1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................

1
1.1 Definition....................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Plane surveying...........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Geodetic surveying......................................................................................................................2
1.4 Measurements..............................................................................................................................2
1.5 Map/Plan Scale............................................................................................................................3
1.5.1 Methods of showing scale....................................................................................................3
1.5.2 Large vs small scale.............................................................................................................4
1.5.3 Conversion of scales to representative fraction...................................................................4
1.5.4 Conversion of Areas by RF..................................................................................................5
1.6 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................5
2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS...............................................................................................................6
2.1 Distances and angles...................................................................................................................6
2.2 Significant figures.......................................................................................................................7
2.3 Basic calculations in surveying...................................................................................................8
2.4 Relationship between bearing and coordinates...........................................................................8
2.5 Relationship between angles and bearings................................................................................12
2.6 Study questions.........................................................................................................................14
3 TAPE AND OFFSET SURVEYING..............................................................................................16
3.1 Taping equipment......................................................................................................................16
3.2 Measuring the length of a line...................................................................................................18
3.3 Setting out right angles..............................................................................................................19
3.5.1 Dropping a perpendicular from a point to a line................................................................19
3.5.2 Setting out a line at right angle to a given point on the band.............................................19
3.4 Slope correction.........................................................................................................................19
3.4.1 Stepping.............................................................................................................................19
3.4.2 Measuring along the slope.................................................................................................20
3.5 Procedure...................................................................................................................................20
3.6 Checks during field work..........................................................................................................22
3.7 Guidelines for the field map......................................................................................................23
3.8 Office work...............................................................................................................................23
3.9 Study questions.........................................................................................................................24
4 LEVELLING...................................................................................................................................25
4.1 Equipment.................................................................................................................................25
3.9.1 Leveling instruments..........................................................................................................25
3.9.2 Leveling staff.....................................................................................................................27
4.2 Parallax......................................................................................................................................29
4.3 Principles of leveling.................................................................................................................29
4.3.1 Height difference...............................................................................................................29
4.3.2 Series or differential leveling.............................................................................................30
4.4 Recording measurements..........................................................................................................31
4.4.1 Rise and fall method..........................................................................................................31
4.4.2 Checks................................................................................................................................31
4.5 Height of collimation method...................................................................................................33
4.6 Application of leveling..............................................................................................................34
4.6.1 Sectioning..........................................................................................................................34
4.6.1.1 Longitudinal sections.....................................................................................................34
4.6.1.2 Cross sections.................................................................................................................35
4.6.2 Contouring.........................................................................................................................35

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 4.6.2.1 Direct contouring............................................................................................................36
4.6.2.2 Indirect contouring.........................................................................................................36
Grid levelling...................................................................................................................................36
Contours from selected points.........................................................................................................36
Interpolation of contours..................................................................................................................36
Mathematical interpolation..............................................................................................................37
Graphical interpolation....................................................................................................................37
4.7 Study questions.........................................................................................................................38
5 THEODOLITE AND ITS USE.......................................................................................................39
5.1 The basic parts of a theodolite...................................................................................................39
5.2 Direction and angles..................................................................................................................40
5.3 Reading the circle......................................................................................................................42
5.4 Transitting the theodolite..........................................................................................................42
5.5 Field procedure..........................................................................................................................43
5.6 The booking form......................................................................................................................44
5.7 Electronic theodolites................................................................................................................45
5.8 Stadia tacheometry....................................................................................................................45
5.8.1 Accuracy and sources of error in stadia tachometry..........................................................48
5.8.2 Application of stadia tacheometry.....................................................................................49
5.8.3 Study questions..................................................................................................................49
6 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS: EDM AND TOTAL STATIONS...................50
6.1 How it works.............................................................................................................................50
6.1.1 Electromagnetic Waves.....................................................................................................50
6.1.2 Phase differences and distances.........................................................................................51
6.1.3 Analogy with taping...........................................................................................................53
6.2 EDM Systems............................................................................................................................53
6.2.1 Theodolite- mounted EDM Systems..................................................................................53
6.2.2 Total Stations.....................................................................................................................54
6.2.3 Distancers...........................................................................................................................55
7 HORIZONTAL CONTROL SURVEY...........................................................................................56
7.1 Traversing..................................................................................................................................56
7.1.1 Closed traverse...................................................................................................................56
7.1.2 Open traverse.....................................................................................................................57
7.2 Choice of traverse stations: Reconnaissance.............................................................................57
7.3 Traverse fieldwork: distance and angular measurements.........................................................58
7.4 Three-tripod traversing..............................................................................................................58
7.4.1 When angle is measured........................................................................................58
7.4.2 When angle is measured.......................................................................................59
7.5 Field procedure and booking.....................................................................................................59
7.6 Traverse computation................................................................................................................59
7.6.1 Angular misclosure............................................................................................................60
7.6.2 Bearing computation..........................................................................................................61
7.6.3 Coordinate difference computation....................................................................................61
7.6.4 Distribution of the misclosure............................................................................................62
7.6.5 Link traverse example........................................................................................................63
8 Earthwork Quantities.......................................................................................................................66
8.1 Areas..........................................................................................................................................66
8.1.1 Plotted areas.......................................................................................................................66
8.1.2 Mathematical methods of calculating irregular area........................................................67
2
 8.1.3 Area by coordinates...........................................................................................................69
8.1.4 Divide an area into two equal parts....................................................................................71
8.1.5 Division of an area by a line of known bearing.................................................................72
8.2 Volumes of earthwork calculations...........................................................................................72
8.2.1 Area from cross sections....................................................................................................72
8.2.2 Section level across............................................................................................................73
8.2.3 Sections with cross-fall......................................................................................................73
8.2.4 Computation of volumes of cross-section..........................................................................75
8.2.5 Volume from spot heights..................................................................................................78
9 CARTOGRAPHY............................................................................................................................79
9.1 Map types..................................................................................................................................79
9.2 Map features..............................................................................................................................80
9.2.1 Projection...........................................................................................................................80
9.2.2 Reduction...........................................................................................................................81
9.2.3 Generalization....................................................................................................................81
9.2.4 Enhancement......................................................................................................................81
9.2.5 Explanation........................................................................................................................81
9.3 Communication in cartography.................................................................................................82
9.4 Map production.........................................................................................................................82
9.5 Computer assisted cartography.................................................................................................82
9.5.1 Input...................................................................................................................................83
9.6 Data manipulation.....................................................................................................................83
9.7 Output........................................................................................................................................84
10 PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING.....................................................................85
10.1 Aerial photographs................................................................................................................85
10.2 Stereoscopic plotting.............................................................................................................86
10.3 Remote sensing......................................................................................................................87
11 GEODESY.......................................................................................................................................88
11.1 Shape of the earth..................................................................................................................88
11.2 Physical geodesy....................................................................................................................88
11.3 Satellite geodesy....................................................................................................................89

3
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition
Surveying may be defined as the science and technology of making measurements of relative positions
of natural and made features on the earth’s surface and the presentation of this information either

Fig 1-1 posing Surveyor

graphically or numerically.

The most common method of presentation is by way of a map, a true to a scale representation of an
area in two dimensions which form the horizontal plane. The third dimension is normal to the
horizontal. Height can be shown on the plan in various ways, like spot levels or contours.

Two main branches of surveying can be distinguished:

 Plane surveying
 Geodetic surveying

1.2 Plane surveying

In plane surveying, relative small areas are taken into consideration and it is taken that the earth’s
surface is flat, i.e. it gives a horizontal plane.
A horizontal plane is one which is normal to the direction of gravity, as defined by a plumb bob at a
point, but owing to the curvature of the earth such a plane will in fact be tangential to the earth’s
surface at the point. Thus if a large enough area is considered on this basis, a discrepancy will become
apparent between the area of the horizontal plane and the actual curved area of the earth surface. When
an area is smaller than 50 by 50 km, the discrepancy is negligible.

Branches of plane surveying are:

 Topographic surveys: these produce maps of natural and manmade features,

1
  Engineering surveys: these embrace all the survey work required before, during and after any
engineering works. Example are new constructions, design and construction of new routes,
determination of the volume of a catchments area when planning a dam, surveying in mines,
etc.,
 Cadastral surveys: these are undertaken to produce plans of property boundaries for legal
purposes. The registration of land ownership is based on such plans.

Fig 1-1 Engineering surveying: pipe laying with the aid of a laser

1.3 Geodetic surveying

Geodetic surveying is used when surveying large areas, for example a network for the whole country.
Over large areas the curvature of the earth must be considered. Thus, other measurement techniques are
associated with geodetic surveying, such as astronomic measurements, satellite geodesy, etc.

The study of the size and shape of the earth and its gravity field is known as geodesy. The gravity field
is important, as it tells us something about the shape of the earth. Besides, all surveys are related to
gravity because it defines the horizontal plane.

1.4 Measurements

There are many methods of making measurements on the earth’s surface:

 Field work: field surveying,
 Aerial photographs: photogrammetry,
 Satellite images: remote sensing,
 Measurements to stars: astronomic measurements,
 Measurements to satellite: Satellite Geodesy,

As important as the measurement, itself the consideration of the accuracy and quality of the
measurements, which depend on the method used. To ensure high standards of quality, possible sources
of error and ways to avoid them are of great concern to surveyors. Therefore, in every survey exercise,
precautions are undertaken to eliminate as many sources of error as possible, for example, application
of mathematical checks and repetition of measurements.

Surveying is fast developing profession, due to the introduction of computers in the early sixties.
Computers are intensively used for data processing (like survey calculations, processing of remote
sensing images) and automated systems like digital photogrammetric systems, computers assisted
cartography, land information systems/geographical information systems (LIS/GIS).

2
Fig. 1.3 information stored in the computer: LIS/GIS

1.5 Map/Plan Scale

The purpose of making a survey is to produce some kind of plan or Map. Map scale is the relationship
between a unit of length on a map and the corresponding length on the ground. It's also an expression
of how much the area represented has been reduced on the map. Map scale is important for
understanding maps both in paper and computer form, so it will pay you to understand the types and
uses of scales.

1.5.1 Methods of showing scale

Scale is shown on maps in three ways:

i. Verbal expression e.g. 1 mm represents 1 metre, which means 1 mm on the map represents 1 m
on the ground.

ii. By graphic or bar scale, the Bar Scale is particularly important when enlarging or reducing
maps by photocopy techniques or resizing digital maps in documents because it changes with
the map. If the Bar Scale is included in the photocopy, you will have an indication of the new
scale (see Fig).

0 1 2 4 Kilometers

0 1 2 3 4
Kilometers
Fig. 1-4 showing examples of a bar scale

3
 iii. By representative fraction (RF), RFs may be shown as an actual fraction, for example 1/24,000,
but are usually written with a colon, as in 1:24,000. In this example, one unit of any length (one
mm, one cm, one inch, one foot, etc.) on the map represents 24,000 of those same units on the
ground (24,000 mm, 24,000 cm, 24,000", 24,000', etc.). The RF is versatile because you are not
tied to any specific units. You may work in any unit you choose, metric, English, or other. The
RF is a called a fraction because it is just that a fraction that shows how much the real world is
reduced to fit on the map. A 1:100,000-scale map is 1/100,000th as large as the ground area
shown on the map. A good quality map should have both the RF and Bar Scales.

1.5.2 Large vs small scale

When we speak of large-scale maps we are saying the RF is large, i.e. the RF's denominator is small.
1:10,000 and 1:62,500 maps are large scale. Small-scale maps have a small RF. 1:500,000 and
1:1,000,000 maps are small scale. Larger scale maps will cover a small area and show more detail,
while small scale maps will cover a larger area and show less detail.

STREETS City

(a)Large scale

STREETS
City

(b)Small scale

Fig. 1-5 showing representation of features at different scales: (a) large scale and (b) small scale

1.5.3 Conversion of scales to representative fraction

A vital step in scale conversion with differing units is to include the units in the problem itself. You can
then cancel the units by multiplying or dividing. This way you avoid becoming confused about which
conversion factors to use and how to use them

Example 1: If 2 cm on the map represents 20 m on the ground, the RF will be:

4
Example 2: If the scale of the map is 1 : 5 000, how many units on the ground do 5 map units
represent?

RF = 1: 5000
1 unit = 5000 units
5 units = 5 x 5000 units
= 25 000 units

Example 3: If 1 mm on the map represents 2 km on the ground. How many km on ground will 3 mm
on the map represent?

1.5.4 Conversion of Areas by RF

For area, the area ground is related to the plan area through the following formula:

Plan area = Ground area x (RF)2

Example 4: An area was measured on a plan by a rule as 250 x 175 mm. Calculate the ground area in
square metres if the scale is 1: 2000

Plan area = Ground area x (RF) 2 RF2

Ground area =

= 175 000 m2
Example 5: A plot of land was surveyed and found to haveConvert
an areatoofmeter
2000 square
m2. if it is plotted on plan,
scale 1: 500, what will be the plan area in mm2?
Plan area = Ground area x (RF) 2
Plan area = Ground area x (RF) 2
RF2

Plan area

Convert to mm2
= 8000 mm2

1.6 Conclusion
It can be concluded that there are varying methods of taking measurements. Some are very simple, such
as a tape in the field, others are very complicated (and therefore expensive) like taking measurements
to satellite.
5
Scale gives the relationship between a unit of length on a map and the corresponding length on the
ground

The broad range of surveying purposes results in a strong relationship with other profession. Such as
cartography, land law, planning, civil engineering, mathematics, computer science, etc.

6
2 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
To describe the relative positions of features on the earth’s surface, surveyors make use of coordinate
systems. In plane surveying the plane rectangular Cartesian coordinate system is commonly used. The
axes of such a system can be arbitrary chosen, as long as the axes make a right angle and the units of
length on the axes are the same. The vertical axis is usually called the X-axis. The horizontal axis is
called the Y-axis. In some cases, the Y-axis is called the Easting and the X-axis is called Northing,
abbreviated as (E, N).The position of a point is fixed uniquely by giving its perpendicular distance from
two perpendicular axes in the form of two numbers (a pair of coordinates). See Fig. 2.1

X, (N)

ΔY AB B
φ BA

ΔX AB
φ AB
D AB XB, (NB)

A
XA, (NA)
YA, (EA)
Y, (E)
O YB, (EB)

Fig 2-2 Cartesian coordinate system

The positions of points A and B can be described by coordinates (Y A, XA or EA, NA), and (YB, XB or EB,
NB), respectively. These are the perpendicular distances YA, YB and XB and YB from the two principal
axes, at whose intersection the origin O of the system is located.

The relative positions of points A and B can be given by either their coordinate differences ΔY AB = (YB
– YA) and ΔXAB = (XB – XA) or by the distance between them DAB and Bearing (i.e. directional) angle
φAB this angle is given in the clockwise direction from the North axis). The later method is in the Polar
Coordinate System.

2.1 Distances and angles

In surveying, coordinates of points are mostly calculated after measuring distances and angles.

For distances, units are metres. According to the accuracy of the equipment used, the amount of
decimals can vary. For example with a tape we usually read cm, as 23.45 m. With an Electromagnetic
distance measuring instrument (EDM), we usually record mm, as 947.321 m. When using a tape, we
record two decimals, like 14.02 m or 20.00 m. When using an EDM, we record three decimals, like
346.765 m or 50.930 m. Note that the last zeros are always significant and should therefore be
recorded.

7
Angles, used for the calculation of coordinates, can be given in different units:

-Degrees:
a circle is divided into 360 degrees (360˚),
a degree is subdivided into 60 minutes (60’),
a minute is subdivided into 60 seconds (60”)

This system is called the Sexagesimal system.

Sometimes, subdivision is given in the decimal system:

134˚ 39’ 54.6” = 134.6652˚

-Radians:
a circle is 2π rad (π = 3.1415926535897).

This system is called, mathematical system. To remember π by heart, count the number of letters in
each word of the following sentence: How I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy chapters
involving geodesy.

