Indices (Exponents)

Indices give us another way of expressing numbers, especially large numbers. For
instance
2 4 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16 .

The number 2 is called the base and the number 4 is called the index or exponent.
€
The following rules will allow you to manipulate indices.

Let a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 .

1. a m × a n = a m +n , for example, 2 3 × 2 4 = 2 4 +3 = 2 7 .
€ €
am 45
2. n = a m −n , for example 3 = 4 5−3 = 4 2 .
€ a € 4

3. a1 = a , for example 91 = 9 .
€ €
4. a 0 = 1, for example 6 0 = 1.
€ €
1 1 1
5. a −n
= n , for example 2 −2 = 2 = .
€ a € 2 4
n 2
6. ( a m ) = a m×n , for example (2 3 ) = 2 3×2 = 2 6 .
€ €
m m m 3 3 3 3
7. (ab) = a b , for example (2x ) = 2 x = 8x .
€ €
" a %m am " 2 %2 22 4
8. $ ' = m , for example $ ' = 2 = .
€ #b& b € # 3& 3 9

Now that you know what integer indices mean, what about rational indices? Rational
€ indices are used to€represent radicals:
1
n
a = an .

In particular,
1 €
1. a = a2 , a ≥ 0.
1
2. 3
a = a3 .
€ €
Also
m

€ a n = n am .
For instance,
2
27 3 = 3 27 2 .
€

€ 1
Example Simplify, writing your answer with only positive indices.

8a 4 b −2c
a 2bc 2
Solution
8a 4 b −2c 4 −2 −2−1 1−2
2 2 = 8a b c
€ a bc
= 8a 2b −3c −1
8a 2
=
b 3c
1

− 35 "16 % − 2
Example Compute without the use of a calculator (i) ( 32) (ii) $ '
# 81&
€
Solution
€
(i) One way to approach this question is to write 32 and € a base raised to an
index that is divisible by 5. A little thought indicates that we can write
32 = 2 5 . So

− 35 − 35 5×− 35 1 1
(32) = (2 5 ) =2 = 2 −3 = = .
€ 23 8

(ii) Here
€ 1 1
"16 % − 2 1 1 812 81 9
$ ' = 1 = = 1 = = .
# 81& "16 % 2 " 16 2
1
% 16 2 16 4
$ ' $$ 1 ''
# 81& # 812 &

Notice that the effect of the negative sign in the index is to invert the
fraction so we could have written
€
1 1 1
"16 % − 2 " 81% 2 812 81 9
$ ' =$ ' = 1 = = .
# 81& #16 & 16 2 16 4

Exponential Functions
€
Exponential functions are used to describe a wide variety of economic and physical
phenomena. These include compound interest, population growth and radioactive
decay. Exponential functions involve a constant base and a variable exponent (or
index) such as 𝑓 𝑥 = 5! . In general, the exponential function with base a is

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎!

where 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, and 𝑥 is any real number.

2
The graphs of the exponential functions 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 ! and 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎!! along with their
characteristics are shown below.

The Natural Base e

In many practical applications there is an irrational base that seems to arise naturally.
This base can be compared to the irrational number π that arises naturally in several
geometric calculations. The natural base is denoted by e, where

e ≈ 2.7182818… .

The function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑒 ! is called the natural exponential function. Its graph is

shown below.

Example The number of fruit flies in an experimental population after 𝑡 hours is give
by
𝑄 𝑡 = 20𝑒 !.!"! ,            𝑡 ≥ 0.

(i) Find the initial number of fruit flies in the population.

(ii) How large is the population of fruit flies after three days?
(iii) Sketch the graph of 𝑄.

3
Solution

(i) Here we evaluate 𝑄 at 𝑡 = 0 to find the initial population. So the initial

population is

𝑄 0 = 20𝑒 !.!"(!) = 20𝑒 ! = 20 1 = 20 flies

(ii) First three days is equal to 72 hours. So the population after 72 hours is

𝑄 72 = 20𝑒 !.!"(!") = 20𝑒 !.!" ≈ 173 flies

(iii) To sketch the graph of 𝑄 we can choose some values for 𝑡 and construct to
following table, rounding off the values as necessary.

𝑡 0 5 10 20 40 60
𝑄 = 𝑒 !.!"! 20 23 27 36 66 121

We then plot the points to get the following graph.

4
Exponential Equations

Equations where the variable is in the index are called exponential equations. For
example,
2 x = 32

is an exponential equation. The following idea will be used to solve some of the
exponential equations that you will encounter.
€
Idea: If aΔ = a ◊ , then Δ = ◊.

Notice that for the idea to work both sides of the equation must have a common base.
€ €
Example Solve 2 x = 32.

