Assignment #2 Safety

Emilio Joaquin Flores

BSME 5A

1. Give a definition of the word safety.

Safety is the state of being relatively free from harm, danger, injury, or damage.

2. Give a definition of the word accident.

A happening or event that is not expected, foreseen, or intended.

3. What are the deficiencies of the term accident? What term is an alternative for
accident?
The word can infer different concepts to people. For example, someone tells a friend about
an accident. The immediate response of the friend is to ask about injury or damage. The
accident may or may not have had adverse effects. That confusion results from the word
accident lacking a precise meaning.
The alternative term for accident is incident.

4. Why is the term incident preferred by some people?

Many organizations use the term incident to refer to an unplanned event or event sequence.
This resolves some of the problems with the term accident. The word incident focuses on
an event. The event may or may not have consequences. Incident does not carry the
connotation that the event sequence is a chance event. Incident does not rule out the
potential for prevention. An incident does not suggest a rapid event.
5. Define:

(a) safety engineering

Safety engineering is the application of engineering principles and practices to the recognition,
evaluation and control of hazards that can lead to accidents and incidents.

(b) hazard
The potential or inherent characteristics of an activity, condition, or circumstance which can
produce adverse or harmful events and consequences.
(c) control

Any means of reducing the likelihood or severity of an accident or incident.

(d) risk

Risk is the chance or likelihood of an adverse event and the potential severity that may result.

6. Distinguish between hazard and risk.

A hazard is something that can cause harm while risk is how great the chance that someone
will be harmed by the hazard.
7. What are the differences between the following pairs of terms? :

(a) accidents and injuries

Accident is an unforeseen and unplanned event or circumstance and Injury is a physiological

wound caused by an external source.

(b) injuries and illnesses

Injuries include cases such as, but not limited to, a cut, fracture, sprain, or amputation while
Illnesses include both acute and chronic illnesses, such as, but not limited to, a skin disease,
respiratory disorder, or poisoning.

(c) accidental injury and unintended injury

Accidental injury is an injury that could have been prevented while an unintended injury refers to
injuries that are unplanned and typically preventable when proper safety precautions are followed.

(d) direct and indirect costs of accidents

Direct costs are expenses incurred from and directly linked to an accident. As for indirect costs are
real expenses associated with accidents.

(e) insured and uninsured accident costs

Insured costs are those paid by an insurance policy. Uninsured costs are those not paid by an
insurance policy.
(f) unsafe acts and unsafe conditions

The unsafe act is a violation of an accepted safe procedure which could permit the occurrence of
an accident. The unsafe condition is a hazardous physical condition or circumstance which could
directly permit the occurrence of an accident

8. Heinrich developed concepts for safety that are still used today. Explain the following
and identify their limitations:

(a) the Domino Theory

The theory states that an accident sequence is like a series of five dominos standing on end. One
falling can knock the others over. The five dominos in reverse sequence are:
(1) an injury caused by (2) an accident, which, in turn, is caused by (3) unsafe acts or conditions.
Causes for the latter are (4) undesirable traits (such as recklessness, nervousness, violent 3-6
ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT THEORIES 27 temper, lack of knowledge, or unsafe practices)
resulting from one’s (5) social environment. Removing or controlling contributing factors will
stop the accident sequence. The theory places strong emphasis for accident prevention on the
middle domino: unsafe acts and unsafe conditions.

(b) the ratio among no consequence, minor injury and major injury accidents

Seventy-five years of theory expansion/interpretation includes two fundamental tenets:

(1) the ratio of lower to higher severity incidents exists in the form of a “safety-triangle” and (2)
similar causes underlie both high and low severity events. 300-29-1 ratio of workplace accidents.

(c) the ratio between unsafe acts and unsafe conditions.

He concluded that 88% of cases involved unsafe acts, 10% involved unsafe conditions and 2% had
no preventable cause. A different study in the 1960s by the State of Pennsylvania found both unsafe
acts and unsafe conditions were causes for nearly every accident studied. The ratio between the
two causes is irrelevant. Any ratio does not provide a suitable strategy when analyzing hazards
and accident prevention. Preventing accidents must consider both as well as the surrounding
circumstances.
9. What is the Vital Few concept? From which economic theory does it derive?
Derived from the pareto chart, the term indicates that many defects come from relatively
few causes (the 80/20 rule).
For example, 20% of the people in the country make up 80% of the wealth of the country.
Vital Few: These are the few (20%) independent variables (X’s) which contribute to
maximum (80%) of the total variation. These are identified through Pareto Charts and
Design of Experiments.

10. What is a single factor theory? What is its main limitation?

A single factor theory assumes that when one finds a cause, there is nothing more to find
out. Very often the cause is the immediate or proximate cause, but that does not consider
other elements that can contribute to the event. Single factor theories have limited value in
prevention. Sometimes they are a hindrance to effective prevention. Most often there are
other causes beside one immediate cause. Relying on a single factor theory will cause one
to overlook other important preventive actions.