-Grades or gons:

a circle is divided into 400 gon denoted as 400g. This system is called the Centesimal system.

These angular measuring units are easily convertible, for example:

Given that angle φ is 100g find the equivalent in degrees and radians.

Solution:

180˚ = 200g = 3.1415926535897 rad

Therefore: φ˚= = 90˚

φ rad = = 1.5707963267949

2.2 Significant figures

When making calculations attention must be given to the number of decimal points. If distances are
measured in cm, it is of no use to calculate the coordinates in μm. The same applies to angles: if the
angle is measured in few decimals, the coordinates will have few decimals.

8
2.3 Basic calculations in surveying

We already discussed the coordinate system with one axis directed North and the other East (see Fig
2.1). In this paragraph formulas are given within this coordinate system. These formulas are also valid
in other systems (for example: change (E, N) into (Y, X).

The bearing is essential in surveying calculations. The bearing (φ AB) of the a line AB is defined as the
clockwise angles from 0˚ to 360˚ at A between the direction to North and the direction to B. clearly the
bearing of the line AB differs by 180˚ from the bearing of the line BA (φBA):

φBA = φAB ± 180˚ or

φBA = φAB ± 200 gon

2.4 Relationship between bearing and coordinates

Two basic problems can be distinguished:
1. knowing two pairs of coordinates, how to find the bearing and distance between the two points,
2. knowing one pair of coordinates, bearing and distance, how to find the coordinates of the
second point.

Problem 1

Given: coordinates of A and B: (EA, NA) (EB, NB)

Asked: Bearing of line AB: φAB
Distance between A and B: DAB

B
φ AB
ΔN

A
ΔE

Fig 2-3 Calculation of bearing with known coordinates

Solution: Calculation of bearing φAB:

From trigonometric:
tan φAB =

9
So: φAB = tan-1 Eqn 2-1

‫٭‬Note that calculators normally give values between -90˚ and +90˚‫٭‬. Therefore it is important to
indicate in which quadrant the bearing lies. Derived from a sketch of points, the indication can be made
in Roman superscript, as in this case:

φAB = tan-1

In fig. 2.4 and fig. 2.5 the signs of trigonometrical functions for each quadrant are given. If necessary,
180˚ or 360˚ (200 or 400 gon) has to be added or subtracted in order to get the correct figure. Fig. 2.5
shows O-A to O-D with bearings falling in four different quadrants

N 0˚

IV: cos: +
sin, tan: - I: all +

270˚ 90˚

II: sin: +
III: sin, cos: - cos, tan: -
tan: +

180˚

Fig 2-4 Signs of trigonometric functions in different quadrants

10
 N
+ +

IV D - +
A I
tan φ IV tan φ I
- +
- +

cos φ IV

cos φ I
sin φ IV sin φ I

+
+
φI

φIV
○O E
φII
φIII

cos φ II
cos φ III

-
-
sin φ III sin φ II
- +

- B +
C
III II
tan φ I
tan φ I -
+

- -

Fig 2-5 Lines in A-D with bearings in four different quadrants

Calculation of distance DAB:

From Pythagoras’ theorem:

DAB2 = ΔE2 + ΔN2

So: DAB = Eqn 2-2

From trigonometric ratios:

ΔEAB = DAB * sinφAB Eqn 2-3

ΔNAB = DAB * cosφAB Eqn 2-4

DAB = =

Example: 1
Calculate the bearing and distance for lines AB given that (EA= 1049.386 m, NA =392.409 m), and
(EB = 872.325 m, NB = 108.776 m)

Solution: φAB = tan-1

11
 φAB = tan-1
= 31.9749 + 180˚
………………..= 211.9749˚

(180˚has to be added because φAB in the third quadrant.)

DAB2 = ΔE2 + ΔN2

= m

Problem 2

Given: Coordinates of A: (EA , NA)

Bearing of line AB: φAB

Distance from A to B: DAB

Asked: Coordinates of B

Solution: Again from trigonometry (see Fig. 2.2 and .Fig 2.1):

EB = EA + ΔEAB
= EA + DAB sin φAB
NB = NA + ΔNAB
= NA + DAB cosφAB
‫٭‬These formulae are valid for AB in all the four quadrants.‫٭‬

Example:2
The coordinates of point A are 4125.34 m E, 5332.34 m N. Calculate the coordinates of point B where
φAB = 29˚22΄54˝ and DAB = 45.23 m, and point C where φAC = 225˚34΄36˝ and DAC = 92.37 m
Solution: EB = EA + DAB sinφAB
= 4125.34 + 45.23*sin 29˚22΄54˝
……………….= 4125.34 + 22.19
= 4147.53 m

NB = NA + DAB cosφAB
= 5332.34 + 45.23*cos 29˚22΄54˝
=5332.34 + 39.12
= 5371.75 m
Similarly : EC = EA + DAB sinφAB

= 4125.34 + 92.37*sin 225˚34΄36˝

= 4125.34 - 65.97
= 4059.37 m

NC = NA + DAB cosφAB
= 5332.34 + 92.37*cos 225˚34΄36˝
12
 = 5332.34 - 64.65
= 5267.69 m

Note that for φAC both sin and cos are negative, which implies it lies in the third quadrant, while for
φAB both sin and cos are positive, which implies that it lies in the first quadrant

2.5 Relationship between angles and bearings

Given: Coordinates of A: EA, NA

Coordinates of B: EB, NB

Distance from A to C: DAC

Angle between AB and AC: αBAC

C
A φ˚AC
α˚BAC
φ˚AC

Fig 2-6 Calculation of coordinates from angle, distance and coordinates

Asked: Coordinates of C (See fig 2.5)

Solution: to be able to calculate the coordinates of C, one should know the bearing of AC.

The calculation is divided into two steps:

1. Calculation of bearing φAC

2. Calculation of coordinates; EC, NC
1. Calculation of bearing:

The following formula is given:

φAC = φAB + αBAC (clockwise) ± 360˚

13
φAB can be found with formula from example 1
Example 3
A and B are known points with coordinates (E A = 3200.45 m, NA = 8422.56 m) and (EB = 3084.10 m,
NB = 8089.25 m). Given that the angle αBAC = 250˚23΄37˝ and distance DAC = 250.26 m, calculate the
coordinates of point C.

Solution:

1. Bearing of AB:

φAB =

φAB =

φAB = 19˚14΄34˝+ 180°

= 199° 14΄34˝
Bearing of AC:

φAC = φAB + αBAC

= 199˚14΄34˝+250˚23΄37˝
= 499˚38΄11˝ : since this angle is larger than 360°, we subtract 360° to get the
bearing φAC = 499˚38΄11″- 360°
= 89˚38΄11˝ Less than 90°, which means it is in the first quadrant, and all the three
functions, will be positive
2. Coordinates of C:

EC = EA + DACsinφAC

NC = NA + DACcosφAC

EC = 3200.45+ 250.25
= 3450.70 m
NC = 8422.56 + 1.59
= 8424.15 m

2.6 Study questions

(i). Mention three different units that are used for measuring angles in surveying
(ii). Convert 62.5689g to degrees
(iii). Convert 3 rads to gons and degrees
(iv).The bearing from A to B is 45˚23΄56˝ and the difference between A and B in Eastings is
450.35 m. calculate the distance between A and B.
(v). Calculate the coordinates of points B, C and D in figure ABCD, such that the coordinates
of point A are EA = 1000.00 m and NA = 1000.00 m, and the bearing from A to B =φAB =
65˚31΄20˝. The angles and distances were measured in the field as follows:

14
αABC= 235˚02΄50˝, αBCD= 305˚41΄30˝ and αCDA= 233˚52΄30˝, and DAB = 152.53 m , DBC = 152.53
m , DCD = 152.53 m and DDA = 152.53 m. Note that all angles were measured in the clockwise
direction

A C

(vi).Suppose you are given a task to place and mark two corners of a proposed building (C and
D) whose coordinates are given below. Points A and B are already marked in the field and
their coordinates are also given so that points C and D can be placed from them using a
theodolite and tape. Calculate the placing data:
(a) angle α°ABC and distance DBC for placing C from B
(b) angle α°BAC and distance DAC to be used as a check from A
(c) angle α°BAD distance DAD for placing D from A and
(d) angle α°ABD and distance DBD to be used as a check from B

Given: EA = -361.15 m NA = 198.20 m

EB = -180.31 m NB = 81.15 m
EC = - 80.51 m NC = 232.43 m
ED = -261.35 m ND = 349.48 m
D

C
A

15
3 TAPE AND OFFSET SURVEYING
One of the basic methods of surveying is tape and offset surveying or “chain surveying”. The term
chain surveying emanated from the fact that the principal item of equipment used for this method was
the measuring chain, but nowadays a tape is commonly used. This technique is suitable for collecting
details for large scale surveys in relatively small areas.

3.1 Taping equipment

The commonly used equipment in chain surveying include: tapes, ranging rods, plumb bob and
marking arrows (see fig 3.1).

16
17
Fig 3-7 Taping equipment: showing (a) optical square, (b) marking arrows, (c) Plumb Bob, (d) Tape and (e)
ranging rods.

18
 (a)

(d)

(b)

(e) (e)

(c)

1. Tape: a steel band on a frame winder, with length of 30m or 50m.

2. Ranging rods: these are poles, usually 2m long. They are painted with red and white bands
which are usually 25 or 50 cm long, and tipped with a pointed steel shoe to enable them to be
driven into the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines with the tape, and for
making points which require to be seen.
3. Optical square: a device used to measure right angles. Accurate optical square employ
pentagonal-shaped prisms. It is based on the fact that a ray of light reflected from two surfaces
is turned through twice the angle between the surfaces. If the angle between the mirrors is 45º,
a right angle is established. See fig. 3-2.

In an optical square two prisms are put on top of each other, with some space left in between. This
enables us to see in three dimensions: straight forward (space in between prisms), with right angles to
the left (upper prisms) and to the right (prism below), see fig 3-2(a). in fig 3-2 (b) the surveyor stands
at X, sights O1, and directs his assistant to move to O2 until the field of view is as sown in fig. 3-2 (b),
then is a right angle.

19
 A 45˚

B
Eyehole
O1
C

45˚
X B

A
(a) (b) Viewing
windows
O2

Fig 3-8 Principle of optical square: light ray in prism

4. marking arrow: steel pins used to mark tape lengths

5. Plumb bob: to use with the optical square or measuring on slope.

Fig 3-9 Showing: (a) optical square, and (b) use of optical square

3.2 Measuring the length of a line

Distance measurements using tapes involves determining the straight line distance between two points.
When the distance between two points exceeds the tape length, some form of alignment is required to
ensure that the tape is positioned along the required straight line. This is known as ranging and is
achieved using ranging rods and marking arrows.

The operation of measuring long lines is carried out by two assistants, identified as the leader and
follower, the procedure being as follows for a line AB (see Fig. 3.4).
(a). Ranging rods are erected as vertical as possible at point A and B, and for a measure in the
direction of A to B, the zero point is set against A by the follower.

20
 (b).The leader drags his end of the band forward to A1 and holds his ranging rod about 0.3 m short
of the end.
(c). The surveyor lines in the leader by closing one eye, sighting poles A and B, and signaling the
leader till he brings his pole into line AB.
(d).The leader straightens the band by sending gentle ‘snakes’ down the band, pulling it, and a tape
length is marked by placing a marking arrow on the line.
(e). For the next tape length the follower and leader move forward simultaneously with the tape
unwound, the procedure being repeated but with follower at A1 and the leader at A2.
(f). As measurements precedes the follower picks up each arrow left by the leader, and on
completion, the number of arrows held by the follower indicates the number of whole tape
lengths measured. Number of tape lengths multiply by the tape length plus the section at the end
less than the whole tape length gives the total length of line AB.

A A1 A2 A3 A4
B

Fig 3-10 measuring the length of line AB

3.3 Setting out right angles

There are two situations for setting out right angles from the steel band:

3.5.1 Dropping a perpendicular from a point to a line

(i). For short offsets, the end of the tape is held at the point to be located, and the right angle is
estimated by eye. Though used regularly in practice, it not as accurate as the following methods
(ii). The tape is swung with its zero as centre about the point to be located and the minimum reading at
which it crosses the band is noted. This occurs when the tape is perpendicular to the band.
However, the method is only suitable on smooth ground were the tape can swing freely.
(iii). The free end of the tape is held at centre P, the point to be located, strike an arc to cut the band at
A and B ( Fig 3-5 (a )). Bisect AB at Q. then = 90˚.
(iv).Run the tape from P to any point A on the band (Fig. 3-5 (b)). Bisect PA at B, and with centre B
and radius BA strike an arc to cut the band at Q. Then = 90˚ being the angle in a
semicircle.

3.5.2 Setting out a line at right angle to a given point on the band
(i). Optical square is used as already described being either held in the hand or propped on a short
ranging rod ( see fig 3-3 (b)).
(ii). Pythagoras’ theorem (3,4,5 rule or any multiple there of, say 9,12, 15): with zero end of the tape at
P take the 24 m mark of the tape to A, where AP = 12 m on the band. Take the 9 m mark on the
tape in the hand and, ensuring that the tape is securely held at A and P, pull both parts of the tape
taut to Q. then = 90˚.Fig 3-5 (c)

21
(iii). Take A and B on the band so that PA = PB (fig. 3-5 (d)).strike arcs from A and B with equal radii
to intersect at Q. then = 90˚

Q
P
P (c) Q (d)
(a) (b)
B
15 m 9m
Q Survey
A A Survey Survey
B line A P line Survey
Q line
12 m A B line

Fig 3-11 setting out right angles

3.4 Slope correction

All calculations, plans and setting out designs are based or drawn in horizontal plane. Therefore,
measured slope distances should be corrected for slope before being used for calculation or plotting.
This can be achieved by applying the slope correction or measuring the horizontal equivalent in the
field by the method of stepping.

3.4.1 Stepping
This is the best method on ground with varying terrain, and there is no need for correction. The
measurement is done in short lengths of 5-10 m, the leader holding the tape horizontal. The point on the
ground below the free end of the band is better located using a plumb bob see fig 3-6 (b).

(b) Plumb bob

(a)
D1
A α A
D2
L
D3
B B

D = D1 + D2 + D3
D = L cosα

Fig 3-12 Measuring on slopping ground

3.4.2 Measuring along the slope

This is applicable on regular slopes. The slope angle can be measured by Theodolite or leveling a
procedure that gives height difference between the two points.
Slope correction = -L(1 – cosα), where L is the slope distance and α is the slope angle
Note: slopes are given in terms ratios e.g 1 in 10, implies that there is a change in height of 1 m over
10 m in length horizontally

3.5 Procedure
Suppose we have to draw a plan for a plot with existing buildings. See fig. 3-7. In order to be able to
map the buildings, the coordinates of significant points of the building are needed, in this case all

22
corner points. First we need to choose a local coordinate system, to which all measurements will be
related.

Fig 3-13 Buildings to be surveyed

In the field we choose an arbitrary baseline A-B, which will form the Y-axis. A and B are marked with
ranging rods. units are the measuring units from the tape: metres. The X-axis will be the line starting at
A, perpendicular to AB. See fig. 3-8 Measurement will be taken by applying offsets: dropping a

5
4 10 9

3
1 7 8
A B

Fig 3-14 Baseline AB

perpendicular from a point to a line. To make these offsets, we use the optical square or any of the
methods described in sec 3.3. A person should align himself along the line AB by seeing the images of
rods A and B in a straight line through the upper and the lower prisms. Walking along AB, images of
rods A and B still in a straight line, he is able to see for example corner 1 straight forward. When the
corner is in line with the images of rods A and B, we find the offset of 1 on line AB. This point is
called 1’. The plump bob, mounted under the optical square, will precisely show this point on the
ground. This point 1’ will be temporarily marked with an arrow.

