Engineering Thermodynamics

(MEE1003)
Dr. M. Sreekanth
Associate Professor, SMBS
VIT University, Chennai Campus
Email: manavalla.sreekanth@vit.ac.in
 MODULE-1

Basic Concepts in Thermodynamics

 Thermodynamics
• The name ‘Thermodynamics’ is derived by
combining the Greek words ‘Therme’ meaning
heat and ‘Dynamis’ meaning Power
• The subject of Thermodynamics deals with the
conversion of Heat to Work (Power
Generation) and vice versa (Refrigeration)
• Even the Relationship among properties of
matter is dealt in Thermodynamics

3
 Conservation of Energy
• The principle of ‘Conservation of Energy’ is a
fundamental law of nature
• It states that ‘Energy can neither be created
nor destroyed’
• Energy can only be changed from one form to
another
• A rock falling from a cliff has its potential
energy converted to kinetic energy

4
 1st and 2nd Laws of Thermodynamics
• The 1st Law of Thermodynamics is simply as
assertion of the Principle of Conservation of
Energy
• It deals with quantities of energy
• The 2nd Law of Thermodynamics deals with
quantity as well as quality of energy
• It tells whether a process is possible or not,
which the 1st Law cannot tell

5
 Application of Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is everywhere
• The body heat generated due to metabolic
activity is continuously rejected to the
environment
• A residential building having solar water
heaters, refrigerator, humidifier etc is an
example of application of Thermodynamics

6
 System
• A System is a fixed quantity or a region in space
chosen for study

• The mass or region outside the system is called

the Surroundings
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the
System from the Surroundings is called the
Boundary

7
 Closed System (Control Mass)
• A Closed System is one which does not permit
mass to cross the system boundary. However,
energy can cross

• Energy can be in the form of Heat and Work

• If even the energy is not permitted to cross the
boundary, the system would be an Isolated
System
8
Closed System with Moving Boundary
• The system boundary doesn’t have to be fixed

9
 Open System (Control Volume)
• If a system permits both mass and energy
across its boundary, it is called an Open
System
• A large number of engineering problems
involve flow of mass in and out of a system
• Any arbitrary region in space can be selected
as a control volume
• A proper choice of control volume can make
the analysis simpler
10
Control Volumes

11
 Property
• A distinguishing characteristic of a system is
called as a Property, E.g. P, T, V
• Intensive Properties are those which are
independent of mass, E.g. P, T, Density
• Extensive Properties are those which depend
on mass, E.g. Mass, Volume, Energy
• Intensive Properties are denoted by capital
letters while Extensive Properties are denoted
by small letters
12
Method to Determine Extensive or
Intensive Property

13
 State
• The state of a system is its condition
• The state is completely described by a set of
properties (e.g. T, P, v)
• It is not necessary to specify all the properties
to describe a state
• The state postulate says that the state of a
simple compressible system is completely
specified by two independent intensive
properties
14
 Equilibrium
• Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states
• Equilibrium implies balance
• There are several kinds of Equilibrium
• In an equilibrium state, there are no
unbalanced potentials
• Thermodynamics is concerned with Thermal,
Mechanical and Chemical equilibrium

15
 Thermal Equilibrium
• A system is in Thermal Equilibrium if its
temperature is equal throughout the system

• After attaining equilibrium, there will be no

thermal gradients responsible for heat
transfer
16
Mechanical and Chemical Equilibrium
• Mechanical equilibrium is said to have been
attained if the pressure in the system does not
change with time
• The pressure may vary within the system
• Chemical equilibrium is said to have been
attained when the chemical composition does
not change with time
• For a system to be in Thermodynamic
equilibrium, it must be in thermal, mechanical
and chemical equilibrium at the same time
17
 Processes and Cycles
• Process is the change in state a system
undergoes from one equilibrium state to the
other

• The series of states through which a system

passes during a process is called the Path
18
 Quasi-Static Process
• It is a process which proceeds in such a
manner that it is infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times

19
 Quasi-Static Process…
• It is an idealized process and is not a true
representation of an actual process
• However, most processes are close to quasi-
static process
• They are easy to analyze and
• A work producing device produces maximum
work when operating in a quasi-static process

20
 Process Diagrams
• Process diagrams plotted with thermodynamic
properties as coordinates are useful in
visualizing the process

21
 Various Processes
• Isothermal Process: Temperature remains
constant, E.g. Phase change processes
• Isobaric Process: Pressure remains constant,
E.g. Heat addition in diesel engine
• Isochoric Process: Volume remains constant,
E.g. Heat addition in petrol engine
• Isentropic Process: Entropy remains constant,
E.g. Expansion in steam turbine

22
 Cycle
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at the end of the
process

23
 Steady State Process
• A process during which a fluid flows through a
control volume steadily

24
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• If two bodies are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other

• Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both

have the same temperature reading even if
they are not in contact
25
 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as the normal force
exerted by a fluid per unit area
• Absolute pressure is the actual pressure
• Gauge (or Gage) pressure is the pressure over
and above atmospheric pressure
• Vacuum pressure is the pressure below
atmospheric pressure
• 1 atmosphere = 101325 Pa = 1.01325 bar
26
Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum
Pressures

Pgauge = Pabs – Patm

Pvac = Patm - Pabs

27
 Forms of Energy
• Energy can exist in various forms
• The sum of all forms of energy is known as Total Energy (E)
• Thermodynamics deals with changes in total energy and not
its absolute value
• Macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as
a whole with respect to some outside reference frame (E.g KE,
PE)
• Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the
molecular structure of a system and the degree of molecular
activity.
• Microscopic energy is independent of outside reference
frames
• The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the
Internal Energy 28
 Forms of Energy…
• Energy can exist as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear forms
• The energy possessed as a virtue of motion is
called as Kinetic Energy
• That energy that a system possesses as a
result of its elevation is called Potential Energy

29
 Heat Energy
• Heat is the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of temperature
difference
• Heat is energy in transition
• It is recognized only as it crosses the system
boundary
• A process during which there is no heat
transfer is called an Adiabatic System
30
 Work
• Work is an energy interaction between a system
and its surroundings
• Only heat and work cross system boundaries of a
closed system
• If the energy crossing the boundary of a closed
system is not heat, then it must be work
• Work is the energy transfer associated with a
force acting through a distance, e.g. rising piston,
rotating shaft etc.
31
 Similarities between Heat and Work
• Both are recognized at the boundaries of a
system
• Both are associated with processes and not
states
• Both are path functions

32
Path and Point Functions

33
Sign Convention

(+)

(-)

(-)

(+)

34
 Total Energy
• The magnetic, electrical, surface tension
effects are significant only in few specialized
cases only and are usually neglected
• Then the total energy of a system is given as
E = U + KE + PE
• Most closed systems remain stationary during
a process and have no change in KE or PE
• Such systems are called as Stationary Systems
35
 Mechanical Energy
• Some engineering systems are designed to
transport a fluid at a certain rate, velocity,
pressure
• The fluid may be used in a turbine to produce
power
• They may also consume energy (pump, fan)
• Not all systems deal with heat
• Such systems can be analyzed by considering
only the mechanical form of energy
36
 Mechanical Energy…
• Mechanical Energy is that form of energy that
can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal
mechanical device such as an ideal turbine
• KE and PE are forms of Mechanical Energy but
not Thermal Energy
P V2
emech    gz
 2
P V2 
Emech  m    gz 
 2  37
Change in Mechanical Energy
P2  P1 V22  V12
emech    g z2  z1 
 2
 P2  P1 V22  V12 
Emech  m    g z2  z1 
  2 

The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change if the

pressure, density, velocity and elevation remain constant

38
 Mechanical Forms of Work
2n
• Shaft Work: Wshaft 
60

• Spring Work:
1

Wspring  k x22  x12
2

2
• Elastic Work: Welastic    n Adx
1

39
 MODULE 2

First Law of Thermodynamics

 1st Law of Thermodynamics
• Based on experimental observations, the 1st
law states that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms
• This law is also known as the conservation of
energy principle
• It provides a sound basis for studying the
relationships among various forms of energy
and energy interactions

41
 Case Study 1: Falling Rock
• The decrease in PE exactly equals the increase
in KE, if the air resistance is neglected

42
 Case Study 2: System undergoing
Adiabatic Processes
• A system is undergoing a series of adiabatic
processes from state 1 to state 2
• The net work has been found to be same
regardless of the nature of the closed system
and the details of the process
• That means the value of net work depends on
the end state only and it must correspond to a
change in property of the system
• This property is the Total Energy
43
Case Study 3: Baked Potato

44
Case Study 4: Heating Water

45
Case Study 5: Electric Room Heater

46
Case Study 6: Compressed Air

47
Case Study 7: System Involving Heat
and Work Interaction

48
 Energy Balance
• The net change in the total energy of the system
during a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and the total
energy leaving the system during the process
• Ein – Eout = Esystem
• Esystem = Efinal – Einitial
• Energy is a property of a system
• E = U + KE + PE
• For stationary system, KE and PE are equal to
zero and hence E = U
49
 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer
• Energy can be transferred to or from a system in
three forms: Heat, Work and Mass Flow
• For a closed system, energy transfer is by heat
and work transfer only
• For an open system, the mass flow is included
along with heat and work transfer
• Ein – Eout = (Qin-Qout)+(Win-Wout)+(Emass, in-Emass,out) = Esystem
• The above equation is known as the Energy Balance
Equation

50
 Other Forms of Energy Equation
• Compact Form: Ein – Eout = Esystem

dEsystem
• Rate Form: E in  E out 
dt

• Specific Form: ein – eout = esystem

• Differential Form: ein  eout  desystem

51
 Closed System in a Cycle
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the
initial and final states are same and hence
E = E1-E2 = 0.
•  Wnet= Qnet

52
 Problem 1
A classroom that normally contains 40 people is to
be air-conditioned with a window A/C units of 5 kW
cooling capacity. A person at rest may be assumed
to dissipate heat at a rate of about 360 kJ/h. There
are 10 light bulbs in the room, each with a rating of
100 W. The rate of heat transfer to the classroom
through the walls and the windows is estimated to
be 15,000 kJ/h. If the room air is to be maintained
at a constant temperature of 21 0C, determine the
number of window A/C units required.

53
 Problem 2
Consider a room that is initially at the outdoor
temperature of 20 0C. The room contains a 100
W light bulb, a 110 W TV set, a 200 W
refrigerator, and a 1000 W iron. Assuming no
heat transfer through the walls, determine the
rate of increase of the energy content of the
room when all of these devices are on.

54
 Problem 3
A fan is to accelerate quiescent air to a velocity
of 10 m/s at a rate of 4 m3/s. Determine the
minimum power that must be supplied to the
fan. Take the density of air to be 1.18 kg/m3.

