NOTES

NOTES
SKIN STRUCTURES

SKIN ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

osms.it/skin-anatomy-and-physiology
▪ Skin is body’s largest organ Stratum basale
▫ Seven percent of total body weight ▪ Innermost layer: single columnar stem cell
▪ Comprises integumentary system, layer; dividing, producing keratinocytes
appendages (hair, nails, oil, sweat glands) ▫ Keratinocytes contain cholesterol
▫ Protects body (infection, abrasion, precursors activated by UVB light →
dehydration, etc) vitamin D (regulates calcium absorption)
▫ Regulates body temperature ▪ Also contains melanocytes (secrete
▫ Detects pain, sensation, pressure melanin, giving skin its color)
▫ Essential for vitamin D production ▫ UVB light stimulates melanin secretion
→ placed into melanosomes, moved up
▪ Three layer division
by keratinocytes → scatters UVB light
▫ Epidermis, dermis, hypodermis → natural sunscreen (prevents skin
cancer from excessive UVB light)

Stratum spinosum
▪ Second layer: comprises 8–10 keratinocyte
cell layers which can no longer divide
▫ Proteins on keratinocytes help them
adhere together
▫ Dendritic cells seek out invading
microbes

Stratum granulosum
▪ Third layer: comprises 3–5 keratinocyte cell
layers undergoing keratinization (flatten
Figure 25.1 The three layers of the skin, from out, die) → epidermal skin barrier formed
superficial to deep, include: the epidermis, ▫ Keratohyalin granules in keratinocytes
dermis, and hypodermis. contain keratin precursors which
aggregate, cross-link → keratin bundles
▫ Lamellar granules in keratinocytes
EPIDERMIS contain glycolipids (secreted to cell
▪ Epidermis surface, glues cells together)
▫ Stratified squamous epithelium
Stratum lucidum
▫ Thin outermost layer
▪ Fourth layer: comprises 2–3 dead
▪ Multiple layers of developing keratinocytes keratinocyte cell layers that have secreted
(contain keratin) most of their lamellar granules
▫ Make, secrete glycolipids; prevent water ▫ Only found in thick skin (e.g. palms,
seeping into/out of body soles of feet)

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Stratum corneum ▫ Blood vessels dilate when hot (blood

▪ Uppermost layer: comprises 20–30 dead moves closer to surface → allows heat
keratinocyte cell layers glued together with loss)/contract when cold (blood moves
glycolipids away from surface → prevents heat
▫ Dead keratinocytes secrete defensins to loss)
fight pathogens ▫ Sweat glands ↑ secretion when hot (↑
▫ Cells from stratum lucidum push up → heat to evaporate sweat)/↓ when cold (↓
cells from this layer shed → skin flakes/ heat to evaporate sweat)
dandruff

Figure 25.3 The papillary layer of the dermis

contains multiple types of nerve endings.
Figure 25.2 The five layers of the epidermis.
Stratum basale is the deepest layer and
stratum corneum is the most superficial.

DERMIS
▪ Dermis
▫ Central layer
▫ Two layer division (papillary layer;
deeper, thicker reticular layer)

Papillary layer
▪ Fibroblasts (producing collagen) arranged Figure 25.4 Contents of the reticular layer of
in papillae the dermis.
▪ Contains blood vessels, macrophages,
nerve endings (e.g. Meissner’s corpuscles
for fine touch, free nerve endings for pain) HYPODERMIS
▪ Responsible for fingerprints (↑ gripping, ▪ Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue) inner
sensing abilities) layer
▫ Contains adipocytes (store fat),
Reticular layer
fibroblasts, macrophages, blood vessels,
▪ Fibroblasts (produces elastin for flexibility) nerves, lymphatics
▪ Contains oil, sweat glands; lymphatic, ▫ Insulates deeper tissues; provides
blood vessels; hair follicles; macrophages; padding; anchors skin to underlying
nerves (e.g. Pacinian corpuscle for pressure, muscle with connective tissue (e.g.
vibration) collagen)
▪ Collagen packed tightly → ↑ support
▪ Regulates temperature with blood vessels,
sweat glands

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 HAIR, SKIN, & NAILS
osms.it/hair-skin-and-nails
▪ Skin appendages include hair, nails, skin arrector pili muscles, apocrine glands,
glands (oil/sebaceous, sweat/sudoriferous) nerve receptors
▫ Regulate body temperature; ▪ Composition: shaft, root, bulb
environmental protection ▫ Hair matrix: active hair growth
▫ Originate in dermis site, found inside bulb; contains
▪ Hair, nails comprised of long, filamentous keratinocytes, melanocytes; blood
protein (keratin) supplied by papilla
▫ Keratin: produced by keratinocytes ▪ Keratinocytes die, flatten out → hard
during keratinization (cells rapidly keratin fills up cell → gradually get pushed
replicate, die) up follicle forming hair
▫ Soft keratin (produced by skin); hard ▫ Hair growth: includes growth, resting
keratin (produced by hair, nails) phases
▫ Keratinocytes in bulb replicate set
number of times → follicle eventually
HAIR stops producing hair/produce vellus
▪ Includes vellus hairs (short, thin); terminal hairs instead (genetically determined) →
hairs (more visible, growth starts at baldness
puberty)
▪ Melanocytes produce melanin (protein
▪ Found everywhere pigments that give hair color)
▫ Exceptions: palms, soles of feet, lips ▫ Melanocytes move melanin into
▪ Hair strands sit in follicle; epidermal tissue melanosomes → taken up by
dips into dermis keratinocytes
▫ Associated with sebaceous glands,

Figure 25.5 Composition of hair and associated structures.