23
 1
X
A
Y
1́

Fig 3-15 Coordinates of point 1

Having marked the point, we can measure the distance A-1’, which is the Y-coordinate. Distance 1-1’
is the X-coordinate. See fig. 3-9

In this example, we are not able to see points 4 and 6. therefore, another line is needed, connected to
AB. Such a line is called a chainline. Usually, a network of chain lines is needed, but this will not be
discussed because it falls beyond the scope of this course.

3.6 Checks during field work

A mistake in measuring one of the points will result in the impossibility of drawing the map. In such a
case the survey team has to go back to the field and repeat the entire exercise, because the line AB and
all offsets are temporary for each exercise.

To avoid such inconveniences, one has to ensure that all measurements are correct (within
experimental error) when leaving the field. This means that during all measurements, checks have to be
applied. In chain surveying, two kinds of checks for are common:
1. Checklines. When an offset is taken, a hypotenuse is measured. By applying Pythagoras’
theorem, the offset can be checked. A maximum allowable difference should be set
between the calculated and measured hypotenuse, for example 5cm.

Example (fig. 3-10):

The measured distance of the hypotenuse is 15.82m. For triangle 1-1’-1”, apply Pythagoras’ theorem:

D1”-12 = D1’-1”2 + D1-1’2

= 10.122 + 12.072

= > D1”-1 = 15.75m

24
 15.82 1
12.07
A 1˝
1́
5.25

15.37

Fig 3-16 Measured check line

The difference between calculated and measured value is 7cm and not allowable. A mistake has been
made with setting out the right angle or taking the tape readings. The procedure should be repeated
(using the optical square again to relocate 1’) and a new hypotenuse should be measured and checked.

2. Dimensions of features. If for example a house is measured, the dimensions of the house
can be measured. With Pythagoras’ theorem, the offsets can be checked(see fig. 3-11):

D1-22 = D1-1”2 + D1”-22

Five centimeters can also be taken as the maximum allowable difference.

2 1
A 1˝

2΄
1΄
B
Fig 3-17 checking with dimensions

3.7 Guidelines for the field map

All results of the measurements will appear on a field map. However, calculations are to be shown on a
separate paper.

For the drawing, the following guidelines are applicable, in order to be able reconstruct the procedure
in the office (see fig. 3-12):
 Approximate the north direction indicated by an arrow,
25
  Right angle (when using optical square)
 For writing the measurements:
- figures on one line are referenced to the same origin (the zero reading of the tape),
- the origin is indicated as an arrow,
- Figures are placed perpendicular to the line, as seen from the origin (or zero reading
from the tape).
 Name of survey, surveyor and date.

3.8 Office work

In the office, the field plan is to be studied and checked again. From the measurements a map true to
scale can be drawn. This is illustrated in fig. 3-12.

Fig 3-18 Example of Field plan

(b)
(a)

Fig 3-19 Example of a plan abstracted from the real world: (a) real world and (b) abstracted plan

3.9 Study questions

1. Mention the tools that are used in linear or chain surveying
2. With aid of diagrams, describe the methods of setting out right angles
3. Describe the procedure for measuring a line longer than a tape length

26
4. The length of a line along a gradient of 5º is 95.98 m, calculate the horizontal distance and slope
correction.
5. Mention the field checks that have to be applied in linear surveying,
6. A survey line was measured with a tape, believed to be 10 m long and a length of 208.58 m
resulted. On checking, the tape was found to measure 19.96 m long.
(i.) what was the correct length of line?
(ii.) If the line lay on a slope of 1 in 20 what would be the reduced horizontal length used in the
plotting of the survey
(iii.) What reading is required to produce a horizontal distance of 15.08 m between site pegs, one
being 0.66 m above the other?
b.

27
4 LEVELLING
Leveling is the determination of height difference between points. When the height of a point is given
relative to a certain reference surface, this height is known as a Reduced Level (RL). The reference
surface, very often mean sea level, is called the datum. However, in Zambia, it is difficult to find mean
sea level. The Zambia datum is a benchmark at Chilundu Bridge with a height of 406.426m (above
mean sea level). See fig. 4-1.

On many construction sites, mean sea level is not used as a datum for leveling. Instead a permanent
feature such as a rock or well built beacon is used and given an arbitrary height to suit site conditions.

Fig 4-20 Zambia height datum

Note: the earth’s surface is assumed to be flat in this example. This is not the case in reality. Only for
short distances (below 100m), the earth’ curvatures has no significant effect on height differences.

4.1 Equipment

To be able to determine a height difference we need:

- a device giving a truly horizontal line of sight (a leveling instrument),

- a graduated staff for reading vertical heights (a leveling staff).

3.9.1 Leveling instruments

There are three main groups of conventional leveling instruments:

1. Dumpy level: this is the simplest type, in which the telescope and the vertical spindle are cast
in one piece, so that the instrument must be leveled up (to bring it in horizontal position) with
the footscrews only. A tube level is fitted to indicate horizontality.

28
Fig 4-21 Dumpy level

2. Tilting level: the telescope is not rigidly fixed to the vertical spindle, but capable of a slight
tilt in the vertical plane, using the tilting screw next to the eyepiece. Unlike the dump level,
the tilting level can be brought horizontal even when the level head itself is slightly tilted. In
that case the line of sight (or line of collimation)is not exactly perpendicular to the vertical
axis. Also for this type a level tube is fitted on the telescope to indicate horizontality.

Fig 4-22 Tilting level

3. Automatic level:
This type of leveling instrument has an optical/mechanical compensator that automatically brings
the line of collimation into a horizontal position when the instrument is slightly tilted. Adjusting the
circular bubble is sufficient to make the instrument ready for operation, provided that the
compensator is hanging free. See fig. 4-4.

29
Fig 4-23 Compensator of automatic level

3.9.2 Leveling staff

The levelling staff is graded staff, 2 - 4 metres long. The gradation marks are in centimeters.

Looking through the telescope of the instrument, one can see a vertical cross hair. Perpendicular to this
vertical cross hair and an upper and lower hair are etched on the diaphragm (see fig. 4-5 (a)) the point
at which these hairs hit the leveling staff should be read and recorded, always to the same number of
decimal points ( see fig 4-5 (b) cross hairs on the staff as seen through the telescope with example
readings ). Examples of middle readings from the staff are given in fig. 4-6.

(a) Readings
(b) Upper: 1.510 m
Middle: 1.500 m
Lower: 1.490 m

Fig 4-24 (a) Cross hair on diaphragm (b) cross hair on the staff as seen from the telescope

30
Fig 4-25 Levelling staffs with example readings
The middle reading (from the middle cross hair) is used to determine height, while the upper and lower
readings are used as a check and as estimation for the distance between the instrument and the staff.
Upper and lower lines are placed systematically above and below the middle cross hair, so their
readings on the staff (provided it is held vertical) should be at equal distance above or below the middle
reading.

It is therefore common sense to check the middle reading by comparing it to the average of upper and
lower reading. This field check will help us to detect gross errors in reading.
So:

(U + L)/2 = M 4-1

Due to experimental error a small difference is allowable. For inexperienced people, the discrepancy
between the middle reading and the average of upper and lower readings should not exceed 1.5mm.

As can be seen from the fig. 4-7, the angle between upper cross hair, eyepiece, and lower cross hair is
constant, so that the horizontal distance between instrument and staff is directly proportional to the
interval between upper and lower reading. In other words:

DXA = C*(U-L) 4-2

In modern instruments the lines are engraved such that the constant C equals 100, so

31
 DXA = 100*(U-L)

Fig 4-26 Distance measurement with upper and lower readings

4.2 Parallax

Parallax can be a source of error when reading from the staff. This occurs when the images of cross
hairs and object are not in the same optical plane. The observer will experience parallax as follows:
when he slightly moves his head up and down behind the eyepiece, he will see that the readings on the
staff change. This hampers adequate measuring and is a source of error which should be eliminated.
To remove parallax, aim the instrument at the sky or hold a white sheet of paper in front of the
telescope. Focus the telescope with the focusing screw to infinity. Now adjust the ocular ring at the
eyepiece end until the cross hairs appear very black and distinct. Focus on the staff. Check again if the
parallax has been removed by moving your head. Since the eyepiece setting depends on the
characteristics of the observer’s eye, every new observer should always start with adjusting for
parallax.

4.3 Principles of leveling

4.3.1 Height difference

To obtain the height difference between points A and B the leveling instrument is brought horizontal,
and cross hair (middle) readings are taken to a staff placed at A and B.

In the example (fig. 4-8) the obtained height difference would be:

ΔHAB = MA - MB 4-3

= 3.222 – 3.484
= -0.262m
‫٭‬Positive means a rise from A to B, negative means a fall from A to B.‫٭‬
32
Fig 4-27 Principles of levelling

4.3.2 Series or differential leveling

When the height difference between two or more points cannot be measured directly, due to distance or
obstructions, it must be determined in steps. As can be seen in fig. 4-9, each step has two staff
positions, respectively called ‘backsight” and “foresight”, whose readings are middle cross hair
readings.

When starting differential leveling, a backsight reading is first taken from the starting point, usually a
benchmark. Secondly, a foresight reading is taken to the second point. Then the instrument is shifted to
an arbitrary position between the second and third point and a backsight reading is taken to the second
point. After this, a foresight reading to the third point will be taken. So, a foresight in one step serves as
a backsight in the next, as the instrument’s position is changed in between. The readings to the staffs
are recorded as FS and BS respectively.

Fig 4-28 Differential Levelling

The height difference in one step is now:

ΔHstep = BS – FS Positive: Rise

Negative: Fall
For the total height difference from A to B we get therefore:

ΔHAB = RLB – RLA = ΣRISE – ΣFALL = ΣBS – ΣFS 4-4

The route followed from A to B does not influence the result, and can therefore be chosen as
convenient as possible.

33
4.4 Recording measurements

At each step, the reading of the observer is recorded on the booking form (Table. 4-1). The booker
carries out field checks (not to be written on the booking form itself, where only middle readings are
recorded) and calculates the distances.

Normally, a trajectory starts and ends at a known Benchmark (BM), a point where the height (Reduced
level) is already known from previous surveys. The starting and closing BM can be the same (leveling
a loop), otherwise a trajectory is leveled from one BM to another, enabling the measured height
differences to be checked. This will be discussed later.
Recording can be done in different ways. If the level survey aims at measuring height differences of
points at some distance or when establishing height control the rise and fall method is commonly used.
When profiles (for example road sections) are measured, which have height differences between points
which are close together; the height of collimation method is used (see section 4.5). Any readings that
are taken between the BS and FS positions are referred to as intermediate sight (IS).

4.4.1 Rise and fall method

Between each pair of subsequent points the rise or fall is calculated and the initial RL’s are derived
from this:
The readings are shown booked by rise and fall method in a level book, table 4.1. Each line in a level
book corresponds to a staff position and this is confirmed by entries in the remark column. The
calculations proceed thus:
(i.) From the benchmark to A there is a fall. BS of 0.538 has been recorded at the benchmark and
an IS of 1.135 resulting in height difference given by (0.538-1.135) = -0.597 m. the –ve
sign indicates a fall and is recorded against point 1. This fall is subtracted from the reduced
level at A to obtain the reduced level of 1 as 1192.841 m.
(ii.) This procedure is repeated and the height difference from 1-2 is (1.135-1.397) = -0.262 m, 2-3
is (1.170 – 1.321) = -0.151------, 4-5 is (2.436 – 2.198) = 0.238 m, a rise, which is booked
in the rise column against point 5 and added to reduced level at 4 (1191.116 + 0.238) to
obtain 1191.354 m reduced level at 5.
(iii.) The calculation is repeated until the reduced level at the benchmark B is calculated.
(iv.) When calculating the rise or fall, figures in the FS or IS columns must be subtracted from the
figures in the line immediately above, either in the same column or one column to the left.
At change points, the FS is subtracted from the IS or BS in the line above and the BS on the
same line as FS is then used to continue the calculation with the next IS or FS in the line
below.
In general: RLB = RLA + ΔHAB

After the field work has been completed the calculations on the booking form have to be checked.

4.4.2 Checks
In leveling the following precautions are applicable in order to increase reliability:

1. Leveling from the middle: when the line of sight is not truly horizontal, the result is called a
collimation error. However, leveling from the middle eliminates this error (checked in the
booking form ΣDBS = ΣDFS).
34
 2. Field checks: to book correct staff readings:

(U + L)/2 = M

If differences exceed 1.5mm, new readings (U, M and L) must be taken.

3. Calculation checks: after filing the booking form the following should be checked:
ΣBS – ΣFS = ΣRise – Σfall = RLlast - RLfirst

If these equations are not met, then calculation error has been made and the booking form must be
filled again.

4. Check with known height differences: in a level survey known points are included.

 In the case of leveling a loop: because we end at the starting point, the measured
height difference should theoretically be zero.
 In the case of starting at a known BM and closing at another, the measured height
difference should be equal to the known height difference between the two
benchmarks. In both cases, a small discrepancy is allowed (say one or two
centimeters per kilometer), due to experimental error.
Note: given RL’s of existing Benchmarks should never be altered. The values are fixed.

An example is given below:

Table 4-1 Booking form for rise and fall method
POINT READINGS DIST. HEIGHT DIFF. REDUCED REMARKS
LEVEL
NR. BS IS FS BS FS RISE FALL
A 0.538 40.2 1193.438 Benchmark
1 1.135 0.597 1192.841
2 1.170 1.397 35.4 39.7 0.262 1192.579 Change point
3 1.321 0.151 1192.428
4 2.436 2.633 33.2 36.0 1.312 1191.116 Change point

5 2.415 2.198 31.7 34.3 0.238 1191.354 Change point

6 1.300 1.967 25.7 30.9 0.448 1191.802 Change point
B 1.528 24.9 0.228 1191.574 Benchmark

Σ BS = 7.859 Σ FS = 9.723 166.2 165.8 0.686 2.550

Σ BS – Σ FS = -1.864
Σ Rise – Σ Fall = -1.864
RLB – RLA = -1.864

4.5 Height of collimation method

35
 Table 4-2 Height of collimation method
POINT READINGS DIST. HEIGHT OF REDUCED REMARKS
COLLIMATION LEVEL
NR. BS IS FS BS FS
A 0.538 40.2 1193.976 1193.438 Benchmark
1 1.135 1192.841
2 1.170 1.397 35.4 39.7 1193.749 1192.579 Change point
3 1.321 1192.428

4 2.436 2.633 33.2 36.0 1193.552 1191.116 Change point

5 2.415 2.198 31.7 34.3 1193.769 1191.354 Change point

6 1.300 1.967 25.7 30.9 1193.102 1191.802 Change point
B 1.528 24.9 1191.574 Benchmark

8343.694
Σ 7.859 2.456 9.723 166.2 165.8
2.456+ 9.723 + 8343.694 =8355.873
1193.976 2 +1193.7492 + 1193.552 + 1193.769+1193.102 = 8355.873

The height of collimation method of reducing levels is based on the height of collimation (HoC) being
calculated for each instrument and thus:
(i.) The BS reading at A, (benchmark) is added to the RL of the benchmark to obtain the HoC at
instrument position one I1. This will be 1193.438 + 0.538 = 1193.976 m and is entered in the
appropriate column.
(ii.) To obtain the RLs of staff positions 1, and 2 from I 1, the staff readings to those points are
subtracted from the HoC as follows:
RL1 = 1193.976 - 1.135 = 1192.841 m
RL2 = 1193.976 – 1.397 = 1192.579 m
(iii.) At point 2, a change point, the instrument position is moved to I 2 and a new height of collimation
is calculated by adding the BS at 2 to RL at 2 computed from I1. Then the staff reading positions
3 and 4 made from I2 are subtracted from this height of collimation to find the reduced levels at
3 and 4, and the procedure is repeated until the reduced level of the benchmark B is found.
(iv.) The check is conducted as follows:

ΣBS – ΣFS = RLlast - RLfirst 4-5

and
ΣIS+ ΣFS+ ΣRLs except the first = Σ(each HoC  number of applications) 4-6
Equation 4-5 only checks reduced levels calculated using BS and FS and is shown at the bottom of
table 4.2. equation 4-6 checks reduced levels calculated from IS readings is added thus:

ΣIS+ ΣFS+ ΣRLs except the first = 2.456+ 9.723 + 8343.694 =8355.873
The first HoC was used twice , the second HoC was used twice, the third to fifth HoC were used once
and this gives the second part of the check thus:
1193.976 2 +1193.749 2 + 1193.552 + 1193.769+1193.102 = 8355.873

36
The second check is cumbersome and sometimes ignored leaving the intermediate sights unchecked.

The rise and fall method is quicker to reduce in situations where there are few or no intermediate sights
(e.g when establishing height control)

The height of collimation method is quicker to reduce where a lot of intermediate sights are required
(e.g. when taking cross section levels) since fewer calculations are required. It is also a good method
for setting out levels where several readings are taken from one instrument position.