55
Moving Boundary Work (Pdv Work)
• In closed systems like a gas in a piston-cylinder
arrangement, a part of the boundary moves
back and forth

• This is the form of work in automobile engines

56
Moving Boundary Work in Quasi
Equilibrium Process

Wb  Fds  PAds  Pdv

Wb   Pdv
2

57
PdV Work-Graphical Representation

The area under the process curve on a P-V diagram is equal, in

magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium
expansion or compression process of a closed system
58
 PdV Work for Various Processes
• Constant Volume Process:
2
Wb   Pdv  0 as dv  0
1

• Constant Pressure Process:

2 2
Wb   Pdv  P0  dv  P0 v2  v1 
1 1

59
 PdV Work for Various Processes…
• Isothermal Process: Pv=mRT0=C or P=C/v
2 2 2
C dv v v v
Wb   Pdv   dv  C   C ln 2  P1V1 ln 2  P2V2 ln 2
1 1
v 1
v v1 v1 v1

• Polytropic Process: PVn=C or P=CV-n

 n 1  n 1
 P v  Pv Pv  P v
2 2
v v
Wb   Pdv   Cv n dv  C 2 1
 2 2 11 11 2 2
1 1
 n 1 1 n n 1

60
Joule’s Experiment
• Measurements:
Weight and
Temperature

• Variables:
Materials and
Weights
• Conclusion:

 Q   W
61
 Extension of Joule’s Result to a Process
For cycle 1 - A - 2 - B - 1
2 1 2 1

 Q   Q  W   W
1
A
2
B
1
A
2
B (i)

For cycle 1 - C - 2 - B - 1
2 1 2 1

 Q   Q  W   W
1
C
2
B
1
C
2
B (ii)

Subtracting (ii) from (i)

2 2 2 2

 Q  Q
1
A
1
C   WA   WC
1 1
2 2

 Q  W   Q  W 
1
A
1
C

 Q  W  depends only on end states

 Q  W  is a property
Q  W  dE 62
 Energy Balance in Closed Systems
• The Energy Balance for any system undergoing
any kind of process is Ein-Eout=Esystem
• For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial
and final states are same, Esystem=0
• Therefore Ein=Eout
• Since in a closed system (in a cycle), no mass
flows in or out, only heat and work interactions
are involved, Wnet out=Qnet in
• Similarly, for a closed system undergoing a
process, Qnet in – Wnet out = Esystem

63
 Specific Heats
• Specific Heat is the energy required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of a substance
by one degree

 du 
Cv   
 dT v
 dh 
Cp    ; h  u  pv
 dT  P

64
 Problem 4
An engine is tested by means of a water brake at
1000 rpm. The measured torque of the engine is
10,000 m-N and the water consumption of the
brake is 0.5 m3/s, its inlet temperature being 20
0C. Calculate the water temperature at exit,

assuming that the whole of the engine power is

ultimately transformed into heat which is
absorbed by the cooling water.
Ans: 20.5 0C

65
 Problem 5
A mass of 8 kg gas expands within a flexible
container so that the P-v relationship is of the
form Pv1.2=const. The initial pressure is 1000 kPa
and the initial volume is 1 m3. The final pressure
is 5 kPa. If specific internal energy of the gas
decreases by 40 kJ/kg, find the heat transfer in
magnitude and direction.
Ans: +2615 kJ

66
 Problem 6
The properties of a certain fluid are related as
follows:
u=196 + 0.718 T
pv=0.287(T+273)
Where u is the specific internal energy (kJ/kg), T
is in 0C, p is pressure (kN/m2), and v is specific
volume (m3/kg). Find the Cv and Cp for this fluid.
Ans: 0.718, 1.005 kJ/kg-K
67
 Problem 7
A gas of mass 1.5 kg undergoes a quasi-static expansion
which follows a relationship p=a+bv, where a and b are
constants. The initial and final pressures are 1000 kPa and
200 kPa respectively and the corresponding volumes are
0.2 m3 and 1.2 m3. The specific internal energy of the gas
is given by the relation:
u=1.5 pv – 85 kJ/kg
Where p is in kPa and v is in m3/kg. Calculate the net heat
transfer and the maximum internal energy of the gas
attained during expansion.
Ans: 660 kJ, 503.3 kJ

68
 Conservation of Mass
• Mass cannot be created nor destroyed
• Mass and energy can be converted to each other
according to E=mc2
• For most energy interactions, the change in mass
is extremely small, except for nuclear reactions
• For Closed Systems, the mass of the system
remains enclosed and hence constant
• For an Open System (Control Volume), there are
mass in and out flows and so mass should be
tracked carefully
69
 Conservation of Mass Principle
• The net mass transfer to or from a control volume
during a time interval t is equal to the net
change in the total mass within the control
volume during t
min – mout = mcv
dmcv
m in  m
 out 
dt
• The above equations are known as Mass balance
Equations
70
 Mass Balance in Steady-Flow
Processes
• For Steady Flow Processes, mcv is constant and hence
mcv=0

Steady Flow:
 m  m
in out

( The total rate of mass entering the CV is equal to the total rate of mass leaving it)

Steady Flow (Single Stream):

 2  1V1 A1  2V2 A2
1  m
m

Steady Incompressible Flow (Single Stream):

V1 A1  V2 A2 71
Examples of Mass balance

72
 Flow Work or Flow Energy
• Unlike Closed Systems, control volumes
involve mass flow across their boundaries, and
some work is required to push the mass into
or out of the CV
• This work is known as Flow Work or Flow
Energy

73
Expression for Flow Work

F  PA
W flow  FL  PAL  PV
w flow  Pv

74
 Total Energy of Flowing Fluid (θ)
• e = u + ke + pe
• θ = pv + e = pv + (u + ke + pe)
• But h = u + pv
• Therefore θ = h + ke + pe
V2
  h  gz
2
• The flow work is automatically taken care by
Enthalpy, h

75
 Energy Transport by Mass
 V2 
Amount of Energy Transport Emass  m  m h   gz 
 2 
  V 2

Rate of Energy Transport Emass  m   m  h   gz 
 2 
When KE and PE are negligible ,
E mass  mh and
E
mass mh

76
 Energy Analysis for Steady Flow
Systems
• During a steady flow process, the total energy
of a control volume remains constant
(Ecv=const)
 Ecv=0
• Therefore, the amount of energy entering a
control volume in all forms (heat, work and
mass) must be equal to the amount of energy
leaving it

77
Energy Analysis for Steady Flow
Systems…
E in  E out
Q in  Win   m  Q out  Wout   m 
in out

 V 2
  V 2

Q in  Win   m  h   gz  Q out  Wout   m  h   gz 
in  2  out  2 
 V 2
  V 2

Q  W   m  h   gz    m  h   gz 
out  2  in  2 
For single stream devices,
 2
 2

 g z 2  z1 
  V V
Q  W  m h2  h1 
 2 1

 2 
In the absence of KE and PE changes,
Q  W  m h  h  or
2 1

q  w  h2  h1

78
 Some Examples of Steady Flow
Processes
• Nozzle and Diffusor
• Throttling Device
• Turbine and Compressor
• Heat Exchanger

79
 Nozzle and Diffuser
• A Nozzle is a device which increases the
velocity of a fluid at the expense of its
pressure drop
• Diffuser increases the pressure of a fluid at the
expense of its velocity

80
 Nozzle and Diffuser…
• Assumptions: No heat transfer, no change in
PE, for nozzle V2>>V1
• Work done is zero as nozzle and diffuser do
not involve work
Q  W  h  KE  PE

 
0  0  h2  h1  V2  V12  g z2  z1 
1 2
2

1 2

0  h2  h1  V2  0  0
2
V2  2h1  h2 
81
 Throttling Device
• When a fluid flows through a constricted
passage, like a partially opened valve, an
orifice, or a porous plug, there is an
appreciable drop in pressure, and the flow is
said to be throttled

82
 Throttling Device…
• Assumptions: Adiabatic, no change in PE, no
change in KE
• No work is involved during the throttling
process
Q  W  h  KE  PE
0  0  h2  h1  0  0
h2  h1

• Therefore, throttling is Isenthalpic process

83
 Turbine and Compressor
• Turbines and engines give positive power
output whereas compressors and pumps
require power input

84
 Turbine and Compressor…
• Assumptions: Adiabatic, no change in KE and
PE
Q  W  h  KE  PE
0  W  h2  h1  0  0
 W  h2  h1
W  h1  h2

85
 Heat Exchanger
• A Heat Exchanger is a device in which heat is
transferred from one fluid to another

86
 Heat Exchanger…
• Assumptions: No change in KE and PE
• No heat transfer to surroundings and no work
involved
E in  E out
Q in  Win   m  Q out  Wout   m 
in out

 V 2
  V 2

Qin  Win   m  h 
   gz  Qout  Wout   m  h 
   gz 
in  2  out  2 
0  0  mc h1  ms h2   0  0  mc h3  ms h4   KE  PE
mc h1  ms h2   mc h3  ms h4 
87
 Problem 8
Air flows steadily at the rate of 0.5 kg/s through an
air compressor entering at 7 m/s, 100 kPa pressure,
and 0.95 m3/kg volume, and leaving at 5 m/s, 700
kPa, and 0.19 m3/kg. The internal energy of the air
leaving is 90 kJ/kg greater than that of air entering.
Cooling water in the compressor jackets absorbs
heat from the air at the rate of 58 kW. (a) Compute
the rate of shaft work input to the air compressor in
kW. (b) Find the ratio of the inlet pipe diameter to
outlet pipe diameter.
Ans: 122 kW, 1.89

88
 Problem 9
A hot water stream at 80 0C enters a mixing
chamber with a mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/s where
it is mixed with a stream of cold water at 20 0C.
If it is desired that the mixture leave the
chamber at 42 0C, determine the mass flow rate
of the cold water stream. Assume all the
streams are at a pressure of 250 kPa.
Ans: 0.865 kg/s

89
 Problem 10
Air enters an adiabatic nozzle steadily at 300
kPa, 200 0C and 30 m/s and leaves at 100 kPa
and 180 m/s. The inlet area of the nozzle is 80
cm2. Determine (a) the mass flow rate through
the nozzle, (b) the exit temperature of the air,
and (c) the exit area of the nozzle.
Ans: 0.5303 kg/s, 184.6 0C, 38.7 cm2

90
 Problem 11
The steam supply to an engine comprises two streams
which mix before entering the engine. One stream is
supplied at the rate of 0.01 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2952
kJ/kg and a velocity of 20 m/s. The other stream is supplied
at the rate of 0.1 kg/s with an enthalpy of 2569 kJ/kg and a
velocity of 120 m/s. At the exit from the engine the fluid
leaves as two streams, one of water at the rate of 0.001
kg/s with an enthalpy of 420 kJ/kg and the other of steam;
the fluid velocities at the exit are negligible. The engine
develops a shaft power of 25 kW. The heat transfer is
negligible. Evaluate the enthalpy of the second exit stream.