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▫ ↑ age → ↓ melanin → faded, white hair SUDORIFEROUS GLANDS

▪ Nerve receptors around bulb stimulated ▪ AKA sweat glands
when hair shaft moves
Eccrine (merocrine) glands
▪ Arrector pili muscle contracts, pulls hair (e.g.
cold weather/frightened) → goosebumps ▪ Found everywhere
▫ Exceptions: lips, ear canal, clitoris, glans
of penis
NAILS
▪ Coil-shaped structure; in dermis; duct
▪ Grow from proximal to distal fingertips/toes opens into pore on skin surface
▫ Surrounded on either side by nail folds ▪ Sweat: hypotonic (mostly water,
▫ Closed off proximally by eponychium → electrolytes); dermcidin (destroys bacteria);
forms cuticle (dead skin keratinocytes cools body (evaporation)
that cover junction between nail, skin) ▪ Sympathetic nervous system activation
▪ Nail matrix composition: lunula, nail plate during ↑ cardiovascular activity, fight-or-
▫ Lunula: white, crescent-shaped part of flight response, fear/anxiety
nail near eponychium
▫ Free edge: nail plate portion hanging Apocrine glands
over skin ▪ Found in armpits, genitals
▪ Modified keratinocytes in matrix form plate ▫ Become active during puberty
by keratinization (similar to hair) ▪ Similar to eccrine glands
▪ Nails grow continually through life (unlike ▫ Bigger, fewer; produce secretions with ↑
hair) lipids, proteins
▫ Secretions metabolized by bacteria →
body odor
▪ Several modified apocrine gland types
▫ Ceruminous glands: in ear; produce
cerumen; protects eardrum (with ear
canal hairs)
▫ Mammary glands: in breasts; produce
milk

Figure 25.6 Superior view and cross section

of a finger illustrating components of the nail.

SEBACEOUS GLANDS
▪ Secrete sebum (softens hair shaft, prevents
moisture-loss, deters pathogens) onto hair
follicles/through pores → skin surface
▪ During puberty: ↑ androgen hormones →
↑ sebum production → blocks pores, plugs Figure 25.7 The two types of sweat glands
hair follicles → enclosures allow infection (sudoriferous glands).
development (e.g. acne, folliculitis)

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 WOUND HEALING
osms.it/wound-healing
▪ Damaged tissue repair process Penetrating trauma wound healing
▫ Acute wounds heal quickly (days– ▪ Penetrating trauma wound healing steps
weeks) (e.g. cutting finger → damaged epidermis,
▫ Chronic wounds heal slowly (months) dermis, interstitial space)
▪ Hemostasis (first step)
Regenerative tissue capacity ▫ Blood vessels constrict → platelets
▪ Classification: labile, stable, permanent adhere to site → forms platelet plug →
▪ Labile tissues (e.g. skin, connective tissue, fibrin mesh reinforces platelet plug →
intestines) forms blood clot
▫ Heal well: stem cells constantly divide ▪ Inflammation (second step)
→ rapid, effective healing ▫ Damaged cells release chemokines,
▪ Stable tissues (e.g. liver, endocrine glands, cytokines → neutrophils, macrophages
proximal kidney tubules) recruited; blood vessels dilate →
▫ Heal slowly: mature differentiated cells immune cells clear debris, digest dead/
divide/regenerate by hyperplasia damaged cells, destroy microbes →
▪ Permanent tissues (e.g. skeletal muscle, blood clot, dead macrophages combine,
cartilage, neurons) form scab
▫ Heal poorly: lack of stem cells, no ▪ Epithelization/migration (third step)
hyperplasia → replaced by scar tissue ▫ Basal cells (epidermal stem cells)
(fibrosis) → function loss proliferate, replace lost/damaged cells →
rejuvenated epidermal layer (approx. 48
Open wounds hours)
▪ Open wounds healed by primary, ▪ Fibroplasia (fourth step)
secondary, tertiary intention ▫ Fibroblasts in dermis proliferate,
▪ Primary intention (most surgical wounds) secrete collagen (assemble → form
▫ Wound edges fuse (e.g. stitching/ collagen fibrils → collaged bundles)
gluing) → stem cells (e.g. epidermis) → blood vessel growth stimulated
approximate, regenerate damaged (angiogenesis); fibroblasts also produce
tissue (minimal scarring) glycoproteins, sugars → create
▪ Secondary intention granulation tissue in dermal layer
▫ Wound edges too far apart (e.g. ▪ Maturation (fifth step)
pressure ulcers, tooth extraction, severe ▫ Collagen cross-linking: covalent bonds
burns) → stem cells do not approximate form between collagen bundles,
→ wound replaced by connective tissue improving tensile strength
growing from base upwards (slower ▫ Collagen remodeling: fibroblasts
healing; more scar tissue) degrade subpar collagen
▪ Tertiary intention (delayed closure) ▫ Contraction: myofibroblasts produce
▫ Wound cleaned, debrided → contractile proteins, pulling wound’s
purposefully left open (↓ bacterial edges together
contamination likelihood) → closed ▫ Repigmentation: melanocytes
by primary intention/left open for proliferating, restoring color to damaged
secondary intention skin

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Chronic wounds
▪ Healing prevention factors → chronic
wounds
▫ Narrowed capillaries: prolonged
compression/disease (e.g. diabetes,
atherosclerosis) → ↓ blood flow →
damaged tissue cannot be reached
by immune cells, insufficient oxygen/
nutrients → tissue necrosis
▫ Infection: pathogens compete for
oxygen; cause ongoing damage,
inflammation
▫ Edema: disrupts fibroblast activity,
collagen deposition, collage cross linking

Figure 25.8 The five steps of penetrating

trauma wound healing.

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