error Checking (Error Detection)

While transmitting data over network, some error may occur and data may get corrupted. This
means that intended data has not reached the receiver node and hence it is an error.
The error may be of the following types:
1. Single-bit error: If only one bit of the transmitted data got changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
2. Multi-bit error: If two or more nonconsecutive bits in data got changed from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0.
3. Burst Error: If two or more consecutive bits in data got changed from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0.
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Error Checking (Error Detection)

To avoid such errors in transmission, Error Detection or Error Checking methods are used in
computer networks that ensure if the received packet is error free or not.
The most commonly used methods are:
1. Single Dimensional Parity Checking
2. Multi Dimensional Parity Checking
3. Checksum
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Error Checking (Error Detection)

1. Single Dimensional Parity Checking

Parity refers to an additional bit added to the actual data. Single dimensional parity check
takes place as per the following steps:
a. Number of 1’s is counted in the actual data limit
10110111 => Here number of 1’s is 6 i.e. even
11001011 => Here number of 1’s is 5 i.e. odd
b. Add an extra bit (either 0 or 1), called the parity bit to actual data so that the number of 1’s
along with the extra bit become even or remain even.
10110111
11001011
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Error Checking (Error Detection)

c. Now the data is transmitted.

d. Now, from the data which has been received exclude the parity bit and again either add 0 or 1 to
make 1’s appearing even number of times. Now, if the received parity bit matches, then we can say
the transmission was successful and if not, the information received is rejected and the receiver
node will not send the ACK signal.
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Advantages of single dimensional parity checking

1. Being simple mechanism, it is easier to implement.

2. It is an inexpensive technique

Disadvantages of single dimensional parity checking

1. It can detect only one bit errors.
2. If two bits gets changed then it can’t detect the error as parity bit will match that time even.
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Error Checking (Error Detection)

To avoid such errors in transmission, Error Detection or Error Checking methods are used in
computer networks that ensure if the received packet is error free or not.
The most commonly used methods are:
1. Single Dimensional Parity Checking
2. Multi Dimensional Parity Checking
3. Checksum
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Two Dimensional Parity Checking

This is an enhanced version of single dimensional parity checking technique. This technique works
with multiple data units simultaneously.
Let’s understand it with an example:
Supposer data to be transmitted is:
11010001, 0010000, 00111100, 10010001
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Two Dimensional Parity Checking

Steps:
a. Arrange the data being sent a table:
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
b. add the parity bit.
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
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Two Dimensional Parity Checking

Steps:
c. Now the data will be transmitted.
d. Again, at receivers end, we need to calculate the parity bit and if it matches, the data transfer is
successful otherwise not.
1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
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Two Dimensional Parity Checking

Advantages:
(i) It is more efficient than single dimensional parity technique.
(ii) It can detect multiple bit errors also.
Disadvantages:
(i) It can’t detect compensating multiple bit errors.
(ii) It can’t detect 4 or more bit errors in some cases.

1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
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Error Checking (Error Detection)

To avoid such errors in transmission, Error Detection or Error Checking methods are used in
computer networks that ensure if the received packet is error free or not.
The most commonly used methods are:
1. Single Dimensional Parity Checking
2. Multi Dimensional Parity Checking
3. Checksum
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Checksum

The Checksum technique is used to ensure data integrity at the receiver end when data is being
transferred from source to destination. It is the sum of data bits calculated from digital data. It is an
error checking method which ensured data integrity. Before going ahead, one may
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Checksum Technique Steps
At the sender’s node the following tasks are completed:
1. Divide the data into equal size segment, where each segment contains m number of bits.
Suppose the following data sheet is being transferred:
10110011 10110011
10101011 + 10101011
01011010 101011110
11010101 + 1
01011111
2. Add all the data and wrap around extra bits: + 01011010
10111001
+11010101
110001110
+ 1
10001111
3. Complement to find the Checksum: 01110000
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Checksum Technique Steps
At the receiver’s node the following tasks are completed:
1. Add all the data and wrap around same as sender’s node:
10110011 10110011
10101011 + 10101011
01011010 101011110
11010101 + 1
01011111
2. Now add the received checksum the final answer: + 01011010
10111001
+11010101
110001110
+ 1
10001111
3. Complement it and if answer is all 0, it’s all OK. 01110000
11111111
00000000
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TCP / IP