Ans: 2402 kJ/kg 91

 Problem 12
Five hundred kilograms per hour of steam drives a
turbine. The steam enters the turbine at 44 atm and
450 0C at a linear velocity of 60 m/s and leaves at a
point 5 m below the turbine inlet at atmospheric
pressure and a velocity of 360 m/s. The turbine
delivers shaft work at a rate of 70 kW, and the heat
loss from the turbine is estimated to be 104 kcal/h.
Calculate the specific enthalpy change associated
with the process.
Ans: -650 kJ/kg

92
 MODULE 3

Second Law of Thermodynamics and

Exergy
 Limitations of the 1st Law of TD
• Any process must satisfy the 1st Law of TD
• But satisfying the 1st Law does not ensure that
the process will actually take place
Examples:
• Hot Coffee
• Electric Heater
• Paddle Wheel

94
 Hot Coffee
• A cup of hot coffee does not get hotter in a
cooler room

95
 Electric Heater
• An electric resistor, on heating, will not
generate electricity

96
 Paddle Wheel
• Transferring heat to paddle wheel will not
cause it to rotate

97
 Limitations of the 1st law of TD…
• Processes proceed in a certain direction only
• The 1st Law places no restriction on the direction
of the process
• However, satisfying the 1st Law does not ensure
that a process can actually occur
• This drawback of the 1st Law is taken care by the
2nd Law of TD
• The 1st Law is concerned with the quantity of
energy while the 2nd Law is concerned with its
quality too

98
 Thermal Energy Reservoirs
• A hypothetical body with a large thermal energy
capacity (mCp) that can supply or absorb finite
amounts of heat without undergoing any change
in temperature is called as a Thermal Energy
Reservoir
• Examples are oceans, lakes, atmosphere, two
phase system, industrial furnace etc
• A reservoir that supplies energy in the form as
heat is called as Source and one that absorbs
heat is called as Sink
99
 Heat Engines
• Work can be converted to other forms of energy
but the reverse is not a straight forward process

• Work can be converted to heat directly and

completely but converting heat to work needs a
special device called Heat Engine

100
 Characteristics of a Heat Engine
• They receive heat from a high
temperature source
• They convert part of this heat
to work
• They reject the remaining
waste heat to a low
temperature sink
• They operate on a cycle

101
 Heat Engines…
• Heat engines involve a fluid to and from which
heat is transferred while undergoing a cycle
• That fluid is called a Working Fluid
• The term Heat Engine is used broadly to
include work producing devices that do not
operate on Thermodynamic Cycles (IC
engines)
• The working fluid is purged and replaced by a
fresh air-fuel mixture
102
 Steam Power Plant
• A Steam Power Plant is a device that fits the
definition of a Heat Engine

103
 Thermal Efficiency
• For the steam power plant,
Wnet,out=Wout-Win
Wnet,out=Qin-Qout
• The fraction of the heat input that is
converted to net work output is a measure of
the performance of the heat engine and is
called as Thermal Efficiency

104
 Thermal Efficiency…

Net Work Output

Thermal Efficiency ,  th 
Total Heat Input
Wnet,out
 th 
Qin
Wnet,out  Qin  Qout
Qin  Qout Qout
 th   1
Qin Qin

105
 Thermal Efficiency…
• For a Heat Engine,
Wnet,out  QH  QL
Wnet,out
th 
QH
QH  QL QL
th   1
QH QH

• QH and QL are positive quantities

106
 2nd Law of Thermodynamics:
Kelvin-Planck Statement
• It is impossible for any device that operates on
a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir
and produce a net amount of work

A heat engine that violates

the Kelvin-Planck statement of
the 2nd Law

107
 Refrigerators
• The transfer of heat from a
low temperature medium to a
high temperature medium is
facilitated by a device called
Refrigerator
• They operate in cycles
• The working fluid used in the
refrigeration cycle is called a
Refrigerant

108
Basic Components of a Refrigeration
System

109
 Coefficient of Performance (COP)
• The performance of a refrigerator is evaluated
by the COP
• The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
heat from a low temperature space and expel
it to a high temperature space
Desired Effect QL QL 1
COPR    
Work Input Wnet,in QH  QL QH 1
QL

• COP can be greater than 1

110
 Heat Pumps
• Heat Pump is another device
that pumps heat from low
temperature to a high
temperature medium
• The objective of a heat pump
is to maintain a heated space
at a high temperature
• This is done by absorbing
heat from a low temperature
source
111
 COP of a Heat Pump

Desired Effect QH
COPHP  
Work Input Wnet,in
QH 1
 
QH -QL 1  QL
QH

COPHP  COPR  1

112
 2nd Law of Thermodynamics:
Clausius Statement
• It is impossible to construct a device that
operates in a cycle and produces no effect other
than the transfer of heat from a lower
temperature body to a higher temperature body

A refrigerator that violates

the Clausius Statement of
the 2nd law

113
 Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and
Clausius Statements

Violation of Kelvin-Planck Statement Violation of Clausius Statement

114
Perpetual Motion Machine (PMM)
• Any device that violates either the 1st or the
2nd Law of Thermodynamics is called as a
Perpetual Motion Machine
• Perpetual Motion Machines do not work
• PMM1 violates the 1st Law while PMM2
violates the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

115
 PMM1 and PMM2

PMM1 PMM2

116
 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
• A Reversible Process is one that can be reversed
without leaving any trace on the surroundings
• Both the system and surroundings are returned
to their original states at the end of the reverse
process
• This is possible only if the net heat and work
exchange between the system and the
surroundings is zero for the combined process
• Processes that are not reversible are called as
Irreversible processes
117
Reversible and Irreversible Processes…
• Reversible processes do not occur in nature
• They are merely idealizations of actual
processes
• Engineers are interested in Reversible
processes because work producing devices
produce most work and work consuming
devices consume least work when operating
on reversible processes

118
 Irreversibilities
• The factors that cause a process to be
irreversible are called Irreversibilities
• They include Friction, Unrestrained Expansion,
Mixing of two fluids, Heat Transfer across a
finite temperature difference, Electric
Resistance, Inelastic Deformation of Solids and
Chemical Reactions

119
 Internally and Externally Reversible
Processes
• A process is called Internally Reversible if no
irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process
• A process is called Externally Reversible if no
irreversibilities occur outside the system
boundaries during the process
• A process is called Totally Reversible or simply
Reversible if it involves no irreversibilities
within the system or its surroundings

120
Internally and Externally Reversible
Processes…

Reversible Process Totally Reversible Internally Reversible

121
 Reversible Cycles
• Heat engines are cyclic devices that consume
heat and deliver work
• Work is done by the working fluid during one part
of the cycle and work is done on the fluid during
the other part
• The net work is the difference between the two
• The efficiency of a heat engine depends on the
net work
• The net work can be maximized by using
processes which require least amount of work
and deliver maximum work, i.e. Reversible
Processes
122
 Reversible Cycles…
• Therefore, the most efficient cycles are
Reversible Cycles, which have reversible
processes
• Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in
practice as the irreversibilities cannot be
eliminated
• But Reversible Cycles provide the upper limit
of performance of real cycles

123
 The Carnot Cycle
• The best known reversible cycle is the Carnot
Cycle, proposed by Sadi Carnot
• The theoretical heat engine that operates on
the Carnot Cycle is called the Carnot Heat
Engine
• It consists of four reversible processes-two
isothermal and two adiabatic

124
 The Carnot Cycle…

Reversible Isothermal Expansion Reversible Adiabatic Expansion

Reversible Isothermal Compression Reversible Adiabatic Compression

125
The Carnot Cycle…

Carnot Cycle on P-V Coordinates

126
 The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The Reversed Carnot Cycle or The Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

127
 Carnot Principles
• The efficiency of an
irreversible heat engine is
always less than the
efficiency of a reversible
one operating between
the same two reservoirs
• The efficiencies of all
reversible heat engines
operating between the
same two reservoirs are
the same

128
Proof of the Carnot Principles

129
 Carnot Efficiency
• The Thermal Efficiency of any heat engine,
reversible or irreversible is given as:
QL
th  1 
QH
• The Thermal Efficiency of a Carnot Engine (Carnot
Efficiency) can be written as:
QL TL
th ,rev  1  1
QH TH
• This is the highest efficiency a heat engine
operating between the two thermal energy
reservoirs at temperatures TL and TH can have
130
Actual and Carnot Efficiencies

< th,rev Irreversible Heat Engine

 th = th,rev Reversible Heat Engine
> th,rev Impossible Heat Engine
131
 Improving the Efficiency of Heat
Engines
• The Thermal Efficiency of a Carnot Heat Engine is:
QL TL
th ,rev  1  1
QH TH
• The efficiency increases as TH is increased or TL is
decreased
• This is also true for actual engines
• The Thermal Efficiency of actual heat engines can be
maximized by supplying heat to the engine at the
highest possible temperature and rejecting heat from
the engine at the lowest possible temperature
132
 Carnot Refrigerator and Carnot Heat
Pump
• A refrigerator or a heat pump that operates on
the reversed Carnot Cycle is called a Carnot
Refrigerator or a Carnot Heat Pump
1 1
COPR  
QH 1 TH 1
QL TL
1 1
COPHP  
1  QL 1  TL
QH TH
• These are the highest coefficients of performance
that a refrigerator or a heat pump operating
between the temperature limits of TL and TH can
have
133
 Actual and Carnot COPs

< COPR,rev Irreversible Refrigerator

COPR = COPR,rev Reversible Refrigerator
> COPR,rev Impossible Refrigerator
134
 Problem 1
A steam power plant with a power output of
150 MW consumes coal at a rate of 60 tons/hr. If
the heating value of the coal is 30,000 kJ/kg,
determine the overall efficiency of this plant.

Ans: 30%

135
 Problem 2
A coal burning steam power plant produces a net
power of 300 MW with an overall thermal
efficiency of 32%. The actual gravimetric air-fuel
ratio in the furnace is calculated to be 12 kg air/kg
fuel. The heating value of the coal is 28,000 kJ/kg.
Determine (a) the amount of coal consumed during
a 24-hour period and (b) the rate of air flowing
through the furnace.

Ans: (a) 2.89 X 106 kg, (b) 402 kg/s

136
 Problem 3
A household refrigerator with a COP of 1.2
removes heat from the refrigerated space at a
rate of 60 kJ/min. Determine (a) the electric
power consumed by the refrigerator and (b) the
rate of heat transfer to the kitchen air.

Ans: (a) 0.83 kW, (b) 110 kJ/min

137
 Problem 4
A household refrigerator that has a power input
of 450 W and a COP of 2.5 is to cool five large
watermelons, 10 kg each, to 8C. If the
watermelons are initially at 20C, determine
how long it will take for the refrigerator to cool
them. The watermelons can be treated as water
whose specific heat is 4.2 kJ/kg-0C.