Digital level
This type of instrument has capability to measure, calculate and record electronically. It uses electronic
image processing techniques and interrogates a specially made bar-coded staff in order to obtain
readings. The set up is same as an optical automatic level. When leveling the bar-coded staff is sighted,
the focus is adjusted and button pressed to measure. The reading is displayed on the screen and can also
be stored automatically. This gives it an advantage over the other conventional levels because there is
no need for booking. This eliminates booking errors.

4.6 Application of leveling

Leveling has many applications in construction. Levels are needed in setting out, sectioning, and
contouring.

4.6.1 Sectioning
Sectioning is usually undertaken for construction work such as road works, railways, pipelines, and
canals. Two types of sectioning namely Longitudinal and Cross-sections are often required. The
information obtained from sectioning is essential in the:
(i.) Calculation of earthworks
(ii.) Supplying details about the volume of cut and fill required
(iii.) Determination of suitable gradients for construction works

4.6.1.1 Longitudinal sections

A longitudinal section or profile is taken along the complete length of the proposed centre line of
construction showing the existing ground level. Leveling is used to measure heights at points on the
centerline so that a profile can be plotted. Longitudinal sections provide data for estimating the most
economical formation level. Firstly, the centerline of the section is set out on the ground using
theodolite and tape, or total stations, and pegs are marked at regular intervals called chainages (e.g. 20
m, 25 m, etc). Secondly leveling is carried out following all the leveling rules as described above.
Levels are taken at all the following points in order represent the existing ground level as accurately as
possible:
 .At centerline pegs noting the exact chainage
 At points on the centre line where there are sudden changes in ground slope
 Where features cross the centerline, such as fences, hedges, roads, pavements, ditches etc
For the profile to be plotted correctly, the distance to levels taken off the marked chainages should be
measured with a tape.

37
 4.6.1.2 Cross sections
Cross sections are taken at right angles to the centerline for the full construction width in constructions
such as roads and railways at every chainage. This is normally done at the same time as longitudinal
sections. The distances from the centerline are normally regular (e.g. 3, 5, 10, 15, 20) on either side of
the centerline peg. Where the ground is undulating, levels should be taken at all changes of slope such
that a good representation of existing ground level is obtained over the full construction width. The
leveling process for both longitudinal and cross-section starts at a known point and goes on until it
closes at another known point to check the accuracy of the leveling.

Fig 4-29 Longitudinal section at Kachibiya bridge in Mpika

4.6.2 Contouring
A contour is defined as a line joining points of equal height above or below a datum. The difference in
height between successive contours is known as a contour or vertical interval, and this interval
dictates the accuracy to which the ground is represented. The value chosen interval depends on:
(i.) The intended use of the plan
(ii.) The scale of the plan
(iii.) The costs involved
(iv.) The nature of the terrain.
A small contour interval of up to 1 m is normally required for civil engineering projects and large scale
plans on fairly even sites, and a wider contour interval is required for small scale plans and in areas
with broken terrain. Smaller contour intervals are expensive because they requires more fieldwork than
lager contour intervals.

When contours lines are close to each other, it indicates steep gradients exist and when they are far
apart, it indicates generally flat land. Two contours of different values cannot intersect. The major use
of a contour plan is that it enables an assessment of the topography; such plans are normally prepared
when large construction projects such as housing estates are under consideration. The following
methods are commonly used for contouring.

38
4.6.2.1 Direct contouring
In this method the actual positions of contour lines are located on the ground by levelling. A level is set
up at a convenient point so as to cover as much ground as possible. A back sight reading is taken to the
benchmark of known reduce level and the height of collimation is calculated. For example:
Given:
RL of the benchmark = 1260.52 m
BS reading = 1.62 m
HoC = 1262.14 m

To locate the 1260 m and 1261 m contour, the staff reading will be:

1260 m contour = 1262.14 – 1260 = 2.14

1261 m contour = 1262.14 – 1261 = 1.14
To mark the 1260 m contour, the surveyor directs the staff up and down the hill until the staff reading
is 2.14 at which point the staff man puts a marks (different colour used for each contour) on the ground.

4.6.2.2 Indirect contouring

This involves levelling of points that do not coincide with the contour positions. The levels obtained
are then used as a framework which contours are interpolated and plotted on a plan. The levels are
either taken on a regular grid pattern or at carefully selected points.

Grid levelling
The area to be contoured is divided into a series of lines forming squares and ground levels are taken at
the intersection of grid lines. The grid size can vary depending on the accuracy required and the nature
of nature of the terrain (see table 4-3). Uneven terrain requires a larger concentration of grids and vice
versa. Contours are then interpolated from reduced levels using either mathematical or graphical
methods
Table 4-3
Scale
1:50 1:100 1:200 1:500 1:1000
Contour interval 0.05 m 0.10 m 0.25 m 0.50 m 1.00 m
Spot level or grid size 2m 5m 10 m 20 m 40 m

Contours from selected points

For large areas, or areas containing a lot of detail, contours can be drawn from levels taken at points of
detail at prominent points on the ground such as obvious changes in slope. This is a suitable method
when using equipment that gives position such as Global Position System (GPS) and Total stations.

Interpolation of contours
In direct method of contouring, spot heights are located at exact contour values, plotted on a plan and
contours are drawn by joining spot heights of equal value with a smooth curve. On the contrary, in
indirect method of contouring, spot heights are not at exact contour values and it is necessary to locate

39
 points of exact contour values on the plan. This is done by either graphical or mathematical
interpolation.

Mathematical interpolation
In this method, the height difference between two spot heights is calculated and used with horizontal
distance between them to calculate the position at which required contour is located on the line joining
the two spot heights. For example:
Calculate the location of 36 m and 37 m contours on line joining spot heights A and B of reduced levels
37.2 and 35.8 m respectively.
Solution:
By simple proportion
from which x = 4.1 m, and y = 24.6 m

The horizontal distance x and y are scaled on the plan to fix the position of 36 m and 37 m contours
respectively. When all the exact contour positions have been plotted they are joined by a smooth curve.
A
37.2
37

1.4
36
1.2
0.2
B
35.8
x

y
28.7

Fig 4-30 Mathematical intepolation

Graphical interpolation
This is a quicker method where there are large numbers of spot heights. The procedure is as follows:
(i.) A piece of tracing paper is prepared with a series of equally spaced horizontal lines and every
tenth line is drawn heavier than the others (see Fig. 4-12).
(ii.) The tracing paper is laid between pairs of spot heights and rotated until the horizontal line
corresponds to the known spot heights.
(iii.) The heavy lines indicate the position of contour lines where they pass over the line joining the spot
heights and these positions are pricked through on to the drawing paper using a sharp point.
(iv.) The reduced level of the contour is written lightly next to its position. When all the exact contour
positions have been located they are joined by smooth curves.

40
 97

A (96.60)
96

95

94

B (93.20)

94 m
96 m
contour
contour
position
position

Fig 4-31 Graphical interpolation of contours

The quickest method for preparing contours is use of electronic equipment such as total stations and
GPS and downloading data directly to the computer, where contours are automatically generated using
software.

4.7 Study questions

1. Complete the booking form below, reduce the levels, show all the necessary checks and
determine the height difference between 2 and 4. (also compute using rise and fall method).

POINT READINGS HEIGHT OF REDUCED REMARKS

NR. BS IS FS COLLIMATION LEVEL
A 1.632 1260.420 Benchmark
1 3.467 1.124 Change point
2 0.568
3 1.835 0.381 Change point
4 -2.473 Under the bridge
(Inverted staff)
5 1.732 3.941 Change point
B 2.484 1261.156 Benchmark
Σ

2. State the advantages of the HoC method compared to rise and fall method.
3. List the levelling applications
4. Explain why it is important to carry out checks during levelling assignments

41
5 THEODOLITE AND ITS USE
The basic elements that can be measured in plane surveying are distances and angles. Angles can be
measured e.g. with a campus, or they can be derived trigonometrically, but the most important
instrument for angular measurements is the theodolite, which can be used for any kind of survey in
which angles are involved, from large scale topographical surveys or setting out works to highly
accurate first order triangulations or deformation measurements.

Fig 5-32 Theodolite and its parts

5.1 The basic parts of a theodolite

Fig 5-33 Main axes of the theodolite

42
The theodolite is built up around the following three main axes (see Fig. 5-2):
1. The first axis, or vertical axes V
2. The second axis, also called horizontal, trunnion or transit axis T.
3. The third axis, also called line of sight or line of collimation C.

To illustrate the basic features of a theodolite, a simplified sketch of a vernier theodolite is given in Fig.
5-3. Although this type is obsolete, it shows clearly the basic features of a theodolite:
- Base plate: forming the base of the instrument connects the theodolite to the tripod.
- Tribrach: supports the rest of the instrument and, with reference to the plate bubble, can
be leveled using the footscrews.
- Lower plate: graduated clockwise from 0˚ to 360˚ (or from 0˚ to 400gon), for measuring
horizontal angles.
- Upper plate: fits concentric with the lower plate and may be regarded as the index
against which the lower plate is read. In modern theodolites the lower plate is a grass arc
which is read via a complicated optical train of lenses and prisms.
- Standards: supports the vertical circle and telescope by the transit axis.
- Vertical circle: fixed to the telescope, for measuring vertical angles.
- Vertical circle index: the datum from which vertical angles are measured
- Altitude bubble: attached to the vertical circle index and when centralized establishes
the vertical circle index horizontal.
- Alidade: the upper part of the theodolite, which is rotatable (without the horizontal
circle).

5.2 Direction and angles

Horizontal angles are angles between two vertical planes through the intersection point I of the
theodolite (see fig. 5-3), which is assumed to be vertical above stand point I. The horizontal circle is
used for horizontal angular measurements. It has a clockwise graduation either in the sexagesimal or in
the centesimal system. The zero reading of the circle can be in any position after leveling up, so the
reading, often called direction, to a certain target point can be of any value. We therefore need two
directions for one horizontal angle (see Fig. 5-3), which theoretically is the same every time we reduce
it.

Fig 5-34 Horizontal angle AIB, measured in the horizontal plane through intersection point I

43
Fig 5-35 Simplified vernier theodolite

When observing from a particular stand point I we take one target point as a reference for the
horizontal angles. This point is called reference object (RO) and is indicated as such on the booking
form. Usually our first target is taken as RO.

Fig 5-36 Subtracting the reading to A from the reading to B gives the horizontal angle AIB

44
 20 30 40
Circle reading 94° 10′
Micrometre 2′ 44″
Full reading 94° 12′ 44″ V-circle reading 124° 30′
Micrometre 3′ 34″
124° 33′ 34″

Hz-Circle reading 56° 50′

Micrometre 3′ 34″
56° 53′ 34″

Fig 5-37 Reading systems

5.3 Reading the circle

After leveling up and having bisected a target accurately using the fine (slow motion) movement screw,
we are ready to take a horizontal circle reading. The order types of theodolites have a silver circle; the
newer types all have glass circles in the lower plate, with optical reading systems. The reading is
obtained by viewing through the small eyepiece next to the telescope. A mirror must be set to allow
light into the interior of the theodolite for illumination of the circle. Less accurate (low-order)
instruments have direct reading systems, so that directions are obtained by looking directly at the circle
reading of the pointer, and often horizontal and vertical readings can be simultaneously viewed. More
accurate instruments have optical micrometers for fine reading of the circles. All micro-meters are
based on the fact that the human eye very sensitive to coincidence. A micrometer operating screw,
usually on the right standard of the instrument, is used to bisect or coincide certain line features, and
accurate values are obtained by reading the micrometer scale. A few example of reading systems are
given in Fig 5-6

5.4 Transitting the theodolite

An important term used in connection with theodolite surveying is the “face” of the theodolite, which is
the physical position of the standard containing the vertical circle, as seen by the observer.
45
Face Left (FL): vetical circle is left of the telescope.

Face Right (FR): vertical circle is right of the telescope.

The action of changing from FL to FR position or vice versa is called transitting the telescope (or
theodolite):
- Be sure that the instrument is in FL-position and sight a target.
- Rotate the alidade around the first axis by 180˚ (the telescope now points towards the
observer).
- Rotate the telescope around the transit until it is pointing at the target again. The
instrument has now been transitted into FR-position.

Fig 5-38 Transitting

In most angular measurements, transiting is applied in order to eliminate some instrumental errors.

5.5 Field procedure

In some cases we need the angles to a relatively high degree of accuracy, therefore we must try to
minimize the effects of certain systematic errors and random errors as much as possible. In some cases
we should adapt the following rules:
- Measure in both faces (FL and FR) and use the values for calculation of the average.
Several types of possible systematic errors are eliminated in this way.
- Take more than one direction to each target point. This will reduce the effect of random
errors.
- Spread the observations over the horizontal circle, i.e. use all parts of the circle. In this
way any small residual graduation errors may be compensated.
These rules are applied in the so-called Bessel-rounds. Each round consists of one set of FL- and one
set of FR readings to the targets, transiting the instrument in between. When observing e.g. 5 targets
from stationpoint A, the sequence for one round is as follows:
Round 1
FL---Face Left – Swing Right
A (RO)
B
C
D
E
Transit telescope
FR--- Face Right – Swing Left
46
E
D
C
B
A (RO)
In the following rounds, the same sequence will be taken. However, the reading will be changed by
turning the horizontal circle when aiming at the reference object. The horizontal circle can be turned
using a special screw. The circle should only be changed after a full round, otherwise the measurements
from the non-completed round are useless.

5.6 The booking form

There are several different designs of booking forms for horizontal and vertical angles, an example is
given below.