Solution We need to write 32 as 2 raised to some index. So we have

€
2 x = 32
2x = 25
x =5

Example Solve 9 2x +1 = 27 x −2 .
€
Solution Here using 3 as the common base will work. We have
€
9 2x +1 = 27 x −2
2 2x +1 x −2
(3 ) = ( 33 )
32(2x +1) = 33(x −2)
2(2x +1) = 3(x − 2)
4 x + 2 = 3x − 6
x = −8

Now suppose we need to solve the following equation: 2 x = 9 . It is not exactly clear
how we would write 9 as 2 €raised to some index. In this case we need another
approach to solve the given equation. The approach that we will use involves
logarithms. We will explore logarithms in the subsequent sections.
€
Finally, let us look at an equation involving indices that is really a quadratic equation
in disguise.

Example Solve the equation 2!! − 12 2! + 32 = 0.

Solution We will rewrite the equation and make a substitution to reveal the quadratic
nature of the equation. First, notice that 2!! can be rewritten as 2! ! . The equation
now becomes

5
 2! !
− 12 2! + 32 = 0.

Now let 𝑢 = 2! . The equation now becomes

𝑢! − 12𝑢 + 32 = 0.

This is actually a quadratic equation! Next we will solve the quadratic equation.

𝑢! − 12𝑢 + 32 = 0
𝑢−4 𝑢−8 =0
                                               𝑢             = 4, 8

But remember 𝑢 = 2! . So 2! = 4 or 2! = 8. This gives 𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥 = 3.

Logarithmic Functions

The inverse of the exponential function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 ! is called the logarithmic function

with base a. Formally, for 𝑥 > 0, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑥 ≠ 1, the function given by

𝑓 𝑥 = log ! 𝑥

is called the logarithmic function with base a.

The expression

log a x ,

read as
“the logarithm to the base a of x”

is asking you the following question:

“To what power must I raise a to get x?”

For instance, log 3 9 = 2 because 3 2 = 9 . We will call log ! 9 the logarithmic form and
call 3! = 9 the exponential form. In general,

y = log a x means a y = x .

Example Evaluate the following without the use of a calculator.

(i) log 5 125 (ii) log 2 1

8 (iii) log 9 1 (iv) log16 4

Solution
(i) log 5 125 = 3 because 5 3 = 125 .
(ii) log 2 18 = −3 because 2 −3 = 18 .

6
 (iii) log 9 1 = 0 because 9 0 = 1 .
1
(iv) log16 4 = 12 because 16 2 = 4 .

In general, we have the following properties:

1. log ! 1     = 0    because  𝑎! = 1

2. log ! 𝑎     = 1    because  𝑎! = 𝑎
3. log ! 𝑎 ! = 𝑥    because  𝑎 ! = 𝑎 !

Since the logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function, we can
obtain the graphs of logarithmic functions by reflecting the exponential functions in
the line 𝑦 = 𝑥. This is illustrated below with the graphs of 𝑓 𝑥 = 2! and
 𝑔 𝑥 = log ! 𝑥.

The Natural Logarithm

When the base of the logarithm is e we have the natural logarithm, written log ! 𝑥 or
more commonly as ln 𝑥. So ln 𝑥 is asking us the following question.

“To what power must I raise e to get x?”

Example Evaluate the following without the use of calculators.

(i) ln e 2 (ii) ln 1e (iii) ln 1

7
Solution

(i) ln e 2 = 2 because e 2 = e 2 .
(ii) ln 1e = −1 because e −1 = 1e .
(iii) ln 1 = 0 because e 0 = 1 .

In general, we have the following properties:

1. ln 1     = 0    because    𝑒 ! = 1
2. ln 𝑒     = 1    because    𝑒 ! = 𝑒
3. ln 𝑒 ! = 𝑥    because    𝑒 ! = 𝑒 !

Remark

Whenever we write a logarithm without specifying the base we mean base 10. For
example, log 100 means log!" 100. The bases of the two logarithmic functions that
are on your calculators are 10 (the log key) and e (the ln key). If we want to compute
logarithms to other bases we will have to use the change of base formula that we will
learn about later on in this unit.

The graph of 𝑓 𝑥 = ln 𝑥   is shown below.

8
Laws of Logarithms

By now you should have realized that logarithms are actually exponents. Did you
realize this? Since there are laws that govern the behaviour of exponents, there are
also laws that govern the behaviour of logarithms. These laws are given below
If p and q are positive numbers, then

1. log a pq = log a p + log a q

p
2. log a = log a p − log a q
q
3. log a p r = r log a p

Let us prove Law 1.

Proof of Law 1: Let x = log a p . This means that p = a x . Also, let y = log a q . This
means that q = a y . Now
log a pq = log a a x a y
= log a a x + y
= x+ y
= log a p + log a q.

