1.

0 CENCEPT OF GEO-INFORMATICS
1.1 Definition of Terms
1.1.1Map
The representation of graphic portrait of spatial information, relationships and phenomenon over
a small segment of the earth or the entire globe. A map is a picture or representation of the
Earth's surface, showing how things are related to each other by distance, direction, and size.
Maps are a way of showing many things about a portion of the earth's surface on a flat piece of
paper that can be carried and transported easily. A map is not a photograph of the Earth's surface.
It can show many things that a picture cannot show, and as a result, a map looks different in
many ways from a photograph of the Earth's surface.

1.1.2 Geo-Informatics
The term geoinformatics consists of two words, geo (Earth) and informatics (the study of
information processing). Hence, geoinformatics can be understood as the union of Earth sciences
and Informatics. We can say that Geoinformatics broadly deals with the use of information
technology for collection, analysis, storage, retrieval, representation and dissemination of
information about the Earth.
The term ‘geoinformatics’ is believed to have come in existence just few decades back as a result
of the integration of three disciplines, namely photogrammetry, remote sensing and geographic
information systems.
Geoinformatics can be define as a computer-based system for mapping, acquiring, processing,
analyzing and disseminating geographic phenomena that exist on the earth. Geoinformatics
provides an environment for the integration of geospatial data, models and knowledge.
1.1.3 Component of geoinformatics;
1 Geodesy

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 2 Computer Science
3 Cartography
4 Photogrammetry
5 Remote Sensing (RS)
6 Global Positioning System (GPS)
7 Geographic Information System (GIS)
1.1.4 Digital Mapping
The process of converting physical maps or data into digital map by feeding the data into digital
model (software) or using digitizers on maps which may be stored in soft copies or otherwise.
1.1.5 Map Data Base
Data bank containing information about map spatial reference, location, size, map type,
information obtainable from map, scale coverage etc.
1.1.6 Data structure
The technique for encoding data into geo-informatics model (software) for the purpose of
developing geo-informatics system. Can a land use map be related to a satellite image, a timely
indicator of land use? Yes, but because digital data are collected and stored in different ways, the
two data sources may not be entirely compatible. Therefore, a GIS must be able to convert data
from one structure to another.
1.1.7 GIS
A geographic information system (GIS) is a system that creates, manages, analyzes, and maps all
types of data. GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data (where things are) with all
types of descriptive information (what things are like there). This provides a foundation for
mapping and analysis that is used in science and almost every industry. GIS helps users
understand patterns, relationships, and geographic context. The benefits include improved
communication and efficiency as well as better management and decision making.
1.1.8 GIS DATA TYPES
• Spatial data
This Describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features, there are two types of
spatial data: a) Raster b) Vector
• Attribute data
Describes characteristics of the spatial features. These characteristics can be quantitative and/or
qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred to as tabular data, there are many types of
attribute data, some of which are a) Tabular b) Hierarchical c) Network d) Relational d) Object
Oriented.

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1.2 Principle and Concept of Geo-Informatics
The concept of geo-informatics is that of producing a system of acquiring, maintaining and
updating on continuous basis comprehensive spatial information and the dissemination of the
same to multiple users through an effective ICT based means.
History of Development
About 15,500 years ago on the walls of caves near Lascaux, France, Cro-Magnon hunters drew
pictures of the animals they hunted. Associated with the animal drawings are track lines and
tallies thought to depict migration routes. While simplistic in comparison to modern
technologies, these early records mimic the two-element structure of modern geographic
information systems, an image associated with attribute information.
In 1854, John Snow depicted a cholera outbreak in London using points to represent the
locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of the geographic method. His study
of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump (the
Broad Street Pump, whose handle he disconnected terminating the outbreak) within the heart of
the cholera outbreak.