Table 5-4
POINT READINGS SIMPLE REDUCED REMARKS
MEAN MEAN
FL FR

After entering the general information (instrument, date, observer, booker, station point) we find 6
columns. In column 1 the pointer, (of the target point of course) is recorded. In column 2 and 3 the FL
and FR readings to that particular target are indicated. Theoretically the following relation exists
between a FL and FR reading to a target:
FL = FR + 180˚ (200 gon) (horizontal circle readings).
As discussed before, systematic and random errors will give rise to small discrepancies in this equation.
The simple mean in column 4 is the average of FL and (FR±180˚). Column 5 is the column we will use
in further calculations, because it gives the reduced means (or horizontal angles) relative to the RO in a
certain round. To obtain these reduced means the simple mean of the RO is subtracted from all simple
means in that round, making the reduced mean of the RO itself automatically equal to 00˚00’00”! The
final values for the horizontal angles are obtained by taking the average of all the reduced means from
the various rounds. An example of observations from a standpoint to four targets in four Bessel-rounds
is given below:
Horizontal angles
Instrument: Wild T2 Observer: A. Banda
Table 5-5 : example of four bessel rounds
Face Simple Reduced Remarks
PNT. Left Right mean mean
° ′ ″ ° ′ ″ ° ′ ″ ° ′ ″
A 0 00 06 180 00 09 0 00 08 0 00 00 RO
B 21 46 29 201 46 33 21 46 31 21 46 23
C 63 17 21 243 17 26 63 17 24 63 17 16
D 100 24 01 280 24 05 100 24 03 100 24 03
E 142 10 53 322 10 48 142 10 50 142 10 42

A 45 00 08 225 00 13 45 00 10 0 00 00 RO

47
 B 66 46 26 246 46 35 66 26 30 21 46 20
C 108 17 28 288 17 23 108 17 25 63 17 15
D 145 24 00 325 24 00 145 24 00 100 23 50
E 187 10 55 7 10 46 187 10 50 142 10 40

A 90 00 07 270 00 10 90 00 08 0 00 00 R.O
B 111 46 33 291 46 28 111 46 30 21 46 22
C 153 17 24 333 17 26 153 17 25 63 17 17
D 190 24 03 10 23 58 190 24 00 100 23 52
E 232 10 48 52 10 51 232 10 50 142 10 420

A 135 00 10 315 00 22 135 00 16 0 00 00 RO

B 156 46 38 336 46 34 156 46 36 21 46 20
C 198 17 29 18 17 36 198 17 32 63 17 16
D 235 24 11 55 24 07 235 24 09 100 23 53
E 277 10 51 97 10 54 277 10 53 142 10 37
° ′ ″
Simple mean =
A 135 00 10
B 156 46 38 Reduced Mean = Simple Mean reduced by the amount required to make the R.O
C 198 17 29 Mean = 0 00 00
D 235 24 11
Total Mean = Arithmetic Mean of all the directions (i.e reduced means ) from all
E 277 10 51 four rounds of observation

5.7 Electronic theodolites

Though they are still used widely, optical theodolites discussed above are now obsolete and are no
longer being manufactured. They have been replaced by more user friendly and versatile electronic
theodolite. The new versions of theodolites are capable of automatically displaying angles to an
accuracy of 0.1″ to 20”. Other features available on electronic theodolites include:
(i.) Built in illumination function for displaying and cross hairs
(ii.) Data transfer, since information is generated digitally by the electronic theodolites, there is
normally a provision for storage and transfer to the computer for further processing
(iii.) Built in programs for computations and setting out.
(iv.) Key boar for the user to interact with the system
(v.) Have single or dual-axis compensation for easy setting up of the systems

5.8 Stadia tacheometry

A theodolite is not only used for measuring angles but it is also used for measuring heights: (i) through
trigonometric leveling, a technique for determining height difference by measuring vertical angles and
distances using an EDM, but this will not be discussed in this course; and (ii) Stadia techeometry, a
technique used to measure height and distance using stadia lines engraved on the telescope diaphragm
(also see section 4.1.2). In stadia tacheometry, a leveling staff is held vertically at one end of the line
being measured and a theodolite is set up above the other. The staff read using stadia lines as shown in
fig 5-8.

48
 Stadia lines on the staff as viewed through the
telescope

(b
(a) m
RLB B V

I θ

hi

RLA D
A

Fig 5-39 Showing: (a) view of staff through the telescope, and (b) inclined line of sight in stadia tacheometry
With reference to Fig 5-8
Horizontal distance 5-1
Vertical distance 5-2
Reduced level of B = 5-3
K is the multiplying constant of the instrument, usually 100
C is the additive constant of the instrument, usually 0
s is the staff intercept, that is, the difference between upper and lower readings of the staff
θ is the vertical angle along the line of sight
hi is the height of the instrument above point A
m is the middle staff reading at B
+V is used if there is an angle of elevation
-V is used if there is an angle of depression
* if the vertical angle θ is zero then horizontal distance = Ks, and the vertical distance = 0*
In the absence of the EDM, Total station, and Global positioning System (GPS) Stadia tacheometry is
one of the fastest method for conducting a topographic survey. It gives more reliable results than
measuring distances with tape especially in rough terrain.

Example:
A theodolite having a multiplying constant of 100 and an additive constant of 0 was centred and
leveled at height of 1.48 m above a point C of the reduced level 46.87 m. A leveling staff was held
vertically at points D and L in turn and the readings shown in table 4.3 were taken.
Calculate: (i) the reduced levels of points D and L
(ii) the horizontal length of DL.

49
staff Staff readings (m)Vertical Horizontal
position circle circle
U M L readings readings
D 3.240 3.047 2.853 87°38′53″ 56°49′31″
L 2.458 2.230 2.002 92°21′36″ 98°07′18″
Table 5.3
Solution:
(i.) the reduced levels of points D and L
Fig. 5.9 depicts the data obtained

VCD
Horizontal plane through I I 02°21′07″
02°21′36″
VCL
1.48 D

Fig 5-40

From equation (5-2)

VCD =

VCL=
Applying equation (5-3) gives:
RLD = RLC + hi + VCD – m
= 46.87 + 1.48 + 1.57 -3.047 = 46.89 m
And

RLL = RLC + hi + VCL – m

= 46.87 + 1.48 – 1.876 – 2.230 = 44.24 m

(ii) The horizontal length DL

From equation (5-1)
DCD =
DCL=

50
Fig 5-41 Shows a plan view of points C, D and L. from this

Angle DCL = 98°07′18″ - 56°49′31″ = 41°17′47″

In triangle DCL, the cosine formula gives:
D2DL = D2CD + D2CL – 2(DCD) (DCL) cos 41°17′47″
Replacing the values for DCD and DCL, DL is
DDL = 30.368 = 30.37 m

5.8.1 Accuracy and sources of error in stadia tachometry

The accuracy of stadia tacheometry depends on instrumental errors and field errors.

Instrumental errors
(a). An incorrectly assumed value of K, the multiplying constant, caused by an error in construction
of diaphragm
(b).Errors arising out of the assumption that K and C are fixed when in reality both K and C are
variable
Errors limit measurement of horizontal distance to an accuracy of about 1 in 1000.

Field errors
(a). Errors in staff readings
(b).Error due to non verticality of the staff
(c). Error in reading the vertical circle of the theodolite
For better accuracy the length of sight should not exceed 100 m and the vertical tilt should never
exceed 10°.

51
5.8.2 Application of stadia tacheometry
Stadia tacheometry is suitable detail surveying by radial means for the purpose of producing contour
site plans. The best obtainable accuracy is 1 in 1000, and therefore it should not be used for measuring
distances where precision this is required.

5.8.3 Study questions

1. Mention the uses of a theodolite?
2. complete the following booking form
Face Simple Reduced Remarks
PNT. Left Right mean mean
° ′ ″ ° ′ ″ ° ′ ″ ° ′ ″
A 00 00 07 180 00 10 R.O
B 113 33 31 293 33 28
C 154 14 27 334 14 24
D 195 21 03 15 20 59
E 230 11 45 50 11 51

3. Compare and contrast an electronic theodolite from an optical theodolite

4. The following readings were taken on vertically held staff. Calculate the horizontal distance
between the theodolite and the staff, and the elevation at the staff station, if the height of the
instrument axis is 37.36 m above datum.
Vertical angle Staff reading
+4°13′30″ 1.00 m
+5°58′20″ 3. 00 m

5. In a tacheometric traverse, of which the first three stations are A, B and C, at station B it is
found that the instrument height had not been measured above the peg A. Find from the
tabulated readings the missing instrument height and the reduced level of the ground at C, if
that at A is 83.44 m. The instrument constants are 100 and 0.
Station Point Vertical circle Height of
reading U M L instrument (m)
A B +5°42′ 2.43 2.07 1.71
B A -5°24′ 1.68 1.34 1.00 1.28
B C -5°24′ 1.68 1.44 1.20 1.28

52
6 ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS: EDM AND TOTAL
STATIONS
Accurate distance measurement using a tape is one of the most challenging surveying operations. Some
of the disadvantages of using a tape include:
 Tapes have limited length and requires combination of several tape lengths to measure long
distances
 Tape measurements requires a huge survey party
 Requires a lot of corrections
 Difficulty to measure over inaccessible terrain such as water logged areas, hilly areas, and steep
slopes
 Requires experienced users
The advent of Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM) equipment has completely
revolutionized this, for it allows Surveyors and Civil Engineers to measure long distances to a few
millimeters at a press of a button. With the use of theodolite-mounted EDMs and Total stations,
Surveyors and Civil Engineers can now perform all sorts of setting out and surveying tasks much
quicker and accurately.

6.1 How it works

Typically, the EDM instrument is set over the end of the line to be measured and reflector is set over
the other end such that the line of sight between the instrument and reflector is unobstructed. At a press
of the measure button, an EDM transmits an electromagnetic (EM) wave to the reflector, where it is
reflected back to the instrument (Fig. 6-1). The distance is calculated either from the time difference
between the transmitted pulse and the return pulse or the phase difference between the transmitted
beam and reflected beam of radiation.

EDM Reflector

Figure 6-1 Electromagnetic distance measuring equipment

6.1.1 Electromagnetic Waves

The EM waves are represented as sinusoidal waves and have predictable properties by which all EM
radiation is defined (Fig 6-2).The wave completes a cycle when moving between two identical points
on the wave.
Frequency is the number of times a wave completes a circle in one second and is represented by
f hertz (Hz) being 1 cycle per second.

Wavelength is the distance covered by the wave in one circle and is represented by λ metres.

The speed of the electromagnetic wave in a vacuum is termed as speed of light and it is given
by the symbol c. The value of c is known at present time as 299 792 458 m s-1. The frequency
53
 and wavelength vary according to the electrical disturbance producing them, while the speed of
the electromagnetic wave depends on the medium it is traveling through.

The above properties of the EM waves are related by:

……………………………………………………………………………………Eqn 6-5

The other term associated with period waves is the phase of the wave (fig 6-2 (b)). Angular
degrees or radians are used as units for measuring phase angle up to maximum of 360° or 2Л
radians for a complete cycle.

One wavelength or cycle

(a)

Wave travels as speed

V
Amplitude

(b)

Amax

0 90 180 270 Φ°

Figure 6-2 Sinusidal wave motion: (a) as a function of distance (or time) and (b) as a function of phase angle

6.1.2 Phase differences and distances

As mentioned above, the EDM system determines distance by measuring the difference in phase angle
between the transmitted and reflected signals. The phase delay or phase difference is expressed as a
fraction of cycle which can be converted into distance when the frequency and velocity of the wave are
known. Fig 6-3 shows an EDM instrument set up at A, and a reflector at B so that distance AB = D can
be measured.

54
 (a)
3 B
6 /
0 /
° 3
6
(b) 0
3 /
6A 0B A′//
0
// / 360/0
0/ /
Φ31 = 0° 3 Φ2 = 90°
6 6 ∆λm
0 nλ0m
/ /
0 0
D D
A /
/
Figure 6-3 Phase comparison /
/ 3
In Fig 6-3 (a) shows details
3 of details of an EM
6 wave path as been continuously transmitted from A
towards B, reflected at B and received back at0 A. In Fig 6-3 (b) the same sequence is shown, but with
6
the return wave opened 0 out. Points A and A’/ are the same since the receiver and transmitter are side by
/ 0
side in the same unit at0 A. From Fig 6-3 (b) the distance covered from A to A’ is given by:
………………………………………………………………………………………..Eqn 6-6

D is the distance from A to B

λ is the wave length =
n is the number of complete wavelengths
v is Velocity of the EM wave
f is the frequency
∆λ =

Equation 6-2 shows that the distance D is made up of two elements: the phase difference ∆λm, and
the unknown distance.
 The phase difference is determined using the electrical phase detectors, which are built in the
instrument. This device measures the emitted phase Φ 1 for this case and the reflected phase Φ2
for this case. Then the difference between the two gives ∆λ, which is the required phase
difference.
 which is referred to as resolving the ambiguity of the phase comparison can be
determined by one of the following methods:
o The measuring wavelength can be increased manually in multiples of 10 so that a
coarse measurement of D is made, enabling n to be deduced.
o D can be found using three or more different, but closely related, wavelengths, to
form simultaneous equations of the form . These can be solved,
making certain assumptions, to give a value of D.
o Most instruments use electromechanical or electronic devices to solve this problem
automatically, the machine displaying the required distance D.

55
6.1.3 Analogy with taping
If we refer to Fig 6-3, and assume the wave length is 30 m. from the figure n = 7, Φ1= 0° and Φ2 = 90°.
Applying Equation 6-2 :
= +

= (730) +
D = 108.75 m
Imagine distance AB was measured using by tape as in section 3.2, this would involve aligning the tape
in successive lengths along line AB (giving mx where m is the number of whole tape lengths) and
representing the remaining tape length as ∆x. Then D = mx + ∆x, if one tape length is 30 m then
measurement of AB will be:

D = 3 X 30 + 18.75 = 108.75 m

Measuring of a length using electromagnetic waves is therefore analogous to taping.

6.2 EDM Systems

Many EDM systems are available on the market, the majority of which use an infrared carrier source
and need a special reflector to measure distance. Most EDMs use a purpose-built glass prism as the
reflector for the EDM signal, and can measure distances out to a few kilometers, but some instruments
are "reflectorless", and can measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in color. The
reflectorless EDMs use time difference between the emitted pulse and return pulse reflected from the
targeted object to be measured to calculate distance. Three types of EDMs can be identified: theodolite-
mounted EDMs, total stations and distancers.

Figure 6-4 examples EDM Prism reflectors

6.2.1 Theodolite- mounted EDM Systems

In theodolite mounted EDMs, an EDM is mounted on either an electronic theodolite or optical
theodolite (Fig 6-2) and the two instruments are well aligned such that angles and distances to the
target are measured simultaneously.
56
 (a) (b)

Figure 6-5 Theodolite mounted EMDs: (a) Optical theodolite and (b) electronic theodolite

6.2.2 Total Stations

In Total stations, the EDM transmitter and receiver are combined with the electronic theodolite
telescope in one unit, which makes it easier and lighter to use on site. It also has onboard software
which helps reduce slope distance to horizontal distance using the vertical angle measured by the
theodolite. In addition, the height difference between the trunnion axis and prism centre is also
calculated and displayed.

With the aid of trigonometry, the angles and distances may be used to calculate the coordinates of
actual positions (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points, or the position of
the instrument from known points, in absolute terms.

The total stations normally have a facility for storing measured data either in the internal memory or
memory cards which can be directly downloaded to the computer for further processing. Other features
available on most total stations include programs for: setting out, distance resection, intersection,
traversing and computing points using coordinate geometry.

Some total stations also have a Global Positioning System (GPS) interface which combines these two
technologies to make use of the advantages of both (GPS - line of sight not required between measured
points; Traditional Total Station - high precision measurement especially in the vertical axis compared
with GPS) and reduce the consequences of each technology's disadvantages (GPS - poor accuracy in
the vertical axis and lower accuracy without long occupation periods; Total Station - requires line of
sight observations and must be setup over a known point or within line of sight of 2 or more known
points). GPS technology will be discussed more details later.

Many ranges of total stations are available on the market depending on the required applications and
budget. These include: (i) conventional total stations, which has all the basic survey functions and
programs but operated manually; (i) robotic total stations, which are programmable to collect data
automatically; and (iii) Servo motored total stations which have automatic target searching capabilities.
57
The latest total station on the market is a spatial station, which combines a total station with a digital
camera which takes digital photographs of the measured objects. This instrument is more versatile
since it captures everything from individual coordinates to complete 3D site scans.

6.2.3 Distancers
These are simply EDM devices that measure distances only and are not combined with a theodlite.
There are two main categories: those that are hand held, reflectorless and mainly used for measuring
short distances and those that are mounted on stands and used for measuring long distances.

Figure 6-6 Total Stations

1) What are the advantages/disadvantages of EDM systems compared to tapes

2) What are the advantages/disadvantages of the total stations over optical theodolites?
3) Electronic theodolites are more reliable in tacheometric surveys than optical theodolites
True/False support your answer.
4) You have been engaged as consultant to choose a successful survey bidder to perform a detailed
topographic survey on a site for construction of a modern shopping mall. The works have to be
completed within a short period of time with all the required survey details for design at a
reasonable cost. What type of equipment would you recommend? Give reasons.