11. What are multiple factor theories? How are they helpful in incident prevention?
In multiple factor theories, several factors combine in random or some logical fashion and
lead to accidents. Factors may include any of the three elements of a hazard: activities,
conditions, and circumstances. Different authors have proposed multiple factor models to
help safety practitioners think through accident causation. Grose6 proposed a model
involving four Ms: man, machine, media, and management.

12. What is the energy theory? Identify at least five strategies for incident prevention
based on the energy theory.
The Energy Theory suggests that quantities of energy, means of energy transfer and rates
of energy transfer relate to the kinds of injuries and severity of injuries. His theory helps
resolve many safety engineering problems and offers a way to think about what can happen.
 1. Prevent the marshaling of energy. In this strategy the goal is not producing energy
or changing it to a form that cannot cause an accident or injury. Examples are not producing
gunpowder, substituting a safe substance for a dangerous one, preventing the accumulation
of snow where avalanches are possible, removing snow where slips and falls can occur, not
letting small children climb to levels above the floor, and not setting a vehicle in motion.

2. Reducing the amount of energy marshaled. Examples are keeping vehicle speeds
down, reducing the quantities or concentration of high energy or toxic materials, limiting
the height for objects, and reducing machine speed to the minimum needed during cleaning
or maintenance of an unguarded machine.

3. Prevent the release of energy. Examples are using various means or devices to
prevent elevators from falling, flammables from igniting, or foundations from being
undercut by erosion.

4. Modify the rate of energy released from its source or modify the spatial distribution
of the released energy. Slowing the burning rate of a substance or using an inhibitor and
reducing the slope of roads are examples.

5. Separate in space or time the energy released from the potentially damaged
structure or the potentially injured human. Examples include separate paths for vehicular
and pedestrian traffic, placing electric power lines out of reach, using traffic signals to
phase pedestrian and vehicular traffic, and using energyabsorbing materials.

13. How are the management theories of Juran and Deming helpful in developing
strategies for safety?
The management concepts of Deming and Juran are often called “Total Quality
Management.” Their solution to bad processes was constant improvement. Today, the
extension of their approach is called “Six Sigma.” 11 There are many references to these
management approaches in the management literature. They offer safety practitioners ways
to use management techniques to reduce accidents and to communicate with managers.
 14. Explain the four Ms.

• huMan (Skill, Technology, Organization, Resources) o Do our associates have the skill

(and the will) to do what is expected of them safely, consistently, and effectively?

• Machine (Equipment) o Are our machines capable of safe and reliable output at the desired

quality and rate? Do breakdowns, defects or unplanned stoppages inhibit their ability to

meet that goal?

• Method (Process, Schedule, Procedure) o Do we have standard work methods in place

which ensure and support consistent, safe production?

• Material (Information, Raw Materials, Consumables, Quality)

o Do they meet the required specifications – are there no defects and shortages? Is excess

handling or movement reduced or eliminated? Are they stored appropriately?

15. What are the three Es of safety? What is the fourth E?

The three Es are engineering, education, and enforcement. A fourth E, enthusiasm, is
sometimes added to the first three Es. It refers to motivating people to follow safe practices
and contribute effectively to safety.

16. Explain the steps used to prevent accidents when applying a safety management
system.
The process involves employer representatives, employees, and a safety planning
facilitator, often a safety practitioner. Each type of participant brings different viewpoints
and experience to the process. The initial task is hazard identification. Participants apply
information from the theories, models, and definitions above, along with other knowledge
and experience. The next task is to conduct risk assessments on the identified hazards.
Based on results, the participants select acceptable levels of risk and appropriate hazard
controls. Each possibility needs evaluation to determine the potential for risk reduction.
The evaluation will apply the priorities for controls listed in Table 3-2. Then they test and
 implement one or more selected controls. The final task is to evaluate the effectiveness of
implemented controls. The panel may apply the evaluation results in working through the
process again.

17. What is a reactive approach to safety?

A reactive approach can be used to develop strategies for preventing accidents. Figure 3-5
illustrates how that approach works. It starts with accidents. Investigations compile
information. Analysis of the information then finds ways to prevent future accidents. While
there is something to learn from every accident, this approach has limited value. The reason
is the method starts with accidents.
The aim is to prevent them in the first place. Accident investigation data has a use, but it is
not the best way to start preventing accidents.

18. What is a proactive approach to safety?

As shown in Figure 3-6, the preventive strategy starts with analysis. The aim is to identify
all of the factors that can lead to accidents and the combinations of those factors. Preventive
 strategies come from the analysis. The approach seeks to avoid having accidents at all.
Several detailed strategies build on this approach.

19. List the priorities for hazard controls.

• Eliminate hazards by changing processes so the hazards do not exist.

• Reduce the hazard level through substitutions, process changes and redesigns.
• Provide safety devices, such as enclosing a hazard or applying other engineering controls.
• Provide warnings, which may be visual or auditory.
• Provide administrative controls that include: - safety procedures and job changes.
- safety training.
- use of personal protective equipment.

20. Can one achieve absolute safety? Why or why not?

No, since we can’t define all possible causes of injury, then the probability of injury cannot
be zero, and we cannot have absolute safety.