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It is a communication standard that is responsible
for exchanging messages over network. TCP is the most commonly used protocol withing digital
network communications and ensures end-to-end data delivery.
TCP organizes data so that it can be transmitted between a server and a client. It also
guarantees the integrity of the data being communicated over a network. Before it transmits data,
TCP establishes a connection between sender and receiver and ensures that this connection is live
until communication is done.
An alternative to TCP is UDP (User Datagram Protocol), which is used to establish low-
latency connection between applications and speed up transmission but is less reliable but less
expensive.
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TCP / IP

IP stands for Internet Protocol. It is the method for sending data from one device to another
across the internet. IP is responsible for defining how devices exchange packets of data with each
other.
IP is the main protocol withing the internet layer of the TCP/iP. It’s main purpose is to
deliver data packets from source to destination.
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TCP VS IP

TCP and IP are separate protocols that work together to ensure data is delivered to its intended
destination within a network. IP obtains and defines the address—the IP address—of the
application or device the data must be sent to. TCP is then responsible for transporting data and
ensuring it gets delivered to the destination application or device that IP has defined.
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Addresses on a Network

On a network, there a various addresses that plays various roles:

a. Web addresses (URL)
b. IP Address
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Addresses on a Network

Web Addresses (URL – Uniform Resource Locator)

The location of a server on the Internet is called Web Address. Web address is an address that
indicates the address of a server on the internet. That server many be of any type viz Search
Engine, E-mail Server, File Server, a website etc.
Each website has a unique address called URL(Uniform Resource Locator). If we take a
examples, the web address or URL of CODEITUP YouTube Channel is :
https://codeitup.in
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Addresses on a Network

Any URL looks like:

type://address/further_path
For Example:
http://codeitup.in/courses
Here,
1. https stands for hypertext transfer protocol secure which is a set of rules for data
transfer.
2. codeitup.in is the address of the server (website)
3. /courses is an another page associated with the same website.
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Elements of a URL

A URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is an address of a file / resource on the internet. The elements
of URL are:
1.The type of server viz. http, https,ftp
2.The name/address of the server on the Internet
3.The associated files on the server
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IP Address

Any device connected to the internet contains a unique address called IP Address (Internet
Protocol). The IP address is nothing but unique series of numbers, which uniquely identifies a
computer on the internet. It is something like mobile number, means every mobile has some
specific mobile number.
Each IP address is a series of four numbers separated by dots. For example 216.27.61.137 is an IP
address having four number separated by (.) dots. This representation of IP address is called dotted
decimal form but the computer will internally convert them into Binary Format.
Dotted Decimal Form: 216.27.61.137
Binary Form: 11011000.00011011.00111101.10001001
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Internet Protocol Version

There are two versions of Internet Protocol.The first one is IPv4and the newer one is IPv6.
1. IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4) : This the most widely deployed Internet Protocol used to
connect devices to the Internet. It uses 32 bit address scheme and allows 232 address i.e. over
4 billion addresses. Even this much IP addresses will be consumed soon as the number of
devices connected with the internet (Laptop/IPad/Mobile/Gaming) are increasing at a very
rapid speed.
2. IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6) : This is a new Internet addressing system which has been
developed keeping in view the increasing demand for internet addresses. IPv6 uses 128 bit
Internet addressing and hence will allow 2128 Internet addresses. Now the total number of
Internet addresses supported by IPv6 is: 340282366920938000000000000000000000000 ☺
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Internet Protocol Version

IPv4 Address
IPv4 version uses the format x.x.x.x where x is an octet and these must be between 0 and
255. The octets are divided by . (dot) or periods. So, in IPv4 there are 4 octets divided by 3 periods.
Some of the IPv4 addressing scheme may look like:
5.6.7.8
02.103.104.105
20.118.64.125
198.116.1.1
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Internet Protocol Version

IPv6 Address
IPv6 address can use the following two formats:
a. Normal (Pure IPv6 addressing format) 2. Dual (IPv6+IPv4)
1. Normal (Pure IPv6 addressing format)
This consist of eight segment with the following format:
y: y: y: y: y: y: y: y
Here y represents a segment and can be any hexadecimal value from 0
to FFFF and it is separated by : (colon) sign.
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Internet Protocol Version

IPv6 Address
Example:
2002:ad8:4444:3333:2222:1111:5555:4444 (Contains all 8 segments)
: : (implies that all 8 segments are zero)
2002:ad8: : (implies last 6 segments are zero)
: :5555:4444 (implies first 6 segments are zero)
2002:ad8: :5555:4444 (implies 4 middle segments are zero)
2002:0ad8:0001:0000:0000:0cd9:c08a:0201
can be compressed as:
2002:ad8:1::cd9:c08a:201
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Internet Protocol Version

