Hydraulics
Hydraulics
Hydraulics
Basic Systems
The advantages of hydraulic systems over other methods of power transmission are-
*.Simpler design. In most cases, a few pre-engineered components will replace complicated mechanical
linkages.
*.Flexibility. Hydraulic components can be located with considerable flexibility. Pipes and hoses instead
of mechanical elements virtually eliminate location problems.
*.Smoothness. Hydraulic systems are smooth and quiet in operation. Vibration is kept to a minimum.
*.Control. Control of a wide range of speed and forces is easily possible.
*.Cost. High efficiency with minimum friction loss keeps the cost of a power transmission at a minimum.
*.Overload protection. Automatic valves guard the system against a breakdown from overloading.
The main disadvantage of a hydraulic system is maintaining the precision parts when they are exposed
to bad climates and dirty atmospheres. Protection against rust, corrosion, dirt, oil deterioration, and
other adverse environmental conditions is very important. The following paragraphs discuss several
basic hydraulic systems.
Motor-Reversing System.
Figure below shows a power-driven pump operating a reversible rotary motor. A reversing valve directs
fluid to either side of the motor and back to the reservoir. A relief valve protects the system against
excess pressure and can bypass pump output to the reservoir, if pressure rises too high.
2-3. Reservoirs
A reservoir stores a liquid that is not being used in a hydraulic system. It also allows gases to expel and
foreign matter to settle out from a liquid.a. Construction. A properly constructed reservoir should be
able to dissipate heat from the oil, separate air from the oil, and settle out contaminates that are in it.
Reservoirs range in construction from small steel stampings to large cast or fabricated units. The large
tanks should be sandblasted after all the welding is completed and then flushed and steam cleaned.
Doing so removes welding scale and scale left from hot-rolling the steel. The inner surface then should
be sealed with a paint compatible with the hydraulic fluid. Non bleeding red engine enamel is suitable
for petroleum oil and seals in any residual dirt not removed by flushing and steam cleaning.b.
Shape.Figure 2-11 shows some of the design features of a reservoir. It should be high and narrow rather
than shallow and broad. The oil levelshould be as high as possible above the opening to a pump's
suction line. This prevents the vacuum at the line opening from causing a vortex or whirlpool effect,
which would mean that a system is probably taking in air. Aerated oil will not properly transmit power
because air is compressible. Aerated oil has a tendency to break down and lose its lubricating ability.c.
Size. Reservoir sizes will vary. However, a reservoir must be large enough so that it has a reserve of oil
with all the cylinders in a system fully extended. An oil reserve must be high enough to prevent a vortex
at the suction line's opening. A reservoir must have sufficient space to hold all the oil when the cylinders
are retracted, as well as allow space for expansion when the oil is hot.A common-size reservoir on a
mobile machine is a 20- or 30-gallon tank used with a 100-GPM system. Many 10-GPM systems operate
with 2- or 3-gallon tanks because these mobile systems operate intermittently, not constantly. For
stationary machinery, a rule of thumb is that a reservoir's size should be two to three times a pump's
output per minute.A large-size tank is highly desirable for cooling. The large surface areas exposed to
the outside air transfer heat from the oil. Also, a large tank helps settle out the contaminates and
separates the air by reducing recirculation.d. Location. Most mobile equipment reservoirs are located
above the pumps. This creates a flooded-pump-inlet condition. This condition reduces the possibility of
pump cavitation-a condition where all the available space is not filled and often metal parts will erode.
Flooding the inlet also reduces the vortex tendency at a suction pipe's opening.A reservoir's location
affects heat dissipation. Ideally, all tank walls should be exposed to the outside air. Heat moves from a
hot substance to a cold substance; heat transfer is greatest when there is a large temperature
difference. Reservoirs that are built into front-end loader arms are very effective in transferring heat.e.
Ventilation and Pressurization. Most reservoirs are vented to the atmosphere. A vent opening allows air
to leave or enter the space above the oil as the level of the oil goes up or down. This maintains a
constant atmospheric pressure above the oil. A reservoir filter cap, witha filter element, is often used as
a vent.Some reservoirs are pressurized, using a simple pressure-control valve rather than a vented one.