58
7 HORIZONTAL CONTROL SURVEY
Control points or reference points are a framework of points that are determined to higher degree of
accuracy than the subsequent survey s that are connected to them. These points serve as a base or
reference framework for detail surveying, cadastral surveys and setting out works.

The method for establishing vertical or height control is by levelling, which is discussed in chapter 4,
and trigonometric heighting.

The methods for establishing horizontal control, in which positional coordinates are determined
include: traversing, triangulation and trilateration. In addition horizontal control can be extended using
resection and intersection.

In recent years GPS and total stations have been used to provide 3D control simultaneously. The
Concepts of GPS will be discussed later.

7.1 Traversing
A traverse is a means of providing horizontal control in which rectangular coordinates are determined
from a combination of angle and distance measurements along lines adjoining adjacent stations. Given
coordinates of the first station and back bearing of the first line, coordinates of all subsequent stations
can be determined. There are two types of traverses: namely closed traverse and open traverse.

7.1.1 Closed traverse

A closed traverse is where a traverse starts and finishes at a point of known coordinates. There are two
cases of this type of traverse. In Fig 7-1 a traverse has been ran from station X (of known position) to
station 1, 2 3 and another known point Y. Traverse X123Y is known as a link, connecting or closed-
route traverse. W and Z are known points for orientation to obtain starting back bearing and ending
forward bearings respectively.

X
W 2
Y
Z
1 3

Fig 7-42 Link traverse

In Fig 7-2, a traverse starts at station X and returns to the same point X via 1, 2, and 3. Station X can
have known coordinates or assumed coordinates. This type of a traverse is known as a polygon, loop or
closed –ring traverse since it closes back on itself.

59
 In both cases there is an external check since the traverse starts and closes on a known point.
3

W 2
X

Fig 7-43 Polygon traverse

7.1.2 Open traverse

This type starts at a known point X and closes at an unknown point 3 (Fig 7-3). They are used in
exceptional circumstances since there is no external check on the measurements.

X
W 2

1 3

Fig 7-44 Open traverse

7.2 Choice of traverse stations: Reconnaissance

This is the most important aspect of a survey and should be taken before any angles or distances are
measured. This is undertaken to get a general feel of the site and locate suitable sites for the traverse to
avoid difficulties at the observation stage of the survey, leading to wasted time and inaccurate work.
Some of the conditions to consider are:
(i.) The traverse points should be located in positions that will be useful for subsequent works e.g.
detail picking, setting out etc.
(ii.) Where distance measurements are to be carried out using a tape, unsuitable ground conditions
such as steep slopes, or badly broken ground should be avoided
(iii.) Stations should be located such that they are clearly intervisible or where minimum clearing of
vegetation is required, e.g. along roads.
(iv.) Stations should be placed in firm ground so that the theodolite and tripod are supported adequately
during observations
After choosing the stations, a sketch of the traverse should be prepared with all stations labeled with
reference numbers. This is done for easy checking and booking during fieldwork.

When reconnaissance is completed, the stations have to be marked for the duration or longer than the
required survey in such a manner that they cannot easily be disturbed. In fields, wooded pegs are driven
60
 into the ground until they are almost flash with the ground, while in road ways; short heavy nails are
driven flash with the ground. For more permanent control, iron pegs in concrete are used.

7.3 Traverse fieldwork: distance and angular measurements

Distance measurement of traverse lengths is done by means of an EDM equipment or steel tape
depending on the availability. However, theodolite-mounted EDM or total stations are preferable
because angles and distances can be measured at the same time.
The theodolite is used to measure the angle between the traverse lines. This requires setting the
theodolite over each station and observing the directions to other stations.

When measuring angles, the theodolite and targets are located in succession at each station. If this
operation is not carried out accurately, centering errors are introduced, which can cause angular errors
in the traverse. Errors in angular measurement when measuring a traverse include:
 Inaccurate centering of the theodolite or target
 Non-verticality of the target
 Inaccurate bisection of the target
 Parallax not eliminated
 Theodolite not well leveled and not in adjustment
 Mistakes in reading and booking

7.4 Three-tripod traversing

One way of reducing centering errors is to use three or more tripods during a survey and use theodolites
or total station that can be detached from their tribrachs and interchanged with a prism or prism set.
The system operates as follows: (Fig. 3-4)

A
C
E
B
D

Fig 7-45 three-tripod centering

7.4.1 When angle is measured

(i.) At A, a tripod is set up and tribrach attached to the tripod head and leveled and centered at point A.
The target or prism set is then placed onto the leveled tripod and tribrach.
(ii.) At B a theodolite (or total station) is set up in the normal way.
(iii.) At C a tripod and target is set up as at A

This enables the horizontal angle at B to be measured and if a theodolite-mounted EDM or total station
is used, distances BA and BC can also be measured.

61
7.4.2 When angle is measured
At A the tripod and tribrach is moved to D, where it is set up as at A
At B the theodolite is unclamped, removed from its tribrach and interchanged with the target at C.
Hence at B and C, the tripod s and tribrachs remain undisturbed and there is no need for re-centering.
This procedure is repeated for all subsequent stations until the final station is measured.

7.5 Field procedure and booking

The method given in chapter 5 for reading and booking angles should be adhered to whenever possible.
The distance should be measured at least three times so that a mean reading can be obtained.

An example of booking of angles and distances for traverse measurement is given Fig. 7-5 in which
two complete rounds of observation and distance measured thrice is shown.

Table 7-6 Booking traverse angles and distances

Face Simple Reduced Remarks
PNT. Left Right mean mean
° ′ ″ ° ′ ″ ° ′ ″ ° ′ ″
Round 1 @B
A 00 00 15 180 00 14 0 00 15 0 00 00 RO
C 121 12 08 301 12 03 121 12 06 21 11 51

Mean angle 121 11 46

Round 2 @B
A 90 10 15 270 10 15 90 10 15 00 00 00
C 211.21.58 31.21.53 211 21 56 121 11 41

A-B Distance (m)

451.984
451.987
451.986
Mean 451.986

C
A
B

7.6 Traverse computation

When traverse fieldwork is completed, a sheet containing the mean angles observed and mean
horizontal (corrected) lengths measured should be prepared. It is important to show all data on a
traverse sketch as it helps in the subsequent calculations and can minimise the chance of a mistake (see
Fig 7-5).

62
7.6.1 Angular misclosure
Before coordinate calculation, bearings of all traverse lines have to be computed. The first step in the
calculation is to check that observed angles sum to the required value. The angular misclosure in a
polygon traverse is given by the difference between the sum of observed angles from the following
theoretical values:
Sum of internal angles = (2n – 4) x 90° Eqn 7-7
Or sum of external angles = (2n + 4) x 90° Eqn 7-8
Where n is the number of measured angles.

Fig 7-46 Polygon traverse example

When calculating bearings in a link traverse, an initial back bearing is calculated from known points at
the start of the traverse and to check the observed angles a final forward bearing from known points at
the beginning of the traverse. The misclosure in a link traverse is given by:
Sum of angles = (final forward bearing – initial back bearing) + m x 180° Eqn 7-9
Where m = (n+1) and n is the number of measured clockwise angles
Owing to effects of misclosure miscentring, misreading and bisection errors a small misclosure will
result when the summation check is made. The allowable misclosure misclosure E is given by

E″ = Eqn 7-10

K is a multiplication factor of 1 to 3 depending on weather condition, number of rounds taken,

and so on
S is the smallest reading interval on the theodolite in seconds for example 20″ 1″
n is the number of measured angles
If the misclosure is acceptable(less than the allowable misclosure), it is distributed equally among all
the observed angles.

If the misclosure is unacceptable (greater than the acceptable misclosure) the angles should be re-
measured if no gross error can in booking can located in the booking or summation. Table 7-2 gives an
example of angular misclosure and adjustment for the traverse given in Fig. 7-5.

63
Table 7-7 Adjustment of angles in a traverse

Station Observed angle Adjustment Adjusted single

B 241°29′20″ - 10″ 241°29′10″
C 273°31′20″ - 10″ 273°31′10″
D 250°46′50″ - 10″ 250°46′40″
E 297°02′50″ - 10″ 297°02′40″
A 197°10′30″ - 10″ 197°10′20″
Sums 1260°00′50″ -00′50″ 1260°00′00″

7.6.2 Bearing computation

The bearing computation starts with the bearing computed from the given coordinates (see section 2.4).
Required
In this example AB is 90° and issum = (2x5as+4)
entered x 90in Table 7-3.
such Adjustment per angle
= 1260°00′00″ = -(00′50″)/5
Misclosure = +00′50″ = - 10″
The bearing computation is in the clockwise direction starting from B the first angle to be measured.
Bearing AB is the forward bearing since it is the same direction as the traverse computations direction
and Bearing BA is the back bearing since it is in the opposite direction from the traverse computations
direction.

The forward bearing AB differ from back bearing BA by ±180°. For any particular traverse station

Forward bearing = back bearing + measured clockwise angle

*Note that adjusted angles should be used in the bearing computation*

In this example:
Forward bearing BC = back bearing BA + measured clockwise angle at B
= (90° +180°) + 241°29′10″ = 511°29′10″
= 511°29′10″ - 360° = 151°29′10″ (since 511° is > 360°)

Forward bearing CD = back bearing CB + measured clockwise angle at C

= (151°29′10″ + 180°) + 273°31′10″ = 605°00′20″
= 605°00′20″ - 360° = 245°00′20″
This procedure continues until the final forward bearing AB is computed as a check (see Table 7-3)

7.6.3 Coordinate difference computation

To compute the coordinate differences for line BC we use the computed bearing φBC and measured
reduced horizontal distance DBC (refer to Fig 7-5 and Table 7-3). Using Eqn 2-3 from chapter 2

∆EBC = DBCsinφBC
251.23 sin 151°29′10″ = 119.93 m

∆NBC = DBCcosφBC
= 251.23cos151°29′10″ = -220.76 m
64
Similarly, for line CD

∆ECD = DCDCsinφCD
429.63 sin 245°00′20″ = -389.39 m

∆NCD = DCDcosφCD
= 429.63 cos 245°00′20″ = -181.53 m

When the ∆E and ∆N values have been computed for the whole traverse as in Table 7-3, checks can be
applied to computation.

For polygon traverse these are:

∑∆E = 0 and ∑∆N = 0 Eqn 7-11
Since the traverse starts and finishes at the same point.

For Link traverse (Fig 7-1) these are

∑∆E = Ey - Ex and ∑∆N = Ny - Nx Eqn 7-12
Where station X is the starting point and station Y is the final point of the traverse. Since stations X and
Y are known positions, the values Ey - Ex and Ny - Nx can be calculated.

In both cases, due to errors in measuring distances and angles there is normally a misclosure.

Before station coordinates are computed, the misclosure eE and eN are found by comparing the
summations with those expected. These misclosures form a measure of the linear misclosures of the
traverse and can be used to determine the accuracy of the survey.

The linear misclosure is given by

e = (eE2 +eN2)1/2

To obtain a measure of the accuracy of the traverse, this misclosure is compared with the total length of
the traverse legs, ∑D, to give the fraction linear misclosure, where

Fractional linear misclosure = 1 in (∑D/e) Eqn 7-13

From our example Table 7-3

∑D = 1742.65 m and linear misclosure = e [0.072 + 0.102]1/2 =0.12 m

Fractional misclosure = 1 in (1742.65/0.12) = 1 in 14500

7.6.4 Distribution of the misclosure

There are main methods in adjusting linear misclosure of a traverse:

(i.) Bowditch method – the values of the adjustment found by this method are directly proportional to
the length of the individual traverse line.
Adjustment to ∆E (or ∆N) for one particular traverse leg

65
 = length of traverse leg concerned/ total length of the traverse
For line CD = -0.07  429.63 /1742.65 = -0.02 and -0.10  429.63/1742.65 = -0.03

(ii.) Transit method – adjustments are proportional to the values of ∆E and ∆N for the various lines
Adjustment to ∆E (or ∆N) for one particular traverse leg
= ∆E (or ∆N) of the traverse leg concerned/absolute ∑∆E (or ∆N) for
the traverse

For line CD = -0.07389.39/1420.87 = -0.02, and -0.10181.53/804.68 = -0.02

Equal adjustment- the error in each line is of equal magnitude and thus
for each line = where n is the number of measured distances.

= 0.07/4 =0.02 = 0.10/4 = 0.03

for all traverse lines

For all methods the –ve signs are necessary since if eE (or eN) is positive, the adjustments will be
negative and vice versa.
Table 7-8 Polygon traverse computation
LINE BACK BEARING BEARING HORIZONTAL COORDINATE DIFFERENCES COORDINATES

STN
STN ADJUSTED DISTANCE
CLOCKWISE CALCULATED ADJUSTMENTS ADJUSTED
ANGLE φ D
LINE FORWARD
BEARING ∆E ∆N δE δN ∆E ∆N E N
500.00 500.00 A

AB 90 00 00 855.98 500.00 B
BA 270 00 00
B 241 29 10
BC 151 29 10 151 29 10 251.23 119.93 -220.76 -0.01 -0.01 119.92 -220.78 975.90 279.21 C
CB 331 29 10
C 273 31 10
CD 245 00 20 245 00 20 429.63 -389.39 -181.53 -0.02 -0.03 -389.41 -181.56 586.49 97.65 D
DC 65 00 20
D 250 46 40
DE 315 47 00 315 47 00 460.31 -321.01 329.91 -0.02 -0.03 -321.03 329.88 265.46 427.53 E
ED 135 47 00
E 297 02 40
EA 72 49 40 72 49 40 245.50 234.56 72.48 -0.01 -0.01 234.55 72.47 500.01 500.00 A
AE 252 49 40
A 197 49 20
AB 90 00 00 90 00 00 355.98 355.98 0 -0.01 0.00 355.97 0 855.98 500.00 B
∑1742.65 ∑+0.07 ∑+ 0.10 ∑-0.07 ∑ -0.09
Actual sum of left hand angles = 1260°00′50″ e = (0.072 + 0.102)1/2 = 0.12 Adjustment to ∆E/∆N by Bowditch
Required sum of left hand angles = (25+4)90° = 1260°
Misclosure = + 00′50″ Fractional linear misclosure = 1/11500
Adjustment to each observed angle = -10″

7.6.5 Link traverse example

A link traverse was run from A to X as shown in Fig 7-6. The coordinates of the known points are
given as follows:
Point Id Eastings (m) Northings (m)
A 1769.15 2094.72
B 1057.28 2492.39
X 2334.71 1747.32
Y 2995.85 1616.18
The complete solution is given in table 7-4
66
Table 7-9 Link traverse computation
LINE BACK BEARING BEARING HORIZONTAL COORDINATE DIFFERENCES COORDINATES

STN
STN ADJUSTED DISTANCE
CLOCKWISE CALCULATED ADJUSTMENTS ADJUSTED
ANGLE φ D
LINE FORWARD
BEARING ∆E ∆N δE δN ∆E ∆N E N
1057.28 2492.39 B
1769.15 2094.72 A