Ans: 2240 s

138
 Problem 5
A completely reversible heat engine operates
with a source at 800 K and a sink at 280 K. At
what rate must heat be supplied to this engine,
in kJ/h, for it to produce 4 kW of power.

Ans: 22,150 kJ/h

139
 Problem 6
A Carnot refrigerator operates in a room in
which the temperature is 25 0C. The refrigerator
consumes 500 W of power when operating and
has a COP of 4.5. Determine (a) the rate of heat
removal from the refrigerated space and (b) the
temperature of the refrigerated space.

Ans: (a) 135 kJ/min, (b) -29.2 0C

140
 Problem 7
Consider two Carnot heat engines operating in
series. The first engine receives heat from the
reservoir at 1800 K and rejects the waste heat to
another reservoir at temperature T. The second
engine receives this energy rejected by the first
one, converts some of it to work, and rejects the
rest to a reservoir at 300 K. If the thermal
efficiencies of both engines are the same,
determine the temperature T.

Ans: 735 K
141
 Problem 8
A refrigeration cycle having a coefficient of performance
of 3 maintains a computer laboratory at 18 C on a day
when the outside temperature is 30 C. The thermal load
at steady state consists of energy entering through the
walls and windows at a rate of 30,000 kJ/h and from the
occupants, computers, and lighting at a rate of 6000 kJ/h.
Determine the power required by this cycle and compare
with the minimum theoretical power required for any
refrigeration cycle operating under these conditions, each
in kW.
Ans: 3.33 kW, 0.41 kW

142
 Clausius Inequality
• The Clausius inequality is given as:
Q
T 0
• The cyclic integral of Q/T is always less than or
equal to zero
• It is valid for all cycles, reversible or irreversible
• The equality in the Clausius inequality holds for
totally or just internally reversible cycles and the
inequality for the irreversible ones

143
 Entropy (S)
• Entropy is a property designated by the
symbol S
 Q 
dS    kJ / K
 T int rev

• Entropy change of a system during a process

can be determined by integrating the above
equation
 Q 
2
S  S 2  S1    
1
T int rev
144
 Entropy…
• Entropy is a property and hence has fixed
values at fixed states
• The entropy change between two specified
states is the same irrespective of the path,
irreversible or reversible, is followed

145
 Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat
Transfer Process
• Isothermal heat transfer processes are internally
reversible since there is no finite temperature
gradient
2
 Q 
2
 Q  2
S         
1
 
 int rev
Q 
Q
1
T int rev 1  T0 int rev T0 1
T0

• The above equation is useful in determining the

entropy change of thermal reservoirs
• Heat transfer to the system increases the entropy
while heat transfer from it decreases the entropy

146
 Increase of Entropy Principle
• Consider a cycle having two processes: 1-2 is
any arbitrary process and 2-1 is a reversible
process

• From the Clausius inequality,

Q 2
Q  Q 
1

T 0
1
  
T 2  T int, rev
0

147
 Increase of Entropy Principle…
2
Q

1
T
 S1  S 2  0

2
Q
S 2  S1  
1
T
Q
dS 
T
2
Q
• S2-S1 is the Entropy Change and  T is called the
1
Entropy Transfer
• The Entropy change is always greater than
Entropy Transfer

148
 Increase of Entropy Principle…
• The Entropy Change can be written as
2
Q
S System  S 2  S1    S gen
1
T

• Sgen is always a positive quantity or is equal to

zero
• Sgen depends on the process and thus is not a
property of the system
• In the absence of entropy transfer, the entropy
change of a system is equal to the entropy
generation

149
 Increase of Entropy Principle…
• For an isolated system or an adiabatic closed
system, the heat transfer is zero

Sisolated  0

• The entropy of an isolated system during a

process always increases or, in the limiting case of
a reversible process, remains constant
• It never decreases
• This is known as the Increase of Entropy Principle

150
 Increase of Entropy Principle…
• As no actual process is truly reversible, it is
concluded that some entropy is generated
during a process
• The universe can be assumed as an isolated
system and hence the entropy of the universe
is continuously increasing
> 0 Irreversible Process
= 0 Reversible Process
S gen < 0 Impossible Process

151
 Some Remarks about Entropy
• A process must proceed in the direction that
complies with the increase in entropy principle,
i.e. Sgen  0
• Entropy is a non-conserved property. It is
conserved during the idealized reversible
processes only and increases during all actual
processes
• The performance of engineering systems is
degraded by the presence of irreversibilities, and
entropy generation is a measure of their
magnitudes

152
 Isentropic Process
• Entropy of a system can be changed by heat transfer
and irreversibilities
• So, entropy does not change during a process that is
reversible and adiabatic
• Such a process where entropy remains constant is
known as Isentropic Process
• Many engineering devices like pumps, nozzles, turbines
are adiabatic and they perform well when the
irreversibilities such as friction are minimized
• Therefore isentropic processes enable us to compare
with actual processes
153
 TdS Relations
• For a closed system, the energy balance is
Qint rev  Wint rev,out  dU
Qint rev TdS  dU  PdV
dS   Qint rev  TdS
T
Tds  du  Pdv
Wint rev,out  PdV
TdS  dU  PdV Gibbs Equation 
TdS  dH  VdP
h  u  Pv  dh  du  Pdv  vdP Tds  dh  vdP
du  dh  Pdv  vdP
dU  dH  PdV  VdP
TdS  dH  PdV  VdP  PdV
TdS  dH  VdP
154
 Important Relation
• For an ideal gas undergoing as Isentropic
Process
 1
 1
T2  P2    v1 
     
T1  P1   v2 

155
Entropy Change of an Incompressible
Substance
Tds  du  pdv
du p
ds   dv
T T
For incompressible substances, dv  0
du c p dT
 ds  
T T
On integratin g over a process1 - 2,
2 2
dT
1 ds  c p 1 T
T2
s2  s1  c p ln
T1
156
 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas
Tds  du  pdv Tds  dh  vdp
du p dh v
ds   dv ds   dp
T T T T
p R v R
pv  RT   pv  RT  
T v T p
du dh
Also cv  Also c p 
dT dT
dT R dT R
 ds  cv  dv  ds  c p  dp
T v T p
For a process1 - 2, For a process1 - 2,
2 2 2 2 2 2
dT dv dT dp
1 ds  cv
1
T
 R 
1
v 1 ds  c p 1 T  R 1 p
T2 v2 T2 p2
s2  s1  cv ln  R ln s2  s1  c p ln  R ln
T1 v1 T1 p1 157
 Entropy Balance
 Change 
 Total   Total   Total   
       in the Total 
 Entropy    Entropy    Entropy    
 Entering   Leaving   Generated   Entropy of 
       the System 
 
Sin  S out  S gen  S System
S System  S final  Sinitial  S 2  S1
Entropy Transfer by Heat :
2
Q Q
S heat   
1
T T
Entropy Transfer by Work :
S work  0
Entropy Transfer by Mass :
S m ass  ms 158
Entropy Balance for Closed System

Q
 T  S gen  S system  S2  S1
For an adiabatic system :
S gen  S system  S 2  S1

159
Entropy Balance for Open System
Q
 T  mi si   me se  S gen  S2  S1
For steady flow systems,S 2  S1
Q
 T  mi si   me se  S gen  0
In rate form
Q
 T  m i si   m e se  Sgen  0
For steady flow, single stream
Q
 T m si  se   Sgen  0
For steady flow, single stream, adiabatic
m s  s   S  0
i e gen
160
 Problem 9
Air is compressed by a 12 kW compressor from
P1 to P2. The air temperature is maintained
constant at 25 0C during the process as a result
of heat transfer to the surrounding medium at
10 0C. Determine the rate of entropy change of
the air.

Ans: -0.0403 kW/K

161
 Problem 10
Heat is transferred at a rate of 2 kW from a hot
reservoir at 800 K to a cold reservoir at 300 K.
Calculate the rate at which the entropy of the
two reservoirs change.

Ans: 0.00417 kW/K

162
 Problem 11
A completely reversible heat pump produces heat
at a rate of 100 kW to warm a house maintained at
21 0C. The exterior air, which is at 10 0C, serves as
the source. Calculate the rate of entropy change of
the two reservoirs and determine if this heat pump
satisfies the second law according to the increase of
entropy principle

Ans: Yes
163
 Problem 12
A 20 kg aluminium block initially at 200C is
brought into contact with a 20 kg block of iron at
100C in an insulated enclosure. Determine the
final equilibrium temperature and the total
entropy change for this process. CpAl=0.93,
CpFe=0.45 kJ/kg-K
Ans: 167.4 C, 0.166 kJ/K

164
 Problem 13
A piston-cylinder device contains 1.2 kg of
nitrogen gas at 120 kPa and 27C. The gas is now
compressed slowly in a polytropic process
during which PV1.3=constant. The process ends
when the volume is reduced by one half.
Determine the entropy change of nitrogen
during this process.
Ans: -0.0617 kJ/K

165
 Availability (Exergy)
• The useful work potential of a given amount of
energy at some specified state is called Exergy or
Availability or Available Energy
• The Work Potential of the energy contained in a
system at a specified state is simply the maximum
useful work that can be obtained from the system
• A system delivers the maximum possible work as
it undergoes a reversible process from the
specified initial state to the state of its
environment, that is the Dead State
166
 Some Terms
• Dead State: The state when a system is in
thermodynamic equilibrium with the
surroundings. (T0, P0)
• Surroundings: Everything outside the system
boundary
• Immediate Surroundings: Portion of the
surroundings that are affected by the process
• Environment: Region beyond the immediate
surroundings whose properties are not affected
by the process at any point
167
Some Terms…

168
 Exergy Associated With KE and PE
• Kinetic Energy is a form of mechanical energy and it
can be converted to work entirely
• Exergy of the KE of a system is its KE itself
V2
xke 
2
• Exergy of the PE of a system is its PE itself
x pe  gz

• Therefore, the KE and PE are entirely available for work

• However, internal energy and enthalpy are not entirely
available for work

169
 Surroundings Work
• Surroundings work is the work done by or
against the surroundings during a process

Wsurr  P0 V2  V1 
Wu  W  Wsurr  W  P0 V2  V1 
170
 Surroundings Work…
• When a system is expanding and doing work,
part of the work done is used to overcome the
atmospheric pressure
• When a system is compressed, the
atmospheric pressure helps the compression
process
• Wsurr is significant only in systems involving
moving boundary work

171
 Reversible Work (Wrev)
• Wrev is the maximum amount of useful work
that can be produced (or the minimum work
that needs to be supplied) as a system
undergoes a process between the specified
initial and final states
• This is the useful work output (or input)
obtained (or expended) when the process
between the initial and final states is executed
in a reversible manner

172
 Irreversibility
• Irreversibility is the difference between the
reversible work and useful work
• Irreversibility is equivalent to the exergy
destroyed I W W
rev ,out u ,out

or
I  Wu ,in W rev ,in
• For a reversible process, the irreversibility is zero
• Irreversibility is a positive quantity