IPv6 Address
IPv6 address can use the following two formats:
a. Normal (Pure IPv6 addressing format) 2. Dual (IPv6+IPv4)
2. Dual (IPv6+IPv4)
In this addressing scheme, both the versions are combined together and the format
becomes like:
y: y: y: y: y: y: x. x. x. x
Here the first six segments are IPv6 and last 4 segments are IPv4.
So, the first six may contain values from 0-FFFF and last 4 from 0-255.
Example: 2002:ad8:1111:3333:5555:6666:2.3.4.5
: : 11.12.13.14 (implies all six IPv6 segments are zero)
2002:ad8:1111: : 5.4.3.1 (implies middle three are zero)
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The Domain Name and DNS

The URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of a website is also known as its domain name. It is the
unique name of the website. It can’t be duplicate.A domain name may look like:
www.codeitup.in
1. Here www represents world wide web which is usually fix (exception case msn.com).
2. codeitup is the name describing the name of the website
3. TLD (Top Level Domain), here .in is TLD. There are many other TLD such as .com, .net, .org, .edu,
.ca, .in, jp etc.

A domain name is also known as DNS name i.e., Domain Name System name.
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The Domain Name Resolution

In order to reach a website, its address is required i.e. the domain name as a domain name is much
easier to remember. But in order to reach a computer/server on internet, it’s IP address is
required. So this Domain Name needs to be changed with respective IP address which is done
through the process of Domain Name Resolution. Domain Name Resolution refers to the process
of obtaining corresponding IP address.
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How Domain Name Resolution Works?

1. You open a web browser and type your domain name.

2. Now your web browser instructs you operating system to provide the IP address of the given
domain name.
3. Now, OS tries to resolve the domain name as per its configuration which is different for
various operating system viz Windows, Linux, Unix etc.
Now OS refer to HOSTS file to obtain IP address as most of the Operating System
maintains HOSTS files which contains IP address of domains. If it is found over there, it’s fine
otherwise OS then connects with DNS Server on the Internet to obtain the same. The DNS
server contains list of IP addresses of all domain names and returns it to Operating System.
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Cellular/Wireless Connectivity Protocols

Now a days wireless communication is the most demanding one and many technologies are based
on cellular / wireless connectivity protocol such as 2G, 3G, 4G and now 5G is on the way.

1. 2G GSM (1992’s) – The Second Generation

It was introduced in 1992’s and is a fully digital technology having speed upto 250 Kbps. It
provides data as well as voice call option. It’s frequency lies between 900Mhz and 1800Mhz.
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Cellular/Wireless Connectivity Protocols

2. 3G (2000) – Third Generation

To compete the increasing demand for data by the consumers, 3G technology was
discovered which in early days provided the speed between 500 Kbps to 2 Mbps which later on
increased upto 20 Mbps. 3G Network is transmitted at 2100 Mhz frequency.

3. 4G (2013) – Fourth Generation

4G has a speed of about 10-15 Mbps which can be go up to 50 Mbps and even higher. In
India the frequency range for 4G (LTE) is 1800 Hz to 2300 Hz.
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Basic Networking Tools

While working on Internet, we may come across many problems. To overcome these problems, we
have some tools or simple networking commands which can be used to sort out the issue and
detect the issue.
The commands are as follows:
1. PING – This command is used to check whether an IP address on a website is responding or
not.
To use it you need to run this command to Command Prompt in Windows OS.
C\>ping 198.14.1.2 OR C:\>ping codeitup.in
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Basic Networking Tools

2.TRACEROUTE (Linux) or TRACERT (Windows)

This command is used to view the route using which you will be transmitted from your
computer to the said website. It is similar to PING commands, except that it identifies the pathway
rather than time.

3. NSLOOKUP
This command is used to display the default DNS server name and address (IP address).
When users type domain names into the URL bar in their browser, DNS servers are
responsible for translating those domain names to numeric IP addresses, leading them to
the correct website.
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Basic Networking Tools

4. IPCONFIG Command: This command is used to display detailed information about the network
we are connected to.This command can be used as:
c:\>ipconfig OR c:\>ipconfig/all
The ipconfig will display basic details while ipconfig/all will display detailed information
about the network we are connected to.
5. WHOIS Command : This command is used to get some information about a specific domain
name such as who registered it, when the domain will expire and many other things.
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SpeedTest

To check the pinging time, download speed, upload speed we use a website called speedtest.net.
We have other options also, but speedtest.in one of the best way which is available to get the
aforesaid information.
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Protocols Used on Network