AB 299 11 20
A 115 37 20
A1 54 48 40 54 48 40 208.26 +170.20 +120.01 +0.02 +0.01 +170.22 +120.02 1939.37 2214.74 1
1A 234 48 40
1 168 19 30
12 43 08 10 43 08 10 193.47 +132.28 +141.18 +0.02 +0.01 +132.30 +141.19 2071.67 2355.93 2
21 223 08 10
2 281 13 00
23 144 21 10 144 21 10 326.71 +190.40 -265.49 +0.02 +0.02 +190.42 -265.47 2262.09 2090.46 3
32 324 21 10
3 242 54 00
34 207 15 10 207 15 10 309.15 -141.57 -274.83 +0.02 +0.02 -141.55 -274.81 2120.54 1815.65 4
43 27 15 10
4 80 26 40
4X 107 41 50 107 41 50 224.79 +214.15 -68.33 +0.02 +0.00 +214.17 -68.33 2334.71 1747.32 X
X4 287 41 50
X 173 31 20
XY 101 13 10 101 13 10 2995.85 1616.18 Y
Sums ∑1262.38 ∑+565.46 ∑-347.46 ∑+10 ∑ +0.06 ∑565.56 ∑ -347.40
Actual sum of left hand angles = 1061°59′50″ ∑∆E = 565.46 ∑∆N = -347.46 abs ∑∆E = 849
Required sum of left hand angles = 1062°01′50″ abs ∑∆N = 870
Misclosure = + 00′50″ EX-EA =565.56 EX-EA =-347.40 Adjustment to ∆E/∆N by Transit
Adjustment to each observed angle = +20″ eE = -0.10 eE = -0.06
e = (-0.102 + -0.062)1/2 = 0.12
Fractional Linear Misclosure 1 in 10500

The first step is to compute the back bearing AB, and forward bearing XY using the formulae given in
chapter 2 and enter them in the appropriate space in the traverse sheet.
AB = 299°11′20″ and XY = 101°13′10″

The angular misclosure is found as follows:

Actual sum of measured clockwise angles = 1061°59′50″
Required sum of measured clockwise angles (eqn 7-3)
= (final forward bearing – initial back bearing) + m  180°
= (101°13′10″ - 299°11′20″) + m  180°
= -(197°58′10″) + m  180°
m = (6+1)= 7
Therefore the required sum of left angles is
= -(197°58′10″) + (7 180°)
= 1061°01′50″

The misclosure = -02′00″ and each angle is adjusted

Each angle is adjusted by 120″/6 = 20″

67
 N

Figure 7-6 Link traverse

To evaluate the misclosure eE and eN for the link traverse the following formulae are used
Σ∆E - (EX – EA) = eE
Σ∆N - (NX – NA) = eN
These are evaluated in Table 7-4.
Adjustments to the ∆E and ∆N values are by transit method. Example derivations are given for the line
joining stations 1 and 2 as follows

∂E12 = -eE x (∆E/abs Σ∆E) = +0.10 x (132/849) = 0.02 m

∂N12 = -eN x (∆N/abs Σ∆N) = +0.06 x (141/870) = 0.01 m

The terms abs Σ∆E and abs Σ∆N are the summation of ∆E and ∆N values without regard to the sign

The final check on the coordinates is satisfactory since the derived coordinates for station X agree with
those given.

68
8 EARTHWORK QUANTITIES
Estimation of areas and volumes is key component of many engineering construction projects since
large parcels of land are required for site and huge quantities of material have to be moved in order to
form the necessary embankments, cuttings, foundations, basements, lakes and so on, that have been
specified in the design. The excavation and hauling of materials in engineering projects is the most
significant and costly aspect of the work on which profit or loss may depend. Therefore, the accurate
measurements of areas and volumes for subsequent cost estimates cannot be over emphasised.

Areas may be required in connection with purchases or sale of land, with the subdivision of land or
with the grading of land.

Earthwork volumes must be estimated to enable route alignment to be located at such lines and levels
that cut and fill are balanced as far as practicable.

This chapter outlines some of the most often used techniques for calculating the sizes of parcels of
land, the areas of cross sections and the volumes of materials and to show how earth movement can be
planned.

8.1 Areas
The computation of areas may be based on data scaled from plans or drawings or data gained directly
from survey field data. Parcels are generally either straight-sided, irregular-sided or a combination of
both.

8.1.1 Plotted areas

1. The area of straight-sided figure can be calculated by splitting it into triangles and summing the
individual areas. The calculations are done using one of the following formulae:
(i). Area = √[S(S - a) (S - b) (S - c)] where a, b, and c are lengths of sides of the triangle and S =
½(a + b + c)/2
(ii).Area = ½(base x height of triangle)
(iii).Area = ½ a b sin C where C is the angle contained between side lengths a and b.
2. Where the area is irregular, a sheet of gridded tracing material may be superimposed over it and the
number of squares counted. Knowing the scale of the plan and size of squares, an estimate of the
area can be obtained.
3. Irregular boundaries may be reduced to straight lines using give-and-take lines, such that small
areas ‘taken’ from the total area are balanced by other small areas ‘given’ (Fig 8-1).

69
Fig 8-7Areas of give and Take

Take

Give Give and take line

Fig 82 Planimeters: (a) digital planimeter; and (b) Mechanical planimeter

The most common method of measuring irregular areas from the plans is by means of an instrument
called a planimeter (Fig. 8-2). This instrument measures the area of a plane figure as a pointer is moved
around the figure's edge

8.1.2 Mathematical methods of calculating irregular area

There two fundamental rules that are used in the determination of areas of irregular figures. Fig. 8-3
shows an area bounded by a survey line and an irregular boundary. The survey line divided into a
number of small equal intercepts of length d and offsets O1, O2, …, On, measured either directly on the
ground or by scaling from the plan. The rule assumes that if d is short enough for the length of the

70
 boundary between the offsets to be assumed straight, then the area is divided into a series of trapezoids

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8 O9

d d d d d d d
d

Survey line
Fig. 8-8 Trapezoid rule

Area of trapezoid (1) =

Area of trapezoid (2) =

Area of trapezoid (8) =

Summing up we get:
Area =
In a general case with n offsets, we get

Area =
Example:
The following offsets, 8m apart, were measured at right at right angles from the traverse to an irregular
boundary.
0 m 2.3 m 5.5 m 8.6 m 6.9 m 7.3 m 6.2 m 3.1 m 0 m
Calculate the area between the traverse line and the irregular boundary using the trapezoid rule.

Solution

Area = 8.0 = 382.4 m2

The other method is the Simpson’s Rule, which gives greater accuracy than the other method, and
assumes that the irregular boundary is composed of a series of parabolic arcs. It is essential that the
figure under consideration be divided into an even number of equal strips.
Referring to Fig. 8-3, consider the first three offsets, which are shown enlarged in Fig.8-4.

71
Fig. 8-9 Simpson’s Rule
G
C
B F

O1 A1 O2 A2 O3

A D
d d

The portion of the area contained between offsets O1 and O3

= ABGCDA
= trapezoid ABFCDA + area BGCFB
=

=
For next pair of offsets between O3 and O5
==
For next pair of offsets between O5 and O7
=
For next pair of offsets between O7and O9
=
Summing up, we get

72
Area =

In general, we get

Simpson’s Rule states, therefore, that the area enclosed by a curvilinear figure divided into an even
number of strips of equal width is equal to one –third the width of a strip, multiplied by sum of the
two extreme offsets, twice the sum of the remaining odd offsets, and four times the sum of the even
offsets.

Example:
In a tape and offset survey the following offsets were taken to a fence from a survey line:
Chainage (m) 00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Offsets (m) 0.00 5.49 9.14 8.53 10.67 12.50 9.75 4.57 1.83 0.00

Find the area between the fence and the Survey line
In this example, there are ten offsets, and since Simpson’s Rule is only applicable to odd number of
offsets, the first nine offsets are computed using Simpson’s rule and last triangle between offset ninth
and tenth offset is calculated separately. It is often convenient to tabulate the working.
Offset no. Offset Simpson multiplier Product
1 0 1 0
2 5.49 4 21.96
3 9.14 2 18.28
4 8.53 4 34.12
5 10.67 2 21.34
6 12.50 4 50.00
7 9.75 2 19.50
8 4.57 4 18.28
9 1.83 1 1.83
Product Sum 185.31

Area (O1 to O9) =

Area (O9 to O10) = x 1.83 = + 18.30 m2

1253 .70 m2

8.1.3 Area by coordinates

Using appropriate field data it is possible define the area of a straight sided figure using rectangular
coordinates. Consider closed traverse ABCDEA (Fig. 8-5), whose stations have co-ordinates EA, NA;
EB, NB; EC, NC; etc., relative to two axes whose origin is 0.
Area ABCDEA
= areas (ABPT + BCQP + CDRQ – DESR – EATS)

73
=

In general area =
*Note that the polygon should be labeled in a clockwise order*

N
C
B

A
D

T P S Q R E
0

Fig. 8-10 Cross coordinate method

Example:
Determine the area the area in hectares enclosed by the line of a closed traverse survey ABCDE from
the following data.
Point Id E (m) N (m)
A 613.26 418.11
B 806.71 523.16
C 942.17 366.84
D 901.89 203.18
E 652.08 259.26
Solution:
It is always convenient to tabulate the data in line with the general cross coordinate method of
calculating area as follows:

Point Id Ni Ei+1 E i-1 N i(Ei+1-Ei-1)

A 418.11 806.71 652.08 64652.3493
74
B 523.16 942.17 613.26 172072.556
C 366.84 901.89 806.71 34915.8312
D 203.18 652.08 942.17 -58940.4862
E 259.26 613.26 901.89 -74830.2138
Sum 137870.0365
Since area = and from our case = 13780.036

Then area = = 68 935 m2= 6.8935 hectares

8.1.4 Divide an area into two equal parts

Suppose you are asked to divide the polygon ABCDEA into two equal parts by a line that passes
through point C and which, meets line EA at Y (Fig 8-5). Calculate the coordinates of point Y
Soln:
Since the total area ABCDEA has been calculated above, we proceed as follows:

ABCDEA = 68935 m2
Then area ABCYA = area YCDEY = (68935/2) = 34467.5 m2
Let point Y have coordinates (EY, NY)
Applying the clockwise version of the cross coordinate method by area
ABCYA gives
2Area =
=

68935 = 213432.58 -52.27EY -328.91NY

EY = 2818.365 – 6.415 NY Eqn 8.1

A similar application to area YCDEY gives

EY = 2.696NY - 286.765 Eqn 8.2

Solving equations 8.1 and 8.2 gives

EY = 632.16 m NY = 340.78 m
As a check, since Y lies on line EA

should equal
Substituting the coordinates of A, E and Y gives

-0.2444 = -0.2444
This checks the coordinates of Y as calculated above.

75
8.1.5 Division of an area by a line of known bearing

Fig. 8-11 Division of an area by a line of known bearing

P
B
X

∂
A

d C

D
Q β

E E1
Y
γ

If it is required to divide the area ABCDEA shown in Fig. 8-6 into two parts by a line XY, the procedure
is as follows:
(i). Calculate the total area enclosed by ABCDEA
(ii).Draw a line at known bearing through one of the stations which will divide the area
approximately in the manner required, say BE1
(iii). Determine the bearings of lines EB, EE1, and BA and so deduce the angles α, β and γ.
(iv). Calculate the length of EB from the known co-ordinates, and thus find EE1 and BE1 using the
sine rule relationship

= =

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 (v). Determine area ABE1EA
(vi). The required area ABE1EA = area ABE1EA – area XBE1YX. Hence, area XBE1YX is found
(vii). To locate line XY it will be necessary to calculate the distance d separating the actual line XY
and the trial line BE1
Area XBE1YX
= area PBE1QP + area QE1Y – area PBX
= D.BE1 + ½ d[d.tan(β-90)] – ½ d [d.tan(90-∂)]
*All the terms in the above equation with exception of d are known, so the problem may be
solved.*

8.2 Volumes of earthwork calculations

The excavation, the removal and dumping of earth is a frequent operation in building or civil
engineering works. Volumes can be determined via cross sections, contours or spot heights.

8.2.1 Area from cross sections

In long constructions such as roads, railways, sewer line etc. which, have constant formation width and
side slopes it is possible to simplify the computation of cross-sectional areas by use of formulae.
Formulae will be given for the following types of cross-section: (a) sections level across, (b) sections
with cross-fall.

8.2.2 Section level across

CL Formation level C
L
W W b b

Embankment
Original ground
surface
h 1 in n h
Side slope 1 vertical
Cutting in n horizontal

b b W W

Fig. 8-12: Level section

Depth at centerline = h units Plan width = 2W = 2(b + nh)
Formation width = 2b units Area of cross-section = h(2b + nh)
Side width = w Same formula used for cut and
Plan width = 2w embankment
Side slopes 1 in n

Example:
At a certain station an embankment formed on level ground has a height of 3.10 m at its centre line. If
the breadth of formation is 12.50 m, find (a) the side widths, (b) the area of the cross section, given that
the side slope is 1 in 2.5
Depth at centerline = h units
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Formation width = 2b units
Side width = w
Plan width = 2w
Side slopes I in n
2b = 12.50 m n = 2.5

Therefore Area = h(2b + nh)

= 3.10(12.50 + 2.5 3.10)
= 62.78 m2
Side width = 2W = 2(b + nh)
W = (b + nh) = (6.25 + 2.5  3.10)
= 14.0 m

8.2.3 Sections with cross-fall

A cutting with a constant transverse slope is shown in figure 13-6, where W1 = greater side width, W2 =
lesser side width, h = depth of cut on centre line, 1 in n = side slope, 1 in k is ground slope or transverse
slope. The side widths are not equal since the section is not symmetrical about the centre line.

Since this the difference in level between C and B due to a gradient of 1 in k over a distance of w1;
similarly

Also, if the side slopes intersect at G, then GE will be the vertical difference in level over a horizontal
distance of b.

Hence
Since triangles C1CG and EFG are similar,

Also

Also hence

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 CL
W2 W1

1 in k
C1 C
C B A1

h
1 in n
Cutting

D F
b Eb

Figure 8-13 Two-level sections

The area of the cutting or the embankment is the area ACFDA.

= area BCG + area ABG – area DFG
=

=
Difference in level between C and F
=
Difference in level between A and D
=
Example:
Calculate the side widths and cross-sectional area of an embankment to road with formation width of
12.50 m, and side slopes of 1 in 2, when the centre height is 3.10 m and the existing ground has a cross
fall of 1 in 12 at right angles to the centre line of the embankment.

Referring to Fig. 8-7

2b = 12.50 k = 12 n = 2 h =3.10 m

= 14.94 m

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=10.67 m

area =

=
= 60.18 m2
Computations of other types sections are beyond the scope of this course and details can be found in
(Bannister and Raymond; Uren and Price; and Schofield).

8.2.4 Computation of volumes of cross-section

After calculation of areas of cross sections, the volumes of earth involved in the construction are
calculated using one of the following methods:
(i) End areas method
This method is comparable to the trapezoidal rule for areas. If two cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 are
horizontal distance d1 apart, the volume contained between them V1 is given by

This leads to the general formula for a series of n cross-sections

and, if d1 = d2 = d3 = dn-1 = d
Total volume =
The end areas method will give accurate results if the cross-sectional areas are of the same order of
magnitude.