173
 2nd Law Efficiency
• Thermal Efficiency and COP are defined based
on the 1st Law of TD
• They make no reference to the best possible
performance
• Therefore 2nd Law efficiency is defined in
order to compare performances of devices
based on their working potentials

174
 2nd Law Efficiency…
• Engine B has a greater
potential
• So Engine B is
performing poorly

 TL  300
 rev , A  1    1   50%
 TH A 600
 T  300
 rev , B  1  L   1   70%
 TH B 1000
175
 2nd Law Efficiency…
• 2nd Law Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
actual thermal efficiency to the maximum
possible thermal efficiency under the same
conditions
th
 II 
th ,rev
0.3 0.3
 II , A   0.6 and  II , B   0.43
0.5 0.7

176
General Definition of 2nd Law Efficiency

 II 
Wu
For work producing devices 
Wrev

 II 
Wrev
For work consuming devices 
Wu

 II 
COP
For refrigerat ors and heat pumps
COPrev

177
Exergy of a Closed System

178
 Exergy of a Closed System…

Exergy :
V2
  u  u0   P0 v  v0   T0 s  s0    gz
2
Exergy Change:
V22  V12
  2  1  u2  u1   P0 v2  v1   T0 s2  s1    g z 2  z1 
2
For Stationary Systems :
  u  u0   P0 v  v0   T0 s  s0 

179
 Exergy of an Open System

Flow Exergy :
V2
  h  h0   T0 s  s0    gz
2
Flow Exergy Change:
V22  V12
   2 - 1  h2  h1   T0 s2  s1    g z2  z1 
2

180
Exergy Transfer
By Heat :
 T0 
X heat   1  Q
 T 
By Work :
X work  W  Wsurr
W
By Mass :
X m ass  m
181
 Decrease of Exergy Principle
• Exergy of an isolated system during a process
always decreases
• Only in a reversible process, exergy remains
constant
• Exergy never increases and in an actual
process it is destroyed and is given by the
Gouy-Stodola Theorem

X destroyed  T0 S gen
182
 Exergy Destruction

X destroyed  T0 S gen
X destroyed  0 Irreversib le Process
X destroyed  0 Reversible Process
X destroyed  0 Impossible Process

183
 Exergy Balance

Exergyin  Exergyout  Exergydestroyed  Exergy Change

xin  xout  xdes  x
For Closed System :
xheat-xwork -xdes  Δx
For Open System :
xheat-xwork  xmass,in -xmass,out  xdes  Δxcv

184
 Summary

Energyin  Energyout  Energy

Entropyin  Entropyout  Entropygen  Entropy
Exergyin  Exergyout  Exergydes  Exergy

185
 Problem 12
A heat engine receives heat from a source at
1500 K at a rate of 700 kJ/s, and it rejects the
waste heat to a medium at 320 K. The measured
power output of the heat engine is 320 kW, and
the environment temperature is 25 0C.
Determine (a) the reversible power, (b) the rate
of irreversibility, and (c) the second law
efficiency of this heat engine.

Ans: (a) 550.7 kW, (b) 230.7 kW, (c) 58.1%

186
 Problem 13
A house that is losing heat at a rate of 80,000
kJ/h when the outside temperature drops to 15
0C is to be heated by electric resistance heaters.

If the house is to be maintained at 22 0C at all

times, determine the reversible work input for
this process and the irreversibility.

Ans: 0.53 kW, 21.69 kW

187
 Problem 14
A freezer is maintained at -7 0C by removing
heat from it at a rate of 80 kJ/min. The power
input to the freezer is 0.5 kW, and the
surrounding air is at 25 0C. Determine (a) the
reversible power, (b) the irreversibility, and (c)
the second-law efficiency of this freezer.

Ans: 0.16 kW, 0.34 kW, 32%

188
 Problem 15
A cylinder of an internal combustion engine
contains 2450 cm3 of gaseous combustion products
at a pressure of 7 bar and a temperature of 867 0C
just before the exhaust valve opens. Determine the
specific exergy of the gas, in kJ/kg. Ignore the
effects of motion and gravity and model the
combustion products as air as ideal gas. Take
T0=300 K and P0=1.103 bar.
Ans: 325.2 kJ/kg

189
 Problem 16
Show that the power produced by a wind
turbine is proportional to the cube of the wind
velocity and to the square of the blade span
diameter

190
 MODULE 4

Properties of Pure Substances and

Mixtures
 Pure Substance
• A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout is called a Pure
Substance
• A pure substance does not have to be of a single
chemical element or compound
• A mixture of various chemical elements or
compounds is a pure substance as long as the
mixture is homogeneous, e.g. Air
• A mixture of oil and water is not a pure substance
as oil is not soluble in water
192
 Pure Substance…
• A mixture of two or more phases of a pure
substance is still a pure substance as long as
the chemical composition of all phases is the
same, e.g. Mixture of ice and water
• A mixture of liquid air and gaseous air is not
pure substance as the compositions are
different

193
 Phases of a Pure Substance
• A Phase is identified as having a distinct
molecular arrangement that is homogeneous
throughout and separated from the others by
easily identifiable boundary surfaces, e.g. iced
water
• Substances are present in three phases-Solid,
Liquid and Gas (vapour)

194
 Phases of a Pure Substance…
• The molecules in a solid are arranged in 3-D
pattern
• Due to the small distances between the
molecules in a solid, the attractive forces of
molecules on each other are large and keep the
molecules in fixed positions
• The molecular spacing in the liquid phase is
similar to that in solids except that the molecules
are no longer at fixed positions relative to each
other and can rotate and translate freely
195
 Phases of a Pure Substance…
• In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart
from each other and molecular order is
nonexistent
• Gas molecules move about random,
continually colliding with each other and the
walls of the container
• Molecules in the gas phase are at a
considerably higher energy level than they are
in the liquid and solid phases

196
 Phase Change Processes
• Phase change processes take place in practical
situations
• Water exists as liquid and vapour in a boiler
and a condenser
• The refrigerant turns from liquid to vapour in
a refrigerator
• Here, water is used to explain the process but
the principles are equally applicable to other
pure substances
197
Phase Change Processes in a Pure
Substance

State 1: Compressed Liquid

State 2: Saturated Liquid
State 3: Saturated liquid + Vapour
State 4: Saturated Vapour
State 5: Superheated Vapour
198
 Definitions
• Compressed or Sub-Cooled liquid means that it is
not about to vapourize
• Saturated Liquid is a liquid that is about to
vapourize
• Saturated Vapour is a vapour that is about to
condense
• Saturated Liquid-Vapour Mixture is a condition
where liquid and vapour coexist in equilibrium
• Superheated Vapour is a vapour that is not about
to condense

199
Definitions…

200
 Definitions…
• Saturation Temperature (Tsat) is the
temperature (at a given pressure) at which a
pure substance changes phase
• Saturation Pressure (Psat) is the pressure (at a
given temperature) at which a pure substance
changes phase
• Latent Heat of Vaporization is the amount of
energy absorbed during evaporation

201
Liquid-Vapour Saturation Curve
Tsat=f(Psat)

202
T-V Diagram

203
 Critical Point
• Critical Point is defined as the point at which
the saturated liquid and saturated vapour
states are identical
• For water, Pcr=22.06 Mpa
• Tcr=373.95 0C

204
T-V Diagram…

205
 Liquid-Vapour Mixture

Mass of Vapour mvapour mvapour

Quality  Dryness Fraction, x   
Total Mass mtotal mliquid  mvapour

206
Properties of Liquid-Vapour Mixture

v  1  x v f  xv g
u  1  x u f  xu g F (for fluid) =Liquid
h  1  x h f  xhg
G (for gas) =Vapour

s  1  x s f  xs g

y  1  x  y f  xy g

207
Characteristics of Superheated vapour
• Compared to saturated vapour, superheated
vapour is characterized by
Lower Pressures P  Psat at a given T 
Higher Temperatures T  Tsat at a given P 
Higher Specific Volumes v  v g at a given P or T 
Higher internal energies u  u g at a given P or T 
Higher Enthalpies h  h g at a given P or T 

208
 Characteristics of Compressed Liquid
• A compressed liquid is characterized by
Higher Pressures P  Psat at a given T 
Lower Temperatures T  Tsat at a given P 
Lower Specific Volumes v  v f at a given P or T 
Lower internal energies u  u f at a given P or T 
Lower Enthalpies h  h f at a given P or T 
• However, the properties of compressed liquid are
not much different from the corresponding
saturation liquid values
209
 Problem Table 1
T, 0C P, kPa V, m3/kg Phase Description
50 4.16
200 Saturated Vapour
250 400
110 600

210
 Problem Table 2
T, 0C P, kPa h, kJ/kg x Phase
Description
200 0.7
140 1800
950 0.0
80 500
800 3162.2

211
 Problem 1
A rigid tank with a volume of 2.5 m3 contains 15
kg of saturated liquid-vapour of water at 75 0C.
Now the water is slowly heated. Determine the
temperature at which the liquid in the tank is
completely vaporized. Also, show the process on
a T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.

Ans: 187 0C

212
 Problem 2
Superheated water vapour at 1.4 MPa and 250
0C is allowed to cool at constant volume until

the temperature drops to 120 0C. At the final

state, determine (a) the pressure, (b) the quality,
and (c) the enthalpy. Also, show the process on
a T-v diagram with respect to saturation lines.

Ans: (a) 198.7 kPa, (b) 0.1825, (c) 905.7 kJ/kg

213
 Problem 3
A sample of steam from a boiler drum at 3 MPa
is put through a throttling calorimeter in which
the pressure and temperature are found to be
0.1 MPa and 120 0C respectively. Find the quality
of the sample taken from the boiler.

Ans: 0.951

214
 Problem 4
Steam enters a turbine operating at steady state
with a mass flow rate of 4600 kg/h. The turbine
develops a power output of 1000 kW. At the inlet,
the pressure is 60 bar, the temperature is 400 C,
and the velocity is 10 m/s. At the exit, the pressure
is 0.1 bar, the quality is 0.9 (90%), and the velocity
is 50 m/s. Calculate the rate of heat transfer
between the turbine and surroundings, in kW.