Protocols are the set of rules that are used to transfer data on Internet from one place to another
place. There are various types of protocols used over networks such as http, POP, IMAP, SMTP, VoIP
etc.We need to learn them one by one.
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Protocols Used on Network

1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

HTTP stands for “Hypertext Transfer Protocol.” It was developed by Tim Berners-Lee at
CERN (Switzerland) alongside other concepts that laid the basis for the world wide web, such
as HTML and URI. While HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) defines the structure and layout of
a website, HTTP controls how the page is transferred from the server to the client. The third
concept URL (Uniform Resource Locator) defines how a resource (e.g. a website) must be
addressed on the web.
If you enter an internet address in your web browser and a website is displayed
shortly thereafter, your browser has communicated with the web server via
HTTP. HTTP is the language your web browser uses to speak with the web
server in order to inform it of a request.
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Protocols Used on Network

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol which allows the transfer of files from one place to
another place on the network. Whatsoever file we transfer across the network goes by ftp and the
file may be of any type. FTP is useful to transfer files from one place to another place, even having
geographical spread over continents.
Objective:
a.To promote sharing of files
b.To encourage use of remote computers.
c. Providing one platform for any type of file transfer
d.To transfer data reliably and efficiently.
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Protocols Used on Network

3. POP (Post Office Protocol)

The full form of POP is Post Office Protocol and it us usually called as POP3 that means
it’s version is 3. This defines the set of rules about receiving e-mails from remote server to our
local email client. Using this we can download our e-mail, so that we can read it even when not
attached with the Internet. It works n two Ports:
a. Port 110 – It is the default and non-encrypted port i.e. unsecured.
b. Port 995 – It is the encrypted port i.e. secured.
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Protocols Used on Network

4. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol which is an another mail protocol
somehow like POP3 protocol. Contrary to POP3 in which a single application access the e-mails,
IMAP supports multiple applications, multiple clients and multiple locations.
It also works on two ports:
1. Port 143 – The default, non-encrypted post (unsecured)
2. Port 993 – Encrypted Port for secure communication.
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Protocols Used on Network

5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

It stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. The protocols i.e. POP3 and IMAP is used to
fetch the emails from servers to client whereas SMTP is the protocol which is used to send emails
across the Internet.
This works on two ports:
1. Port 25 – Non-encrypted, default, unsecured
2. Port 465 – Encrypted, secured
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Protocols Used on Network

6.VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

VoIP stands for Voice Over Internet Protocol which enables voice communication over
the Internet through the compression of voice into data packets that can be transmitted over the
network and then converting back them into voice at the other end. VoIP allow the transmission of
voice along with other data and provides an alternative to traditional telephone network.
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Protocols Used on Network

7. NFC (Near Field Communication)

NFC stands for Near Field Communication and as the name suggest it is used to transfer
data from among two devices at the distance of 4-5 centimeters. It does not require any special
setup and it is very secure.
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Protocols Used on Network

8. HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)

HTTPS stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure and it is a combination of HTTP
and SSL(Secured Sockets Layer)/TLS(Transport Layer Security) protocols. HTTPS provides
encrypted communication and it encrypts your data and establishes a secure channel over a non
secure network to ensure protected data transfer. Now a days everyone is moving from HTTP to
HTTPS as it is a secured medium of communication.
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Protocols Used on Network

9. SSL(Secured Sockets Layer)

SSL stands for Secured Sockets Layer which is a mechanism of safe data transfer over
internet. It encrypts the data so that a third party cannot eavesdrop on the transmission and view
the data being transferred.
How SSL Works:
The website need to install the SSL certificate which ensures its authenticity. Once
installed, the sensitive information (such as credit card details/debit card details) is obtained from
the user from a safe and secure connection.Without SSL, attackers can try to steal the information.
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Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various

nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection. It is usually a way using which various
devices on the network are connected with each other.The various network topologies are:
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Mesh Topology
5.Tree Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
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Bus Topology

Bus topology is a way to connect various devices on network via single cable and hence
called as Linear Bus Topology.
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
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Ring Topology

Ring Topology is a way of connecting various devices on network in such a manner that it
forms the shape of a ring. In this topology, each node has exactly two neighbours.
Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
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Star Topology

Star Topology is a way to connect all the devices on the network using a Hub through cable.
This Hub is the central point for the network and all other devices are connected to this.
Advantages of Star Topology
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. The affected node fails, rest of the nodes work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
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Mesh Topology

Mesh Topology is a way to connect devices on the network in which all the devices are
connected to each other. Mesh Topology has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
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Tree Topology