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E. W. Gilbert's version (1958) of John Snow's
1855 map of the Soho cholera outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London
epidemic of 1854 While the basic elements of topology and theme existed previously in
cartography, the John Snow map was unique, using cartographic methods not only to depict but
also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena for the first time.
The early 20th century saw the development of "photo lithography" where maps were separated
into layers. Computer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research would lead to
general purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.
The year 1962 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by Dr. Roger
Tomlinson, it was called the "Canada Geographic Information System" (CGIS) and was used to
store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI)—an initiative
to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils,
agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating
classification factor was also added to permit analysis.
CGIS was the world's first "system" and was an improvement over "mapping" applications as it
provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, and digitizing/scanning. It supported a national
coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as "arcs" having a true embedded
topology, and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of
this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS," particularly for his use of overlays in
promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into the 1990s and
built the largest digital land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a mainframe-based
system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was
continent-wide analysis of complex datasets. The CGIS was never available in a commercial
form.
In 1964, Howard T Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at
the Harvard Graduate School of Design (LCGSA 1965-1991), where a number of important
theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had
distributed seminal software code and systems, such as 'SYMAP', 'GRID', and 'ODYSSEY' --
which served as literal and inspirational sources for subsequent commercial development -- to
universities, research centers, and corporations worldwide.
By the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later Intergraph), Environmental Systems Research
Institute (ESRI) and CARIS (Computer Aided Resource Information System) emerged as
commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features,
combining the first-generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a
second-generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. In parallel, the
development of two public domain systems began in the late 1970s and early 1980s. MOSS, the
Map Overlay and Statistical System project started in 1977 in Fort Collins, Colorado under the
auspices of the Western Energy and Land Use Team (WELUT) and the US Fish and Wildlife
Service. GIS was begun in 1982 by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineering Research Laboratory

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(USA-CERL) in Champaign, Illinois, a branch of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to meet the
need of the United States military for software for land management and environmental
planning. The later 1980s and 1990s industry growth were spurred on by the growing use of GIS
on Unix workstations and the personal computer. By the end of the 20th century, the rapid
growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms
and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring
data format and transfer standards. More recently, there are a growing number of free, open-
source GIS packages which run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to
perform specific tasks.

2.0 PRINCIPLE OF DIGITAL MAPPING

The principle of digital mapping is to convert physical maps and plans that are generally too
cumbersome to handle (especially where large volumes of them are involves) to computer based
digital data that is easy to handle, access and retrieve in any desired form.
2.1 Types of Digital Data
a) Topographic Data:
This data shows the physical undulation or relief of the ground terrain. It may come in a table of
spot elevations of a portion of the earth’s surface or relief maps like contour map. It may also
occur in forms of longitudinal or cross-sectional profiles of a stretch of land as is often required
in Engineering.

Topographic Map
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 b) Land use/Land cover
e.g., ownership and political boundaries data, Transportation and hydrographic data.
c) Socio-economic: -
This may include census tract boundaries data/map, maps showing population concentration or
movements dittographic and socioeconomic data etc.
d) Soils
This includes a geotechnical map of a portion of the earth’s surface showing the several
variations in soils characterization, strength properties like the angle of internal of
resistance/cohesion, permeability, water table fluctuation etc. maps of different agricultural soil
data, rock and crops and their engineering properties are included here.
e) Wet Lands data:
Data in relation to flood prove areas, submerge lands etc.
f) Remotely sensed data
2.2 Accuracies of Data Types
• Digital data relating to topography, land use/ land cover that is obtained with highly
refined survey equipment has the best accuracies.
• Soil data remotely sensed data and socioeconomic data which are based on the statistics
of physically obtained data are very much of acceptable accuracies.

3.0 GEO-INFORMATICS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

3.1 Components of Geo-Informatics hardware
a) Host computer (server): It performs the major operations like running the geo-
informatics software and holding data base open to enquiry from any remote terminal.

Server
b) Display Unit: This enables the visual inspection of all operations in form of a monitor or
cathode ray tube.

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 Visual Display Unit
c) Input devices: it is used for inputting both geometric and attribute data e.g., mouse,
digitizer, scanner, keyboard etc.

Input devices (keyboard and mouse)

d) Output devices: This enables the final product to be rolled out e.g., printer, plotter, co-
recorder, DVD RAM

Printer

e) Storage devices: Enables data to be recorded and preserved for future use, these are
mainly internal and external driver.

f) Human operator: Supervise, support or override automated control, accept or reject

outcome.

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3.2 Various Geo-informatics software.
a) CAD – AUTOCAD
b) GIS Vector Map Info
c) GIS Raster
d) DIP
e) View (windows base)
f) Land dev.
g) Suffer 7.0
h) Arch View
i) ArcGIS

3.3 Types of Map

1. Topographic Map
Topographic maps show a 3-dimensional world in 2 dimensions by using contour lines. Many
people have trouble reading these maps, because they have mountains and valleys are
represented with concentric circles and lines. Many hikers use topographic maps, especially in
areas where there are no roads with signs. Geologists depend on topographic maps to record the
types of rocks. Engineers use topographic maps when they are planning roads, buildings, or other
human–made structures. Imagine designing a city without considering where hills and valleys
are located!

2. BIOGEOGRAPHIC MAPS
Scientists involved in the study of animals, plants, and other living organisms use maps to
illustrate where these groups live or migrate. It is important to many zoologists to know where
the organisms that they study live and where they move to. People who monitor endangered
species need to know if the ranges of migration have become larger or smaller through time.