Activity Prove Laws 2 and 3.

Example Rewrite as a sum/difference of logarithms.

z3
(i) log 5 x 2 y 4 (ii) log (iii) ln x x 2 + 1
100

Solution
(i)
log5 x 2 y 4 = log5 x 2 + log5 y 4 (Law1)
= 2 log5 x + 4 log5 y (Law 2)

(ii)
z3
log = log z 3 − log 100 (Law 2)
100
= 3 log z − 3 (Law 3)

9
(iii)
1
ln x x 2 + 1 = ln x( x 2 + 1) 2
1
= ln x + ln( x 2 + 1) 2 (Law 1)
= ln x + 12 ln( x 2 + 1) (Law 3)

Remark It is important that you note that log a ( x + y ) ≠ log a x + log a y .

Example Combine as a single logarithm

𝟏
(i) 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝒚 (ii) 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 + 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙 − 𝟐 − 𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠(𝒙 + 𝟏)

Solution

(i) 2 log ! 𝑥 + log ! 𝑦 = log ! 𝑥 ! + log ! 𝑦 (Law 3)

= log ! 𝑥 ! 𝑦 (Law 1)
!
!
(ii) 2 log 𝑥 + ! log 𝑥 − 2 − 3 log 𝑥 + 1 = log 𝑥 ! + log(𝑥 − 2)! − log(𝑥 + 1)!
(Law 3)
= log 𝑥 + log 𝑥 − 2 − log(𝑥 + 1)!
!

= log 𝑥 ! 𝑥 − 2 − log(𝑥 + 1)! (Law 1)

! ! !!!
                     = log (!!!)!
(Law 2)

Example Compute, without calculators, or simplify

(i) 2!"#! ! (ii) 7! !"#! ! (iii) 𝑒 !" ! (iv) 𝑒 ! !" !

Solution

(i) First, let 𝑦 = log ! 5. So 2! = 5. Replacing 𝑦 with log ! 5, we get

2!"#! ! = 5.
!
(ii) First, using Law 3, 7! !"#! ! = 7!"#! ! = 7!"#! ! . So reasoning as in part (i)
!
7! !"#! ! = 7!"#! ! = 7!"#! ! = 9.

(iii) Reasoning as in part (i), 𝑒 !" ! = 2.

10
 (iv) Using Law 3 and reasoning as in part (i),
!
𝑒 ! !" ! = 𝑒 !" ! = 𝑥 ! .

Logarithmic Equations

An equation containing logarithms is called a logarithmic equation. We can solve

some logarithmic equations by using an idea similar to the one that we used to solve
exponential equations earlier.

Idea: If log ! ∆ = log ! ⊡, the △  =  ⊡.

Again for this idea to work both logarithms must have the same base.

Example Solve log 𝟐 2𝑥 + 1 = log ! 9.

Solution Since the logarithms on either side have the same base (base 2), we can
apply the idea. This gives
2𝑥 + 1 = 9
2𝑥 = 8
𝑥=4

Let us look at a more interesting example.

Example Solve ln 𝑥 − 1 + ln 𝑥 + 10 = ln(6𝑥)

Solution Here we have

ln 𝑥 − 1 + ln 𝑥 + 10 = ln(6𝑥)
ln 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 10 = ln(6𝑥) (Combine logs)
𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 10 = 6𝑥 (Apply idea)
!
𝑥 + 9𝑥 − 10 = 6𝑥 (Quadratic Equation)
!
𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 10 = 0
𝑥+5 𝑥−2 =0 (Factor)
𝑥 = −5,2

Although we have answers for x we are not quite done. Whenever we solve a
logarithmic equation and get more than one answer we need to check our answers. To
check our answers we plug our answers into the given equation and see if they work.
Let us do that now.

Check 𝑥 = −5: ln −5 − 1 + ln −5 + 10 = ln[6 −5 ]

ln −6 + ln 5 = ln(−31)

Since we cannot find the logarithms of negative numbers, we cannot find ln(−6) and
ln(−31). So𝑥 = −5 is not a valid answer.

11
Check 𝑥 = 2: ln 2 − 1 + ln 2 + 10 = ln[6 2 ]
ln  1 + ln 12 = ln 12
ln 12 = ln 12

So 𝑥 = 2 works. Hence the only solution is 𝑥 = 2.

Another method that can be used to solve logarithmic equations is to rewrite the
equation in the exponential form. The following example illustrates this method.

Example Solve log 12𝑥 + 2 − log 𝑥 + 2 = 1.

Solution Here we have log 12𝑥 + 2 − log 𝑥 + 2 = 1

!"!!!
log !!!
= 1 (Combine logs)

!"!!!
!!!
= 10! (Exponential form)

!"!!!
!!!
= 10 (Linear equation)

12𝑥 + 2 = 10(𝑥 + 2)
12𝑥 + 2 = 10𝑥 + 20
2𝑥 = 18
𝑥=9

When we were solving exponential equation we posed the following problem: Solve
2! = 9. We can now solve this problem by using logarithms.