Ans: 61.3 kW
215
 Ideal Gas
• The equation Pv=RT is known as the Ideal Gas
Equation or the Ideal Gas Equation of State
• A gas which obeys this equation is called an
Ideal Gas
• P is absolute pressure, T is absolute
temperature and v is specific volume
Ru kJ
R
M kg - K
Ru  Universal Gas Constant
M  Molar Mass or Molecular Weight
216
Universal Gas Constant
 kJ
8.31447 kmol - K

8.31447 J
 mol - K
Ru   3
8.31447 kPa - m
 kmol - K
 3
0.0831447 bar - m
 kmol - K

217
 Molar Mass and Mole
• Molar Mass is the mass of one mole of a
substance in grams, or the mass of one kmol
in kilograms
• Number of Moles (n) is the ratio of the mass
(m) to the molecular weight (M)

m
n
M

218
 Other Forms of the Ideal Gas Equation
PV  mRT
PV  nRuT For a gas undergoing a process1  2,
PV  RuT the Ideal Gas Equation can be used to write
Where P1V1 P2 V2

P  Absolute Pressure, Pa T1 T2

V  Volume, m 3
m  Mass, kg
n  Moles
R  Specific Gas Constant, kJ/kg  K
Ru  Universal Gas Constant, kJ/kmol  K
T  Absolute Temperatur e, K
219
Applicability of The Ideal Gas Equation
• The Ideal Gas Equation closely approximates the
P-V-T behaviour of Real gases at low densities
• At low pressures and high temperatures, the
density of a gas decreases, and the gas behaves
as an ideal gas
• Many familiar gases like air, nitrogen, oxygen,
hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, krypton, carbon
dioxide are ideal gases
• Dense gases like water vapour, refrigerants must
not be treated as ideal gases
220
 Other Equations of State
• The ideal gas equation is simple but range of
applicability is limited
• To cover a wider range, few other equations
are suggested
• Van der Waals equation (one of the earliest)
• Beattie-Bridgeman equation (one of the best
known and reasonably accurate)
• Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation (one of the
most recent and very accurate)
221
Van der Waals Equation

 a
 P  2 v  b   RT
 v 
27 R 2Tcr2 RTcr
a and b 
64 Pcr 8Pcr

222
 Beattie-Bridgeman Equation
RuT  c 
P  2 1  3 v  B   2
A
v  vT  v
 a  b
A  A0 1   and B  B0 1  
 v  v

The constants A0, a,B0,b and c can be obtained from tables.

The Equation is reasonably accurate for densities up to about
0.8 cr

223
 Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation

RuT  C0  1 bRuT  a a c     / v 2
P   B0 RuT  A0  2  2   6  3 2 1  2 e
v  T v v 3
v vT  v 

The constants A0, a, B0, b, C0, c, α, and  can be obtained from

tables.
The Equation is reasonably accurate for densities up to about
2.5 cr

224
 Compressibility Factor (Z)
• The deviation from ideal gas behaviour at a
given temperature and pressure can
accurately be accounted by the
Compressibility Factor
Pv
Z or Pv  ZRT
RT

225
 Compressibility Factor (Z)…
• The value of Z can be found from charts using
the values of Reduced Pressure (Pr) and
Reduced Temperature (Tr)
P T
PR  and TR 
Pcr Tcr
• The value of Z is approximately the same at
the same reduced pressure and temperature.
• This is called the Principle of Corresponding
States
226
Generalized Compressibility Chart

227
 Some Observations
• At very low pressures (PR<<1), gases behave as
an ideal gas regardless of temperature
• At high temperatures (TR>2), ideal gas
behaviour can be assumed with good accuracy
regardless of pressure (except when PR>>1)
• The deviation of a gas from ideal gas is
greatest in the vicinity of the critical point

228
Some Observations…

229
 To Find Pressure or Temperature
• If volume and pressure (or temperature) is
given, first estimate the pseudo-reduced
specific volume (vr) v
vR  actual
RTcr
Pcr
• Then estimate Pr (or Tr)
• Finally estimate the unknown T (or P)

230
 Problem 1
Determine the specific volume of superheated
water vapour at 10 MPa and 400 0C, using (a)
the ideal-gas equation, (b) Van der Waals
equation, (c) the generalized compressibility
chart and (d) the steam tables.

Ans: (a) 0.03106 m3/kg, (b) (c) 0.02609 m3/kg

and (d) 0.02644 m3/kg

231
 Problem 2
Determine the specific volume of nitrogen gas at 10
MPa and 150 K based on (a) the ideal-gas equation
and (b) the generalized compressibility chart.
Compare these results with the experimental value
of 0.002388 m3/kg, and determine the error
involved in each case. For Nitrogen, Pcr=3.39 MPa,
Tcr=126.2 K.

Ans: (a) 0.004482 m3/kg, 86.4%, (b) 0.002404

m3/kg, 0.7%
232
 Problem 3
Determine the pressure of water vapour at
350℃ and 0.035262 m3/kg using (i) the steam
tables, (b) the ideal gas equation and (c) the
generalized compressibility chart.

Ans: 7 bar, 8.16 bar, 7.2 bar

233
 Composition of a Gas Mixture
• The Composition of a gas mixture is a
description of the amount of quantity of each
constituent present in the mixture
• The Composition of a Gas Mixture can be
expressed using Molar Analysis or
Gravimetric Analysis
• Molar Analysis is also known as Volumetric
Analysis

234
 Mass and Mole Fractions
k k
mm   mi and n m   ni
i 1 i 1

mi
Mass Fraction, mf i 
mm
ni
Mole Fraction, y i 
nm
k k

 mf
i 1
i  1 and y
i 1
i 1

Mass of the mixture mm

Average Molecular Weight  
Moles in the mixture nm


 m n M
i
yM
i i
k

i i
n
m n m i 1
235
Mass and Mole Fractions…

mm mm 1 1
Mm     k
mi mi
M m M M
nm mfi
i m i i 1 i

mi ni M i Mi
mfi    yi
mm nm M m Mm

236
 Ideal Gas Mixtures
• When two or more ideal gases are mixed, the
non-reacting mixture also behaves as an ideal
gas
• Air is an ideal gas even though it is a mixture
of nitrogen and oxygen
• The prediction of the P-V-T behaviour of gases
is based on Dalton’s law and Amagat’s law

237
Dalton’s Law of Additive Pressures
• The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the pressures each gas would exert if it
existed alone at the mixture temperature and
volume

238
Amagat’s Law of Additive Volumes
• The volume of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the volumes each gas would occupy if
it existed alone at the mixture temperature
and pressure

239
 Mathematical Representation
• Dalton’s and Amagat’s laws hold exactly for ideal
gases but approximately for real gases
k
Dalton' s Law : Pm   Pi Tm ,Vm 
i 1
k
Amagat' s Law : Vm  Vi Tm ,Pm 
i 1

• Pi is called as the Component Pressure or Partial

Pressure
• Vi is called as the Component Volume or Partial
Volume
240
Relation between Partial Pressure and
Volume
ni RuTm
Pi Tm ,Vm  Vm ni
   yi
Pm n R
m u mT nm
Vm
ni RuTm
Vi Tm , Pm  Pm ni
   yi
Vm n R
m u mT nm
Pm
Pi Vi n
   i  yi
Pm Vm nm

The above result is valid strictly for ideal gases

241
Properties of Gas Mixtures-Extensive
Properties

k k k
U m  U i  mi ui   N i ui
i 1 i 1 i 1
k k k
H m   H i  mi hi   N i hi
i 1 i 1 i 1
k k k
S m   Si  mi si   N i si
i 1 i 1 i 1

242
 Properties of Gas Mixtures-Intensive
Properties
k k
um   mfi ui kJ/kg and um   yi ui kJ/mol
i 1 i 1
k k
hm   mfi hi kJ/kg and hm   yi hi kJ/mol
i 1 i 1
k k
sm   mfi si kJ/kg  K and sm   yi si kJ/kmol  K
i 1 i 1
k k
Cv ,m   mfi Cv ,i kJ/kg  K and Cv ,m   yi Cv ,i kJ/kmol  K
i 1 i 1
k k
C p ,m   mfi C p ,i kJ/kg  K and C p ,m   yi C p ,i kJ/kmol  K
i 1 i 1

243
 Problem 1
Consider a gas mixture that consists of 3 kg of
O2, 5 kg of N2, and 12 kg of CH4. Determine (a)
the mass fraction of each component, (b) the
mole fraction of each component, and (c) the
average molar mass and gas constant of the
mixture.

Ans: (a) 0.15, 0.25, 0.6 (b) 0.092, 0.175, 0.733

(c) 19.6 kg/kmol, 0.424 kJ/kg-K
244
 Problem 2
An insulated rigid tank is divided into two
compartments by a partition. One compartment
contains 7 kg of O2 at 40 0C and 100 kPa, and the
other compartment contains 4 kg of N2 at 20 0C and
150 kPa. Now the partition is removed, and the two
gases are allowed to mix. Determine (a) the mixture
temperature and (b) the mixture pressure after
equilibrium has been established. Take Cv,N2=0.743
kJ/kg-K and Cv,O2=0.658 kJ/kg-K.

Ans: (a) 32.2 0C (b) 114.5 kPa

245
 Problem 3
A rigid tank contains 8 kmol of O2 and 10 kmol
of CO2 gases at 290 K and 150 kPa. Estimate the
volume of the tank.

Ans: 289 m3

246
 Problem 4
A 0.3 m3 rigid tank contains 0.6 kg of N2 and 0.4
kg of O2 at 300 K. Determine the partial pressure
of each gas and the total pressure of the
mixture.

Ans: 178.1 KPa, 103.8 kPa, 282 kPa

247
 MODULE 6

Thermodynamics Relations
 Why Thermodynamic Relations?
• Properties like mass, volume, temperature, and
pressure can be easily measured
• Properties like density, specific volume can be
calculated by simple equations
• Properties like internal energy, enthalpy, and
entropy cannot be measured directly or related
to easily measurable properties by simple
equations
• Hence it is necessary to develop relations
between commonly encountered properties and
relate them to easily measurable properties
249
 Gibbs and Helmholtz Functions
• The Gibbs (g) and Helmholtz (a) functions are
combination properties (like enthalpy)
• Gibbs Function:
g=h-Ts
On differentiation,
dg=dh-Tds-sdT (eqn 1)
• Helmholtz Function:
a=u-Ts
On differentiation
da=du-Tds-sdT (eqn 2)

250
 Gibbs Relations
• The four Gibbs relations are derived from the Tds
relations and the Gibbs and Helmholtz functions
• The Tds relations are
Tds=du+Pdv  du=Tds-Pdv (eqn 3)
Tds=dh-vdP  dh=Tds+vdP (eqn 4)
• Combining eqns 1 to 4, we get
da=-sdT-Pdv (eqn 5)
dg=-sdT+vdP (eqn 6)

251
 Gibbs Relations
• All four Gibbs relations are given below:
du=Tds-Pdv
dh=Tds+vdP
da=-sdT-Pdv
dg=-sdT+vdP
• The above equations are of the form
dz=Mdx+Ndy
with
 M   N 
    
 y  x  x  y 252
 Maxwell Relations

 T   P 
    
The change in entropy can  v  s  s  v
be easily calculated using
 T   v 
the changes in pressure,    
volume and temperature  P  s  s  P
 s   P 
   
 v T  T  v
 s   v 
    
 P T  T  P
253
 Clapeyron Equation
• During phase change, the temperature
remains constant
• Also, the pressure depends only on
temperature