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 3. GEOLOGIC MAPS
A geologic map is a map of the different types of rocks that are on the surface of the Earth. By
mapping different rock types, geologists can determine the relationships between different rock
formations which can then be used to find mineral resources, oil, and gravel deposits. Also, you
want to know what type of rock you are building on or else you might have a Leaning Tower of
Pisa or a pile of rubble after a strong earthquake.

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 4. ENVIRONMENTAL MAPS
These types of maps include maps that look at human's activity in urban and metropolitan areas
and the environment in which we all live. Maps that illustrate physiographic features such as
forests, grassland, woodland, tundra, grazing land, ocean floors, and ocean sediments could be
included in this large grouping. Meteorological maps that show climate, weather and wind are
types of environmental maps. Meteorologists, oceanographers, geographers, city planners, and
many other professionals depend greatly on these maps to record and forecast their specific field.

5. Isarithmic Map – Represents quantum of equal values e.g. contour map.

6. Thematic Map – Showing spatial variations of a single phenomenon
7. Digital Map – Stored in digital model
8. Choropleth – Showing magnitude of continuous variables within a boundary e.g. census
map.
9. Dot Map – Showing spatial distribution of varying number of uniform quantity e.g. in
US population where each DOT represent 10,000 people.
10. Line Map – Shows the direction and magnitude of potential or actual flows e.g. stream
flows or patterns of population movement.
11. Land form Maps – Depicting the earth’s surface as viewed from an oblique aerial point
of view.

3.4 Types of images

1 Aerial Image – Obtained from aerial photography.
2 Satellite Images – obtained from satellite signals
3 Radar Images – Obtained from radar photography
4 Scanned aerial photographs – these are images obtained by transferring photographic
images into a computer via a scanner or software

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4.0 DATA TYPE
4.1 Types of observed data
1. Theodolite
It is used to observe both horizontal and vertical angles. The horizontal angle is usually measured
between any two or more vertical planes while the vertical angles are measured between the true
horizontal plane and any other plane in the horizontal direction; this plane may either be above
(elevation) or below (depression) the true horizontal plane.
A theodolite may also be used in conjunction with a vertical staff to obtain differences in heights
among many points. This combination can also be used in a survey method called Tacheometry
to obtain approximate distances between the instrument station and staff stations.
2. Levels
These are instruments constructed rigidly in a true horizontal plane to measures differences in
heights in all directions by observing to vertical staff held at different points of interest. In this
way, if the height of a bench mark is known, the heights of other observed points may be
deduced by transference
3. Hydrophones
A hydrophone is an underwater device that detects and records ocean sounds from all directions.
Just as a microphone collects sound in the air, a hydrophone detects acoustic signals under the
water. Most hydrophones are based on a special property of certain ceramics that produces a
small electrical current when subjected to changes in underwater pressure. When submerged in
the ocean, a ceramic hydrophone produces small-voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies as it is exposed to underwater sounds emanating from any direction.
By amplifying and recording these electrical signals, hydrophones measure ocean sounds with
great precision. While a single hydrophone can record sounds from any direction, several
hydrophones simultaneously positioned in an array, often thousands of miles apart, result in
signals that can be manipulated to “listen” with greater sensitivity than a single device. Omni-
directional and hemi-directional hydrophones pick up sound from a particular direction and can
be used to track fish movements.
4. Geophones
A geophone is a device that converts ground movement (velocity) into voltage, which may be
recorded at a recording station. The deviation of this measured voltage from the base line is
called the seismic response and is analyzed for structure of the earth.
5. Statistics
Statistically analyzed data based on a measured representative value

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4.2 Historic sources of data
I. Cadastral – Records of political land boundaries
II. History – verbal or documented records of past events
III. Archaeological – signs of extinct human societies through their extant remains.
IV. Natural sources like economic trees, rock arts etc.

4.3 Various methods of data acquisition

I. Aerial
II. Satellite
III. Surveying
IV. Digitalization scanning
V. Radar
VI. Statistical survey

5.0 PROCEDURES INVOLVED IN DATA ACQUISITION

5.1 Field procedures of data acquisition methods
I. Aerial – This includes terrestrial photography where cameras are mounted on tripods
situated on the ground. Cameras may also be carried in an aircraft during photography –
aerial photography.
II. Satellite – Track stations receive signals from satellite and convert the data into hard and
soft copies.
III. Surveying – survey equipment like total station, theodolite, levels, GPS, are used to
obtain field data in form of coordinates, heights, distances, angles etc. and they are either
applied directly as the case may be or used to produce required plans and maps.

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