Example Solve 2! = 9, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.

Solution To solve the problem we take logarithms to either base 10 or base e (we
need a logarithm that is on our calculators) of both sides of the equation. Let us do
this now.
2! = 9
log 2! = log 9 (Take log of both sides)
𝑥 log 2 = log 9 (Law 3)

!"# !
𝑥 = !"# ! = 3.17

Try solving the example by taking natural logarithms (ln) of both sides of the
equation. Did you get the same answer? You should.

12
Consider another example.

Example Solve 3!!!! = 15, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.

Solution Let us take natural logarithms of both sides of the equation this time
around.
3!!!! = 15

ln 3!!!! = ln 15
2𝑥 − 1 ln 3 = ln 15 (Law 3)

!" !"
2𝑥 − 1 = !" !
(Divide by ln 3)

2𝑥 − 1 = 2.465 (Linear equation)

2𝑥 = 3.465
𝑥 = 1.733

We can also solve exponential equations involving the natural base e.

Example Solve 2𝑒 !! − 72 = 0, giving the exact answer.

Solution Our first job here is to get 𝑒 !! by itself on one side of the equation. Let us
do that now.
2𝑒 !! − 72 = 0

                 2𝑒 !! = 72

𝑒 !! = 36 (Divide by 2)

ln 𝑒 !! = ln 36 (Take ln of both sides)

3𝑥 = ln 36 (Property of ln)

!" !"
𝑥= !

Here are some more interesting examples of exponential equations that we can now
solve.

Example Solve the following equations.

( ) ( )
(i) 2 5 2 x + 5 5 x − 3 = 0 (ii) e x + 3e − x = 4

Solution Have you realized that both these equations are quadratic equations in
disguise? Remember, we did an example similar to part (i) earlier. Anyway, let us
proceed with the solutions.

13
(i) We have
( ) ( )
2 52 x + 5 5 x − 3 = 0
x 2
2(5 ) + 5(5 ) − 3 = 0
x

Now let y = 5 x . This gives

2y2 + 5y − 3 = 0
(2 y − 1)( y + 3) = 0
y = 12 , − 3.

But y = 5 x . So, either 5 x = 12 or 5 x = −3 . First, observe that the equation 5 x = −3 has

no real solutions. Why? Next, to solve the equation 5 x = 12 , we take logarithms to the
base 10 of both sides of the equation to get

log 5 x = log 12
x log 5 = log 12
log 12
x= ≈ −0.431
log 5

(ii) By multiplying both sides of the equation by e x we get

e 2 x + 3 = 4e x
e 2 x − 4e x + 3 = 0.

Now let y = e x . Then

y2 − 4y + 3 = 0
( y − 1)( y − 3) = 0
y = 1, 3.

So e x = 1 or e x = 3. When e x = 1 , it should be clear that x = 0 . And when e x = 3 , by

taking natural logarithms of both sides of the equation, we get

ln e x = ln 3
x = ln 3.

The Change of Base Formula

Suppose we need to evaluate log 2 9 . It is not exactly clear to what power we should
raise 2 to get 9. Also we cannot use our calculators, as only logarithms to bases 10
and e are available on our calculators. Fortunately there is a change of base formula
that allows us to change the base of logarithm to any base of our choice.

14
Change of Base Formula: Let a, b and x be positive numbers with a ≠ 1 and b ≠ 1 .
Then

log b x
log a x = .
log b a

Proof: Let y = log a x . Then

a y = x ………(*).

By taking logarithms to the base b of both sides of equation (*) we get

log b a y = log b x
y log b a = log b x
log b x
y= .
log b a

But y = log a x . So
log b x
log a x = .
log b a

We are now in a position to evaluate log 2 9 . By changing to base 10, we get

log 9
log 2 9 = ≈ 3.17 .
log 2

Does that answer sound reasonable?

Activity Evaluate log 2 9 by changing to base e. Did you get the same answer? Use
your calculator to verify your answer.

Sometimes you will be asked to prove results involving logarithms. Most times in
proofs you will need to apply the laws of logarithms without using actual numbers,
just letters. Check out the following example.

Example Prove that, if a > 1, b > 1 and k > 0 then (log a b )(log b k ) = log a k .

Solution Using the change of base formula to change to base a we get

log a k
log b k = .
log a b

Hence
(log a b )(log b k ) = log a k .

15
Now, that proof was not too bad, was it? Most proofs that you will be asked to do will
be as short as the one above but you will need to know the laws of logarithms very
well.

16