Example:
An embankment is formed on ground which is level transverse to the embankment but falling at 1 in 20
longitudinally so that three sections 20 m apart have centre line heights of 6.00, 7.60 and 9.20 metres
respectively above original ground level. If side slopes of 1 in 1 are used, determine the volume of fill
between the outer sections when the formation
width is 6.00 m, using the trapezoidal rule.
Using the equation in section 8.2.2

A = h(b+mh)
A1 = 6.00(6.00 + 6.00) = 72.00 m2
A2 = 7.6(6.00 + 7.6) = 103.36 m2
A3 = 9.20(6.00 + 9.20) = 139.84 m2

Note that the mid-area A2 is not the mean of A1 and A2

80
V=
= 4185.6 m3
(ii) Prismoidal formula
This is comparable to Simpson’s rule for areas and is more accurate than the end area method. The
volume contained between a series of cross-section with a constant distance apart can be approximated
to the volume of a prismoid which is a solid figure with plane parallel ends and plane sides. This is
shown in figure

CS1 d CS2 d CS3

A2
A1 A3

Fig. 8-14 Prismoid for volume calculation

It can be shown that for a series of three cross sections the volume V1-3, contained between them is
given by:
V1-3 =
This is the prismoidal formula and it is used for earth calculations of cuttings and embankments. If we
extend Fig. 8-9 to include cross section 4(A4) and cross section 5(A5), volume from CS3 to CS5 (V3-5)
is given by:
V3-5 =
Total volume from CS1 to CS5 (V) is
V=
The general formula for n cross-sections, where n must be odd is:
V=
This is often referred to as Simpson’s rule for volumes.
Example:
A cutting is to be made in ground which has a transverse slope of 1 in 5. The Width of formation is
8.00 m and the side slopes are 1 in 2 m. if the depths at the centerlines of the three sections 20 m apart
are 2.50, 3.10, and 4.30 m respectively, determine the volume of earth involved in this length of
cutting.
Solution:
Since these are sections with cross fall or two level sections, we the equation derived in section 8.3.2 to
calculate the respective areas which we later use to compute volume.
A=

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Hence , , Since n = 2 and k = 5
Tabulating,
Section. h nh b + nh W1 W2 W1 +W3 A(m2)
1 2.50 5.00 9.00 21.43 40.24
9.00 x = 15.00 9.00 x = 6.43
2 3.10 6.20 10.20 24.29 24.29
10.00 x = 17.00 9.00 x = 7.29
3 4.30 8.60 12.60 30.00 30.00
12.60 x = 21.00 9.00 x = 9.00

Using the prismoidal formula we obtain;

V=

V=
= 2283.30 m3

8.2.5 Volume from spot heights

This method is generally used for calculating volumes of huge open excavations such as basements,
underground tanks, borrowpits, spoil heaps etc. where formation level can sloping, terraced or
horizontal. Typically, a square or triangular grid is established on the ground and spot levels are taken
at each grid intersection just as described in contouring by spot levels. The formation level at each grid
point must be known. By subtracting the formation level from the observed level, a series of heights
can be found from which the volume within each square can be taken as the (plan area) x (average
depth of excavation or fill at the grid intersections.

82
 h1 h2 h3 h4
4.76 5.14 6.72 8.10

h5 h6 h7 h8
3.21area of
Plan 4.77each 5.82 6.07
Grid square = 100 m 3

h9 h10 h11 h12

1.98 2.31 3.55

Fig 8-15 Grid heights for volume calculation

The volume of grid square h1h2h6h5 (see fig. 8-10) is given by:
Volume = mean height x plan area
= ¼ (4.76 + 5.14 + 4.77 + 3.21)* 100 = 447 m3
A similar method can be applied to each individual grid square and this leads to the following general
formula for square or rectangular grids where A = Plan area of grid square; single depths = depth such
as h1 and h4 which are used once; double depths = depths such as h2 and h3 which are used twice; triple
depths = depths such as h7 which are used three times; quadruple = depths such as h6 which are used
four times; ∂V = the total volume outside the grid which is calculated separately.
V

For the example in Fig. 8-10

Volume contained within the area =

83
9 CARTOGRAPHY
Cartography can be described as the art, science and technology of making maps, together with their
study as scientific documents and works of art. In this context maps may be regarded as including all
types of maps, plans, charts and sections, three dimensional models, and globes representing the earth
at any scale.

9.1 Map types

Two important map types exist:

1. Topographic maps: maps on large scale and medium scales which incorporate a variety of
information: water, terrain, communication, vegetation, built-up areas, lettering of names,
contours, property boundaries, etc. Zambia is covered by 1:750,000, 1:250,000, 1:50,000
(except for western and northern province, which are mapped at 1:100,000).

Fig 9-47 Part of 1: 50,000 topographic map of City of Kitwe showing riverside area,
2. Thematic maps: illustrates a special theme on a suitable topographic base. The data are
normally derived from observation, mapping, measurement or statistical compilation. In
Zambia, various thematic maps are available: land use, aeronautical charts, vegetation, soils,
geology, population, etc.

In addition the term “plan” is used for a large scale detailed map. An example is a cadastral plan, which
shows the legal boundaries of an individual plot.
84
Note: The scale is treated as a fraction. Large scale means a large fraction (1:500, 1:2000), small scale
means a small fraction (1:50,000. 1:1,000,000).

Fig. 6.2 Thematic map (maize yield by province)

Fig 8-48 Zambia agriculture maize yield by province

Fig 8-49 Cadastral Plan

9.2 Map features

In general we can say that there are the following essential features in maps:

1. Projection,
2. Reduction,
3. Generalization,
4. Enhancement,
5. Explanation.

9.2.1 Projection
The area to be mapped on a flat medium is not flat in reality, because the earth is a sphere. Therefore, a
transformation, which can be mathematically described, is necessary, see fig. 6.4.

85
 A

Fig 8-50 Transverse cylindrical projection: “A” projection on the cylinder and “B” shows plane picture since
cylinder is cut and rolled open

9.2.2 Reduction
It is impossible to map every feature from reality on a smaller scale. The amount of information has to
be reduced, depending on the purpose of the map. For example, on a forestry map, instead of mapping
each individual tree, only forest boundaries are mapped.

9.2.3 Generalization
Features appear differently on the maps with different scale. When mapping on a smaller scale, features
have to be more generalized, because the smaller scale cannot represent the same amount of detail.
Small details are ignored, while others are combined and/or simplified, see fig. 6.5..

Fig 8-51 Generalization: Selection, combination and simplification

9.2.4 Enhancement
Some features have to be enhanced on the map to make them more visible. For example, a high way
may be drawn on a scale; 1:50,000 map with 2.0mm width, which corresponds on this scale with 100m
in reality. But this is of course not the real situation.

9.2.5 Explanation
Information is added on the map by putting text and symbols to give more explanation.

86
9.3 Communication in cartography
A map is an important source of information, which means that there is a process of communication. A
diagram of the general cartographic communication system is given in fig. 6.6.

MAP AUTHOR MAP DESIGNER MAP MAP USER

CARTOGRAPHIC
LANGUAGE

Fig 8-52 Communication in cartography

In order to understand a map, map users must be able to read the cartographic language (representation
symbols, etc.). In this map using process, the legend plays an important role, because it explains most
cartographic features. The using process is visualized in fig. 6.7.

MAP FACE INFORMATION MAP LEGEND OF ORIENTATION

SPECIFICATION INTERPRETAION
MEASURING
MAP READING
EDUCATION
OTHER MAP USE
ACTIVITIES

Fig 8-53 Map using process

The information on the map sheet is used in combination with the map legend and experience in order
to use the information for a special purpose.

9.4 Map production

Aerial photography and photogrammetry are commonly used in map making. During map production,
photographic and reprographic methods are used to produce print plates. Print plates are used to finally
print the maps (black/white or colour). Instead of drawing on a paper, the cartographer will be drawing
on a film.

9.5 Computer assisted cartography

The introduction of computers had an enormous effect on the cartographic profession.
Many cartographers shifted their seats from the drawing table to the computer. Instead of having the
information on paper, it is stored in digital form, using codes and coordinates, in the computer. The
data-flow is as follows:

87
 Data
Data - Input Manipulation Output

Database
Fig 8-54 Computer assisted cartography

9.5.1 Input
Basic data-input means the conversion of the information on paper into digital form. Existing maps can
be converted to digital format by digitizing (fig. 6.8). Digitizing is done with a digitizer, which is a
table containing a grid of wires. With the movable cursor, points on the map can be located, and the
digitizer translates this position into coordinates by using the grid of wires. These coordinates are
stored in the computer, in the so called database. Other sources of input are: field survey
measurements, photogrammetric data or scanning of existing maps or photographs.

Fig 8-55 Digitizer

9.6 Data manipulation

Data manipulation is needed before the input data can be used for out.
Data manipulation may consist of the following:

 Correction of errors introduced by digitizing,

 Labeling of data, (e.g. explaining what a coordinate pair represents),
 Placing symbols,
 Adding names.

Manipulation is mostly done interactively. This means that the information from the database is visible
on the computer screen and any changes made are directly be visible on the screen thus facilitating the
manipulation stage.
88
9.7 Output

The most important output device is the plotter. This plots the manipulation data on paper and the
plotted map can be distributed to various users. An example is given in

89
10PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND REMOTE SENSING
Photogrammetry is defined as the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable information about
physical objects and the environment through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting
photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena

Photogrammetry is very useful, because an area can be described without having to physically visit the
area. However, for accurate topographic mapping, basic control surveying is indispensable. By using
images taken from satellites, it is relatively easy to get detailed information of extremely large areas.

Two distinct areas within photogrammetry can be distinguished:

Metric photogrammetry,
Interpretative photogrammetry

Metric photogrammetry consists of making precise measurements from photos and other information
sources to determine in general, the relative location of points. The most common application is the
production of topographic maps from aerial photography.

Interpretive photogrammetry deals principally in recognizing and identifying objects and judging their
significance. Through careful and systematic analysis
Adjacent flight strips are photographed so that there is also a lateral overlapping of adjacent strips. This
condition is called side lap (see fig. 7.8) and it is normally held at approximately 30 percent. The
photographs of two or more side-lapping strips used to cover an area are referred to as a block of
photos.

Fig. 7.3 side lap of adjacent flight strips

10.1 Aerial photographs

Three types of aerial photographs can be distinguished (see fig.7.1)
 vertical
 low oblique
 high oblique
vertical photographs are taken with camera axis directly as nearly vertically as possible. If the camera
axis were perfectly vertical when an exposure was made, the photo plane would be parallel to the
datum plane and the resulting photographs would be termed truly vertical.

10.2 Stereoscopic plotting

90
From stereopairs, formed by the end lap of two adjacent photographs, it is possible to map an area in
three dimensions by use of stereoscopic plotting instruments.

Stereoscopic plotting instruments (commonly called stereoplotters) are instruments to measure features
in the photographs. The subject of stereoploters is one of the most important in the study of
photogrammetry, because the primary use of stereoploters is in the compilation of topographic maps.

The basic concept of stereoscopic plotting instruments is illustrated in fig.7.4 and 7.5. In fig. 7.4; an
overlapping pair of aerial photographs is exposed. Transparencies or diapositives, as there are called,
prepared from negatives, are placed in two stereoplotters projectors as shown in fig. 7.4. With the
diapositives in place, light rays are projected through them, and when rays from corresponding images
on the left and right diapositives intersects below, they create a stereomodel (often simply called a
model). To create the intersections, the diapositives are positioned relatively in the same way as
negatives were in the aerial camera at the instant they were exposed. The operator is able to see the
stereomodel in the instrument, as he were sitting in the plane and looking down!

Fig. 7.4 Aerial photography

Fig. 7.5 Stereoscope plotting instrument

Once the model is made, measurement can be made within it by using a reference mark in the image of
the model. By using hand wheels, one can move the reference mark through the model. In this way,
features in the photographs can be measured, in other words be given coordinates, and because the
model is stereoscopic, it is even possible to plot contours. This is illustrated in fig. 7.6.

91
Fig. 7.6 stereomodel created with a main pair of balplex plotters

10.3 Remote sensing

Remote sensing involves the determination of properties of objects without being in physical contact
with them. Remotely sensed data are acquired by errors carried in aircraft or spacecraft. These
sensors ,for the most part, sense and record electromagnetic radiation reflected or emitted by the earth’s
surface to modification by the intervening atmosphere.

There are four main types of imaging sensors, commonly used in remote sensing:
 Photographic system,
 Linescan system,
 Active microwave system,
 Passive microwave system.

Photographic system use cameras and film, and can record radiation only in the visible, and parts of the
near-infrared, section of the spectrum.

Line scan systems are used for much wider range of wave lengths. The part of the spectrum sensed by a
particular linescan system is dependent on the nature of the detector used (Fig. 7.7). Landsat and spot
images from satellite also belonging to this group.

Fig. 7.7 Principles of a line scan system

Passive microwave systems record the microwave radiation emitted naturally from the earth.

Active systems however, sense their own emitted radiation after its reflection at the earth’s surface. An
example is side looking airborne radar (SLAR), see fig. 7.8.

92
Fig. 7.8 Principles of side looking airborne radar

11 GEODESY
The main concern of a surveyor is to measure the relative positions of features on the earth’s surface.
Therefore he has to understand the shape of the earth, because it his reference object. Geodesy can be
seen as surveying while taking the earth’s curvature into account. However, a very clear distinction
cannot be given.

11.1 Shape of the earth

Approximately, the earth is a sphere. If we look in more detail, the earth is flattened.
The distance from centre to equator is slightly longer than the distance from centre to the poles. The
earth is roughly an oblate spheroid with semi-axis of 6378km and 6357km. in leveling, we relate height
to mean sea level. The total mean sea level of the earth tells us also something about the shape; this is
known as the geoids. The geoids may be described as a surface coinciding with mean sea level in the
oceans and lying under the land at the level to which the sea would reach if admitted by small
frictionless channels. In other words, the surface on which there is no difference in gravity. Due to
irregularities in the shape and density of the earth, the geoids are not a perfect spheroid, and are too
irregular to use as a reference for geodetic measurement (i.e. coordinates). The position of points on the
earth’s surface must be expressed by coordinates on an arbitrary defined geometrical figure. The
adopted figure is a spheroid with axis approximating to those of the geoids as closely as possible.

Fig.8.1 spheroid and geoids

Within geodesy, different fields of specialization can be distinguished as :

 Physical geodesy,
 geodetic astronomy,
 Satellite geodesy.

11.2 Physical geodesy

Physical geodesy studies the earth’s gravity field. Almost every surveying measurement depends in a
fundamental way on the earth’s gravity field (think of the bubble on the theodolite and leveling
instruments). The determination of the geoid is the main activity within physical geodesy, and for this
purpose gravity measurements are taken.

Geodetic astronomy
93
Using the sun and stars, we are able to find our position on earth by calculating coordinates from our
measurements. Measurements to the sun or stars (at night) can be taken by a very accurate theodolite
and a stop watch, as time is very at this field.

Because all celestial bodies move in our universe, much attention is being paid to the reference
coordinates system. This is quite complicated, as can be seen in fig. 8.2.

Fig. 8.2 Southern hemisphere: astronomical reference system .

11.3 Satellite geodesy

Satellites can also be used to determine a position 0n earth. These artificial satellites should not be
mixed up with remote sensing satellite. The following techniques are used:
 Laser distance measurement to satellites.
 Doppler: a satellite emits a continuous signal with a known frequence which is received at the
ground station at different times.

Fig. 8.3 Principle of Doppler

 Satellite altimetry: a satellite continuously records its height above the mean wave level of the
sea.
 Global positioning system: this is the most modern method and is more or less a revolution
within the surveying profession. Twenty four satellites are continuously emitting signals and a
receiver at the ground station is able to compute the coordinates of the station.

94
Fig.8.4 global positioning system

REFERENCES

1. Bannister, A., Raymond, S., Surveying, Fifth edition, Longman, London, 1984
2. Bomford, G., Geodesy, Fourth edition, clarendon press, oxford, 1980
3. Brinker, C.B., Elfik, M.H., Fryer, J.G., Wolf, P.R., Elementary Surveying, Seventh
edition, Melbourne, 1987.
4. Heiskanen, W. A. Moritz, H. Physical Geodesy, Institute of Physical Geodesy, Graz,
1985
5. Marckie, J.B., The elements of Astronomy for Surveyors, Ninth edition, High Wycombe,
1985
6. Rahkila, P., Cartography, I – II, Unza, School of Engineering, Lusaka, 1986.
7. Republic of Zambia, Survey department, Cadastral Survey Manual, Lusaka, 1986.
8. Schofield, W., Engineering Surveying, Volume 1, Third edition, Butterworths, London,
1984.
9. Townshend, J., R., G., Terrain Analysis and Remote sensing, George Allan & Unwin,
London, 1981.
10. Uren, J., Price, W., F., Surveying for Engineers, Third edition, Macmillan, London, 1994.
11. Wolf, P., R., Elements of photogrammetry, Second edition, McGraw Hill, Singapore,
1986.

95