 P   s 
   
 T  v  v T
 dP   s 
   
 dT  sat  v T
254
 Clapeyron Equation…
• Between the two saturation states (saturated
liquid and saturated vapour states), the equation
can be integrated Clapeyron' s equation and Trouton's rule combined :

 v  v 
 dP   88  T 
s s 
g f P  101 .325 exp  1  
g f B
 dT  sat  R  T 
 dP  s fg TB : Boiling Po int at 1 atm
   R : Universal Gas Constant  8.314 J/mol - K
 dT  sat v fg
During a phase change process, the pressure remains constant
dh  Tds  vdP  Tds
g g

 dh   Tds  h
f f
fg  Ts fg

 dP  h fg
   --- The Clapeyron Equation
 dT  sat Tv fg 255
Importance of Clapeyron Equation
• The Clapeyron equation enables to determine
the enthalpy of vaporization by measuring the
slope of the saturation curve on a P-T diagram
and the specific volume of the saturated liquid
and vapour

256
 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation at Low
Pressures
• At low pressures, vg>>vf and so vfg=vg
• Also, at low pressures, vapour behaves ideally
RT
vg 
P
Substituti ng in the Clapeyron equation, we get
 dP  Ph fg
  
 dT  sat RT
2

 dP  h fg  dT 
    2
  sat
P R  T  sat
For small temperature intervals, h fg can be treated as a constant at some average value
On integratio n between th e two saturation states (liquid and vapour)
P  h fg  1 1 
ln  2      --- Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
 P1  sat R  T1 T2  sat
257
 General Relations for a Simple
Compressible Systems
• According to the state postulate, two
independent intensive properties are sufficient to
completely describe a simple compressible
system
• This can be used to determine the un-measurable
properties from easily measurable ones
• Using calculus, Tds relations and Maxwell
relations, some useful relations can be obtained
for property changes
258
 General Relations…
  P  
T2 v2

u2  u1   Cv dT   T    P  dv
T1 v1  
T  v 
  v  
T2 P2

h2  h1   CP dT   v  T    dP
T1 P1   T  P 
 P   v 
T2 v2 T2 P2
Cv CP
s2  s1   dT     dV  dT     dP
T1
T v1 
T  v T1
T P1 
T  P
P
  2v 
CP  CP 0 T  T   2 
0
T  P
 v   P   v   P  vT 2
2

C P  Cv  T      T     
 T  P  T  v  T  P  v T 
1  v  1  v 
   ;    
v  T  p v  P T 259
Internal Energy Changes
Let u  u T , v 
 u   u 
du    dT    dv
 T  v  v T
 u 
But cv   
 T  v
 u 
 du  cv dT    dv
 v T
Let s  sT , v 
 s   s 
ds    dT    dv
 T  v  v T
TdS eqn : Tds  du  Pdv  du  Tds  Pdv
 s    s  
du  T   dT  T    P  dv
 T  v   v T 
 s  cv  u   s 
   ;    T   P
 T  v T  v T  v T 260
 Internal Energy Changes…
 s   P 
Using Maxwell's 3rd eqn :     

 T 
v T v
 u   P 
   T   P
 v T  T  v
  P  
 du  cv dT  T    P  dv
  T  v 
Internal energy change in a simple compressible system
for a state change from T1,v1  to T2 ,v2  is
  P  
T2 v2

u2  u1   cv dT   T    P  dv
T1 v1  
T  v 

261
 Enthalpy Changes
Let h  hT , P 
 h   h 
dh    dT    dP
 T  P  P T
 h 
dh  c p dT    dP
 P T
Let s  sT , P 
 s   s 
ds    dT    dP
 T  P  P T
Tds eqn : Tds  dh  vdP  dh  Tds  vdP
 s    s  
dh  T   dT  v  T    dP
 T  P   P T 
 s  c p  h   s 
   ;    v T 
 T  P T  P T  P T 262
 Enthalpy Changes…
 s   v 
Using 4th Maxwell's relation     
 P T  T  P
 h   v 
   v  T  
 P T  T  P
  v  
 dh  c p dT  v  T    dP
  T  P 
Enthalpy change in a simple compressible system for
a change of state from T1,P1  to T2 ,P2  is
  v  
T2 P2

h2  h1   c p dT   v  T    dP
T1 P1   T  P 
Also, h2  h1  u2  u1  P2 v2  P1v1 
263
 Problem 1
Using the Maxwell relations, determine a
 s 
relation for  P  for a gas whose equation of
T

state is P(v - b) = RT.

Answer: -R/P

264
 Problem 2
Two grams of a saturated liquid are converted to a
saturated vapour by being heated in a weighted
piston-cylinder device arranged to maintain the
pressure at 200 kPa. During the phase conversion,
the volume of the system increases by 1000 cm3; 5
kJ of heat are required; and the temperature of the
substance stays constant at 80C. Estimate the
boiling temperature of this substance when its
pressure is 180 kPa. Also, estimate the sfg at 80C.
Ans: 352 K, 7.08 kJ/kg-K

265
 Problem 3
Determine the change in the enthalpy of air, in
kJ/kg, as it undergoes a change of state from
100 kPa and 20C to 600 kPa and 300C using
the equation of state P(v-a)=RT where a=0.10
m3/kg, and compare the result to the value
obtained by using the ideal gas equation of
state.
Ans: 335 kJ/kg, 285 kJ/kg

266
 Problem 4
Determine the change in the entropy of helium,
in kJ/kg-K, as it undergoes a change of state
from 100 kPa and 20C to 600 kPa and 300C
using the equation of state P(v-a)=RT where
a=0.10 m3/kg, and compare the result to the
value obtained by using the ideal gas equation
of state.
Ans: -0.239 kJ/kg-K, -0.239 kJ/kg-K

267
 Problem 5
Find the approximate saturation pressure of
water at 120 C.

Ans: 1.73 bar

268
 MODULE 7

Gas Power Cycles

 Carnot Cycle
• Carnot Cycle is the most efficient cycle
between a source at TH and a sink at TL
• But the reversible isothermal heat transfer is
very difficult to achieve as it needs very large
heat exchangers and a very long time
• So Carnot cycle is not practical
• However, it can be used to compare the
performance of an actual cycle

270
 Gas Power Cycles
• In Gas Power Cycles, the working fluid remains
a gas throughout the cycle
• The energy is provided by burning a fuel
• The composition of the working fluid changes
from air and fuel to combustion products
during the cycle
• As air consists mostly of Nitrogen which does
not react, the working fluid closely resembles
air
271
 Air Standard Assumptions
• The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates
in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas
• All the processes in the cycle are internally reversible
• The combustion is replaced by a heat-addition
process from an external source
• The exhaust is replaced by a heat-rejection process
that restores the working fluid to its initial state
• If the specific heats are assumed to be constant at 25
0C, the above assumptions are known as Cold Air

Standard Assumptions
272
Otto Cycle

273
 Otto Cycle

Processes:
1-2: Isentropic Compression
2-3: Constant Volume Heat Addition
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection 274
 Analysis of an Otto Cycle
• The Otto Cycle is executed in a closed system
• The changes in KE and PE are neglected
• No work is involved during the heat transfer
processes
q-w=u

275
Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle
qin  u3  u2  Cv T3  T2 
qout  u4  u1  Cv T4  T1 
 T4 
T1   1
Wnet qout T4  T1  T1 
th ,Otto   1  1  1
qin qin T3  T2  T3 
T2   1
 T2 
 1  1
T1  v2   v3  T4
But       
T2  v1   v4  T3
1 V V v
th ,Otto  1   1 where r  max  1  1
r Vmin V2 v2
r = Compression Ratio 276
 Thermal Efficiency of Otto Cycle…

The specific heat ratio and the efficiency decrease as the molecules of the gas
get larger. In actual engines, the molecules are larger and hence give low
efficiency 277
Diesel Engine and Differences from
Petrol Engine

278
Diesel Cycle

279
 Analysis of Diesel Cycle
qin  w  u3  u2
qin  w  u3  u2  P2 v3  v2   u3  u2   h3  h2  C p T3  T2 
qout  u4  u1  Cv T4  T1 
T 
T1  4  1
Wnet q T4  T1  T1 
th , Diesel   1  out  1  1
qin qin  T3  T2   T3 
T2   1
 T2 
v3
Cutoff Ratio  rc 
v2
1  rc  1 
th , Diesel  1   1  
r   rc  1

280
 Efficiency of Diesel Cycle

For the same compression ratio, Otto Cycle is more efficient

than the Diesel Cycle
281
Dual Cycle
• Actual heat addition process in
an IC engine is better
approximated by a combination of
constant volume and constant
pressure processes

•The cycle obtained in such a way

is called the Dual Cycle

•The analysis is similar to that of

Otto and Diesel cycles

282
 Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
• Mean Effective Pressure is a fictitious pressure,
if acting on the piston during the entire power
stroke would produce the same amount of net
work as that produced during the actual cycle
• The MEP is a parameter used to compare the
performances of reciprocating engines of equal
size
• Engine with larger MEP delivers more work per
cycle and hence better

283
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)…

284
 Gas Turbine

Open Cycle Gas Turbine Closed Cycle Gas Turbine

285
 Brayton Cycle

1-2: Isentropic Compression

2-3: Constant Pressure Heat addition
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection 286
Efficiency of Brayton Cycle

1
th , Brayton  1   1

rp
P2
Pressure Ratio, rp 
P1

287
 Back Work Ratio
• Back Work ratio in a gas turbine power plant is
the ratio of the compressor work to the
turbine work
• This ratio is very high
• More than half of the turbine work output is
used to drive the compressor
• In steam power plants the back work ratio is
very low

288
Isentropic Turbine and Compressor
Efficiency

ws h2 s  h1
C  
wa h2 a  h1
wa h3  h4 a
T  
ws h3  h4 s

289
 Problem 1
The temperature at the beginning of the
compression process of an air standard Otto cycle
with a compression ratio of 8 is 300 K, the pressure
is 1 bar, and the cylinder volume is 560 cm3. The
maximum temperature during the cycle is 2000 K.
Determine (a) the temperature and pressure at the
end of each process, (b) the thermal efficiency and
(c) the mean effective pressure.