A pressure-control valve automatically lets filtered air into a tank but prevents air release unless the
pressure reaches a preset level. A pressurized reservoir takes place when the oil and air in a tank expand
from heat.f. Line Connections. A pump suction and a tank's return lines should be attached by flanges or
by welded heavy-duty couplings. Standard couplings usually are not suitable because they spread when
welded. If a suction line is connected at the bottom, a coupling should extend well above the bottom,
inside the tank; residual dirt will not get in a suction line when a tank or strainer is cleaned. A return line
should discharge near a tank's bottom, always below the oil level. A pipe is usually cut at a 45-degree
angle and the flow aimed away from a suction line to improve circulation and cooling.A baffle plate is
used to separate a suction line from a return line. This causes the return oil to circulate around an outer
wall for cooling before it gets to the pump again. A baffle plate should be about two-thirds the height of
a tank. The lower corners are cut diagonally to allow circulation. They must be larger in area than a
suction line's cross section. Otherwise the oil level between a return and a suction side might be uneven.
Baffling also prevents oil from sloshing around when amachine is moving. Many large reservoirs are
cross-baffled to provide cooling and prevent sloshing.g. Maintenance. Maintenance procedures include
draining and cleaning areservoir. A tank should have a dished bottom that is fitted with a drainplug at its
lowest point; a plug fitting should be flush with the inside of atank to allow for full drainage. On large
tanks, access plates may be bolted on the ends for easy removal and servicing. A reservoir should have a
sight gauge or dipstick for checking the oil level to prevent damage from lubrication loss.The strainers on
a pump's suction line may not require as much maintenance. However, an element in a filter in a return
line will require regular changing. Therefore, that filter should not be inside a reservoir. When a
reservoir is pressurized by compressed air, moisture can become a maintenance problem. A tank should
have a water trap for moisture removal; it should be placed where it can be inspected daily.
1-3. Flow
Flow is the movement of a hydraulic fluid caused by a difference in thepressure at two points. In a
hydraulic system, flow is usually produced by the action of a hydraulic pump-a device used to
continuously push ona hydraulic fluid. The two ways of measuring flow are velocity and flow rate.a.
Velocity.Velocity is the average speed at which a fluid's particles move past a given point, measured in
feet per second (fps). Velocity is an important consideration in sizing the hydraulic lines that carry a
fluidbetween the components.b. Flow Rate.Flow rate is the measure of how much volume of a liquid
passes a point in a given time, measured in gallons per minute (GPM). Flow rate determines the speed at
which a load moves and, therefore, is important when considering power.1-4. Energy, Work, and
PowerEnergy is the ability to do work and is expressed in foot-pound (ft lb). The three forms of energy
are potential, kinetic, and heat. Work measures accomplishments; it requires motion to make a force do
work. Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of energy transfer.a. Potential Energy. Potential energy
is energy due to position. An object has potential energy in proportion to its vertical distance above the
earth's surface. For example, water held back by a dam represents potential energy because until it is
released, the water does not work. In hydraulics, potential energy is a static factor. When force is
applied toa confined liquid, as shown in Figure 1-4, potential energy is present because of the static
pressure of the liquid. Potential energy of a moving liquid can be reduced by the heat energy released.
Potential energy can also be reduced in a moving liquid when it transforms into kinetic energy. A moving
liquid can, therefore, perform work as a result of its static pressure and its momentum.b. Kinetic
Energy.Kinetic energy is the energy a body possesses because of its motion. The greater the speed, the
greater the kinetic energy. When water is released from a dam, it rushes out at a high velocity jet,
representing energy of motion-kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy in a moving liquid is directly
proportional to the square of its velocity. Pressure caused by kinetic energy may be called velocity
pressure.c. Heat Energy and Friction.Heat energy is the energy a body possesses because of its heat.
Kinetic energy and heat energy are dynamic factors. Pascal's Law dealt with static pressure and did not
include the friction factor. Friction is the resistance to relative motion between twobodies. When liquid
flows in a hydraulic circuit, friction produces heat. This causes some of the kinetic energy to be lost in
the form of heat energy.Although friction cannot be eliminated entirely, it can be controlled to some
extent. The three main causes of excessive friction in hydraulic systems are: *.Extremely long lines.
*.Numerous bends and fittings or improper bends. *.Excessive velocity from using undersized lines.In a
liquid flowing through straight piping at a low speed, the particles of the liquid move in straight lines
parallel to the flow direction. Heat loss from friction is minimal. This kind of flow is called laminar flow.
Figure 1-8, diagram A, shows laminar flow. If the speed increases beyond a given point, turbulent flow
develops. Figure 1-8, diagram B, shows turbulent flow.Figure 1-9 shows the difference in head because
of pressure drop due tofriction. Point B shows no flow resistance (free-flow condition); the pressure at
point B is zero. The pressure at point C is at its maximum because of the head at point A. As the liquid
flows from point C to point B, friction causes a pressure drop from maximum pressure to zero pressure.