In Tree Topology, all the computer are connected like the branches of a tree. In Computer
Networking, tree topology is known as a combination of a Bus and Start network topology.
The main advantages of this topology are better flexibility and scalability.
Advantages of Tree Topology
1. It is a combination of bus and star topology
2. It provides high scalability, as leaf nodes can add more nodes in the hierarchical chain.
3.Other nodes in a network are not affected, if one of their nodes get damaged
4. It provides easy maintenance and fault identification.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Large cabling is required as compared to star and bus topology.
2. On the failure of a hub, the entire network fails.
3.Tree network is very difficult to configure than other network topologies.
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Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more differing network
topologies. These topologies can include a mix of bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology,
star topology, and tree topology.
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MCQ
CODEITUP
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Ques 1:A Network is a collection of .................................... devices?

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Ques 2: After our Laptop/Desktop is connected with Internet, it is

called a ....................... ?
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Ques 3: A computer on Internet which provides services as requested

by client is called ........................ ?
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Ques 4: DNS Stands for ........................ ?

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Ques 5: VoIP Stands for ........................ ?

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Ques 6: Based on Geographical Spread, network has been divided into

........................ parts ?
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Ques 7: Based on Communication Channel, network has been divided

into ........................ parts ?
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Ques 8: LAN Stands for ............................. ?

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Ques 9: MAN Stands for ............................. ?

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Ques 10: WAN Stands for ............................. ?

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Ques 11: PAN Stands for ............................. ?

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Ques 12: LAN may cover an area upto .............. KM ?

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Ques 13: MAN may cover an area upto .............. KM ?

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Ques 14: Among LAN/MAN/WAN which offers highest speed of

transmission?
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Ques 15: Among LAN/MAN/WAN which has highest error rate?

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Ques 16: In P2P network, P2P stands for .......................... ?

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Ques 17: In P2P network, P2P stands for .......................... ?

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Ques 18: Which of the following is the fastest Guided Communication

Medium:
a.Twisted Pair Cable
b. Co-axial cable
c. Optical Fiber Cable
d. None of these
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Ques 19: Which of the following is the cheapest Guided

Communication Medium:
a.Twisted Pair Cable
b. Co-axial cable
c. Optical Fiber Cable
d. None of these
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Ques 20: Which of the following Guided Medium has highest

Bandwidth?
a.Twisted Pair Cable
b. Co-axial cable
c. Optical Fiber Cable
d. None of these
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Ques 21: Which of the following UnGuided Medium has highest range
of transmitting data?
a. Microwave
b. Radio Waves
c. Satellite
d. None of these
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Ques 22: TAP stands for ............................................ ?

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Ques 23: NIC stands for ............................................ ?

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Ques 24: NIC card has a unique address which is called ................... ?
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Ques 25: In MAC Address, MAC stands for ................... ?

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Ques 26: The MAC address is of ................... bytes ?

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Ques 27: The full form of IEEE is ........................ ?

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Ques 28: The full form of wi-fi is ........................ ?

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Ques 29: Switch works on ........................ OSI layer?

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Ques 30: Hub works on ........................ OSI layer?

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Ques 31: WAP stands for ........................?

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Ques 32: RFID stands for ........................?

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Ques 33: A way of communication in which information can be sent

or received at the same time is called ........................?
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Ques 34: A way of communication in which either information can be

sent or received one at a time is called ........................?
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Ques 35: CSMA/CA stands for .................................. ?

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Ques 36: CSMA/CD stands for .................................. ?

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Ques 37: Wait time for an information to be sent is called BEB and it
stands for .................................. ?
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Ques 38: TCP stands for ........................... ?

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Ques 39: IP stands for ........................... ?

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Ques 40: An alternate to TCP is ........................... ?

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Ques 41: URL Stands for ........................ ?

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Ques 42: HTTP stands for ...................... ?

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Ques 43: HTTPS stands for ...................... ?

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Ques 44: FTP stands for ...................... ?

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Ques 45: IPv4 address is divided into .............. octets and ..................
periods?
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Ques 46: IPv4 uses ........... bits addressing scheme ?

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Ques 47: IPv6 uses ........... bits addressing scheme ?

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Ques 48: Pure IPv6 has .............. number of segments ?

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Ques 49: Dual IPv6 has total ............... number of segment?

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Ques 50: TLD stands for ....................?

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Ques 51: DNS stands for ....................?

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Ques 52: GSM stands for ....................?

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Ques 53: CDMA stands for ....................?

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Ques 54: LTE stands for ....................?

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Ques 55: VoLTE stands for ....................?

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Ques 55: VoLTE stands for ....................?