Ans: (b) 56.5% (c) 7.05 bar

290
 Problem 2
In an air-standard Diesel cycle, the conditions at
the start of the compression stroke are V = 0.05
m3, P = 100 kPa, and T = 300 K. The pressure at
the end of the compression stroke is 4 MPa. The
energy addition is 500 kJ/kg air. Determine the
compression ratio, the cut-off ratio, the work
done/kg air and the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
Ans: 13.94, 1.578, 307.5 kJ, 61.5%

291
 Problem 3
A gas turbine power plant operating on an ideal
Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas
temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and
1300 K at the turbine inlet. Determine (a) the gas
temperature at the exits of the compressor and the
turbine, (b) the back work ratio and (c) the thermal
efficiency.
Compute the back work ratio and thermal efficiency
if the compressor efficiency is 80% and turbine
efficiency is 85%.
Ans: (a) 540 K, 717 K (b) 0.42 (c) 44.8%
(a) 0.592 (b) 26.6%
292
 MODULE 8

Vapour and Refrigeration Cycles

 The Carnot Vapour Cycle
The reversible processes
involved are:
• Isothermal heat addition (1-2)
• Isentropic expansion (2-3)
• Isothermal condensation (3-4)
• Isentropic compression (4-1)

294
Impracticalities of Carnot vapour Cycle
• Isothermal heat transfer possible but only in
two-phase region and hence low cycle
temperatures
• Low steam quality during isentropic expansion
• Isentropic compression difficult to control and
handle two-phase fluid

295
 Problems with Super-Critical Carnot
Vapour Cycle
• Compression to extremely high pressures
• Isothermal heat transfer at variable pressure

296
 Ideal Rankine Cycle
The processes in an Ideal Rankine Cycle are:
• Isentropic Compression in a Pump (1-2)
• Constant Pressure Heat Addition in a Boiler (2-
3)
• Isentropic Expansion in a Turbine (3-4)
• Constant Pressure Heat Rejection in a
Condenser (4-1)

297
 Ideal Rankine Cycle…

Schematic Diagram T-S Diagram

298
 Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine
Cycle
• The four devices operate under steady flow
conditions
• KE and PE changes are negligible
• Boiler and Condenser do not involve any work
• Pump and Turbine operate Isentropically

299
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine
Cycle…
SFEE : Q  W  h
Pump q  0 : w pum p  h2  h1   P2  P1 
Boiler w  0 : qin  h3  h2
Turbine q  0 : wturbine  h3  h4
Condenser w  0 : qout  h4  h1
wnet wturbine  w pum p qout
th    1
qin qin qin

Heat Rate: Heat supplied in kJ to generate 1 kWh of electricity

300
Deviation of Actual Vapour Cycle from
Ideal Cycle
• Deviations are a result of irreversibilities
• Fluid Friction causes pressure drop
• Heat loss from the steam to the surroundings
results in lower efficiency
• Due to irreversibilities in pump and turbine, a
pump requires more work and a turbine
produces less work

301
Deviation of Actual Vapour Cycle from
Ideal Cycle…

wisentropic h2 s  h1 wactual h3  h4 a
 pump   ; turbine  
wactual h2 a  h1 wisentropic h3  h4 s
302
 Methods to Improve Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle
Basic Principles used are:
• Increase the average temperature of heat
addition
• Decrease the average temperature of heat
rejection
Methods Adopted are:
• Lowering the Condenser Pressure
• Superheating the steam to high temperatures
• Increasing the Boiler Pressure

303
 Methods to Improve Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle…
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)

304
 Methods to Improve Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle…
Superheating the steam to high temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)

305
 Methods to Improve Efficiency of
Rankine Cycle…
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)

306
Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

qin  q prim ary  qreheat  h3  h2   h5  h4 

wturbine  wturbineI  wturbineII  h3  h4   h5  h6 
307
Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

308
 Problem 1
A simple Rankine cycle with water as the
working fluid operates between the pressure
limits of 3 MPa in the boiler and 30 kPa in the
condenser. If the quality at the exit of the
turbine cannot be less than 85 percent, what is
the maximum thermal efficiency this cycle can
have?

Ans: 29.7%

309
 Problem 2
A simple ideal Rankine cycle with water as the working
fluid operates between the pressure limits of 15 MPa in
the boiler and 100 kPa in the condenser. Saturated steam
enters the turbine. Determine the work produced by the
turbine, the heat transferred in the boiler, and thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
If the irreversibilities in the turbine cause the steam
quality at the outlet of the turbine to be 70%, determine
the isentropic efficiency of the turbine and thermal
efficiency of the cycle.

Ans: 699 kJ/kg, 2178 kJ/kg, 31.4%

87.7%, 27.4% 310
 Problem 3
Consider a steam power plant that operates on the
ideal reheat Rankine cycle. The plant maintains the
boiler at 4000 kPa, the reheat section at 500 kPa,
and the condenser at 10 kPa. The mixture quality at
the exit of both turbines is 90 percent. Determine
the temperature at the inlet of each turbine and the
cycle’s thermal efficiency.

Ans: 292 0C, 283 0C, 33.5%

311
 Problem 4
A steam power plant operates on the reheat Rankine
cycle. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 12.5 MPa
and 550C at a rate of 7.7 kg/s and leaves at 2 MPa.
Steam is then reheated at constant pressure to 450C
before it expands in the low-pressure turbine. The
isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the pump are 85
percent and 90 percent, respectively. Steam leaves the
condenser as a saturated liquid at 10 kPa. If the moisture
content of the steam at the exit of the turbine is not to
exceed 5 percent, determine (a) the net power output,
and (b) the thermal efficiency.

Ans: (a) 10.2 MW, (b) 36.5%

312
Desirable Characteristics of a Working
Fluid of a Vapour Power Cycle
• High critical temperature and a safe maximum
pressure
• Low triple point temperature to avoid
solidification
• Not too low condenser pressure
• High enthalpy of vaporization
• Good heat transfer characteristics
• Must be inert, inexpensive, readily available and
non-toxic

313
 Binary Vapour Cycles
• Binary cycle is a power cycle that is a combination of
two cycles, one at high temperature and other at low
temperature
• The condenser of the high temperature cycle (Topping
cycle) serves as a boiler for the low temperature cycle
(Bottoming Cycle)
• The heat output of the high temperature cycle is used
as the heat input to the low temperature cycle
• Working fluids suitable for the high temperature cycle
are mercury, sodium, potassium and sodium-potassium
mixtures

314
Binary Vapour Cycles…

315
 Binary Vapour Cycles…
• The Binary Vapour Cycle approximates the Carnot
cycle more closely than the Rankine cycle for the
same temperature limits
• Hence the thermal efficiencies are higher
• Thermal efficiencies of 50% and higher are
possible
• They are not economically attractive due to high
initial cost and competition from Combined Cycle
power plants (Combined Gas-Vapour Power
Cycles)
316
 Combined Gas-Vapour Power Cycles
• Also known as Combined Cycle
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the
Gas Turbine Cycle (Brayton Cycle) topping a
Steam Turbine Cycle (Rankine Cycle)
• The exhaust of a gas turbine is above 500 0C
and the heat in these gases can be used to
generate steam and operate a steam turbine
• The result is a Combined Gas-Steam cycle
• Recent Combined Cycle power plants have
efficiencies above 60%
317
Combined Gas-Steam Power Plant

318
 Refrigeration Cycles

For heat transfer from low to high

temperatures, special devices called
Refrigerators are needed

Desired Effect QL
COPR  
Work Input Wnet,in
Desired Effect Q
COPHP   H
Work Input Wnet,in
COPHP  COPR  1

319
 Cooling Capacity of a Refrigerator
• Heat removal rate of a refrigerator is
expressed in Tons of Refrigeration
• The capacity of a refrigeration system that can
freeze 1 ton (2000 lb) of water at 0C to ice at
0C in 24 hours is called 1 Ton of Refrigeration
• Taking 1 ton as 907 kg and latent heat of
water as 334 kJ, 1 ton of refrigeration=211
kJ/min = 3.5 kW

320
Reversed Carnot Cycle

321
 Problems with the
Reversed Carnot Cycle
• The compressor must handle two phase fluid
• The turbine must expand to low quality
• The above problems can be solved if the
compression and expansion processes are
moved to superheat region
• In that case, the isothermal heat absorption
and heat rejection will be difficult as pressure
doesn’t remain constant

322
Ideal vapour Compression
Refrigeration Cycle

323
 Processes in an Ideal vapour
Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• 1-2: Isentropic compression in the compressor
• 2-3: Constant-Pressure heat rejection in a
condenser
• 3-4: Throttling in an expansion device
• 4-1: Constant-Pressure heat absorption in an
evaporator

324
 Ideal vapour Compression
Refrigeration Cycle

QL h h QH h h
On applying the COPR   1 4; COPHP   2 3
Wnet,in h2  h1 Wnet,in h2  h1
SFEE
325
Actual Vapour Compression Cycle

326
 Problem 5
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid and operates on an ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle between 0.12 and 0.7 MPa. The
mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s. Show
the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines. Determine (a) the rate of heat
removal from the refrigerated space and the power
input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat
rejection to the environment, and (c) the coefficient
of performance.
Ans: (a) 7.41 kW, 1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06

327
 Problem 6
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator
at 140 kPa and -10°C at a rate of 0.3 m3/min and leaves at
1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 78
percent. The refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 0.95
MPa and 30°C and leaves the evaporator as saturated
vapor at -18.5°C. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with
respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the power
input to the compressor, (b) the rate of heat removal
from the refrigerated space, and (c) the pressure drop
and rate of heat gain in the line between the evaporator
and the compressor.
Ans: (a) 1.88 kW, (b) 4.99 kW, (c) 1.65 kPa, 0.241 kW
328
 Problem 7
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator
as superheated vapour at 0.14 MPa and -10C at a rate of
0.12 kg/s, and it leaves at 0.7 MPa and 50 C. The
refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 24 C and 0.65
MPa, and it is throttled to 0.15 MPa. Disregarding any
heat transfer and pressure drops in the connecting lines
between the components, show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to the saturation lines, and
determine (a) the rate of heat removal from the
refrigerated space and the power input to the
compressor, (b) the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor, and (c) the COP of the refrigerator.
Ans: (a) 19.4 kW, 5.06 kW, (b) 82.5%, (c) 3.83
329
 Problem 8
A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid and operates on the vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle. The refrigerant enters the
evaporator at 120 kPa with a quality of 30 percent
and leaves the compressor at 60C. If the
compressor consumes 450 W of power, determine
(a) the mass flow rate of the refrigerant, (b) the
condenser pressure and (c) the COP of the
refrigerator.
Ans: (a) 0.00727 kg/s, (b) 672 kPa, (c) 2.43

330
 Problem 9
A heat pump using refrigerant-134a as a refrigerant
operates its condenser at 800 kPa and its
evaporator at -1.25C. It operates on the ideal
vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, except for
the compressor, which has an isentropic efficiency
of 85 percent. How much do the compressor
irreversibilities reduce this heat pump’s COP as
compared to an ideal vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle.
Ans: 13.1%

331
 Problem 10
The liquid leaving the condenser of a 30 kW
heat pump using refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid is subcooled by 5.4C. The
condenser operates at 1 MPa and the
evaporator at 0.4 MPa. How does this
subcooling change the power required to drive
the compressor as compared to an ideal vapour
compression refrigeration cycle.
Ans: 3.41 kW, 3.25 kW

332
Thank You