This is reflected in a succeedingly decreased head at points D, E, and F.d.Relationship Between Velocity
and Pressure.Figure 1-10 explains Bernouilli's Principle, which states that the static pressure of a moving
liquid varies inversely with its velocity; that is, as velocity increases, static pressure decreases. In the
figure, the force on piston X is sufficient to create a pressure of 100 psi on chamber A. As piston X moves
down, the liquid that is forced out of chamber A must pass through passage C to reach chamber B. The
velocity increases as it passes through C because the same quantity of liquid must pass througha
narrower area in the same time. Some of the 100 psi static pressure in chamber A is converted into
velocity energy in passage C so that a pressure gauge at this point registers 90 psi. As the liquid passes
through C and reaches chamber B, velocity decreases to its former rate, as indicated by the static
pressure reading of 100 psi, and some of the kinetic energy is converted to potential energy.Figure 1-11
shows the combined effects of friction and velocity changes.As in Figure 1-9 pressure drops from
maximum at C to zero at B. At D, velocity is increased, so the pressure head decreases. At E, the head
increases as most of the kinetic energy is given up to pressure energy because velocity is decreased. At
F, the head drops as velocity increases.e.Work.To do work in a hydraulic system, flow must be present.
Work, therefore, exerts a force over a definite distance. It is a measure of force multiplied by
distance.f.Power. The standard unit of power is horsepower (hp). One hp is equal to 550 ft lb of work
every second. Use the following equation to find power:P = f x d/twhere-P = power, in hpf = force, in
GPMd = distance, in psit = time (1,714)
Pressure gauges are used in liquid-powered systems to measure pressure to maintain efficient and safe
operating levels. Pressure is measured in psi. Flow measurement may be expressed in units of rate of
flow-GPM or cubic feet per second (cfs). It may also be expressed in terms of total quantity-gallons or
cubic feet.a. Pressure Gauges. Figure 2-18 shows a simple pressure gauge. Gauge readings indicate the
fluid pressure set up by an opposition of forces within a system. Atmospheric pressure is negligible
because its action at one place is balanced by its equal action at another place in a system.b. Meters.
Measuring flow depends on the quantities, flow rates, and types of liquid involved. All liquid meters
(flowmeters) are made to measure specific liquids and must be used only for the purpose for which they
were made. Each meter is tested and calibrated.In a nutating-piston-disc flowmeter, liquid passes
through a fixed-volume measuring chamber, which is divided into upper and lower compartments by a
piston disc (Figure 2-19). During operation, one compartment is continually being filled while the other
is being emptied. As a liquid passes through these compartments, its pressure causes a piston disc to roll
around in the chamber. The disc's movements operate a dial (or counter) through gearing elements to
indicate that a column of fluid that has passed through the meter.
Hydraulic Systems
A hydraulic system contains and confines a liquid in such a way that it uses the laws governing liquids to
transmit power and do work. The oil reservoir (sump or tank) usually serves as a storehouse and a fluid
conditioner. Filters, strainers, and magnetic plugs condition the fluid by removing harmful impurities
that could clog passages and damage parts. Heat exchanges or coolers often are used to keep the oil
temperature within safe limits and prevent deterioration of the oil. Accumulators, though technically
sources of stored energy, act as fluid storehouses.
Blaise Pascal formulated the basic law of hydraulics in the mid 17th century. He discovered that pressure
exerted on a fluid acts equally in all directions. His law states that pressure in a confined fluid is
transmitted undiminished in every direction and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles
to a container's walls.Figure 1-7 shows the apparatus that Pascal used to develop his law. It consisted of
two connected cylinders of different diameters with a liquid trapped between them. Pascal found that
the weight of a small piston will balance the weight of a larger piston as long as the piston's areas are in
proportion to the weights. In the small cylinder, a force of 100 pounds on a 1-square-inch piston creates
a pressure of 100 psi. According to Pascal's Law, this pressure is transmitted undiminished in every
direction. In the larger cylinder, the 100 psi of pressure from the small cylinder is transmitted to an area
of 5 square inches, which resultsin a force of 500 pounds on the second piston. The force has been
multiplied 5 times-a mechanical advantage of 5 to 1. Using the same factors, you can determine the
distance the pistons move. For example, if the small piston moves down 10 inches, the larger piston will
move up2 inches. Use the following to determine the distance:where-F1= force of the small piston, in
poundsD1= distance the small piston moves, in inchesD2= distance the larger piston moves, in inchesF2=
force of the larger piston, in poundsExample:Determine D2