Unit II

Linear Transformation and Eigenvalues

Detailed Syllabus:

2.1Linear transformation

2.2 Matrix associated with linear transformation

2.3 Composition of linear maps, Kernel and Range of a linear map, Rank-Nullity Theorem,
Inverse of a linear transformation
2.4 Cayley- Hamilton Theorem

2.5 Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors, Eigenvalues of symmetric, skew-symmetric, Hermitian and

Skew-Hermitian matrices

2.6 Diagonalization, Orthogonal Diagonalization of a real symmetric matrix.

2.1 Linear transformations (maps)

Pre-requisites: Vector Space, linear independence of vectors, basis, fundamental knowledge of
functions.

Definition of Linear Transformation:

A Linear Transformation from a vector space V to vector space W is a mapping T : V → W

such that, for all v1 and v2 in V and for all scalars c ( c ∈ R ),

1. T ( v1 + v2 ) = T ( v1 ) + T ( v2 )
2. T ( cv1 ) = cT ( v1 )

This definition is equivalent to the following:

T ( c1v1 + c2v2 + ..... + ck vk ) = c1T (v1 ) + c2T (v2 ) + ....... + ckT (vk )

Remark:

If T : V → W is a linear transformation, then

i. T (0) = 0
ii. T ( − v1 ) = −T (v1 )
iii. T (v1 − v2 ) = T ( v1 ) − T ( v2 )
Remark:
Let V and W be vector spaces and let {v1 , v2 ,....., vn } be a basis of V . Recall for every x ∈ V ,

x = c1v1 + c2 v2 + .....cn vn

for some scalars c1 , c2 ,....cn . Let T : V → W be any linear transformation. Since,

T ( x) = c1T ( v1 ) + c2T ( v2 ) + ....... + cnT ( vn )

we can see that any linear transformation T is completely determined by its action on a basis of
V.

2.2 Matrix associated with a linear map.

Matrix associated with Linear Transformation:

Pre-requisites:

Linear transformation, knowledge of matrices

Let V and W be vector spaces of dimension n and m respectively. Let {v1 , v2 ,....., vn } be a basis
of V and {w1 , w2 ,....wm } be a basis of W . Let T : V → W be a linear map. As
T ( v1 ) , T ( v2 ) ,.....T ( vn ) are elements of W , we have

T ( v1 ) = a11w1 + a21w2 + ..... + am1wm

T ( v2 ) = a12 w1 + a22 w2 + ..... + am 2 wm
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
T ( vn ) = a1n w1 + a2 n w2 + ..... + amn wm

where aij are scalars.

 a11 … a1n 
 
The matrix A =  ⋮ ⋱ ⋮  is called the matrix associated with T with respect to the bases
a 
 m1 ⋯ amn 
{v1 , v2 ,....., vn } and {w1 , w2 ,....wm } .

 x1   y1 
x   y 
Remark: For every vector x in V , A ×   =   where xi ,1 ≤ i ≤ n are the co-ordinates of x
2 2
⋮   ⋮ 
   
 xn   ym 
with respect to the basis {v1 , v2 ,....., vn } and y j ,1 ≤ j ≤ m are the co-ordinates of y = T ( x ) with
respect to the basis {w1 , w2 ,....wm } .
2.3 Range and kernel of a linear map, Rank-nullity theorem, Composition of linear maps,
Inverse of a linear transformation

Range and Kernel of a Linear Transformation:

Pre-requisites: Fundamental knowledge of functions, Vector space and Linear transformations.
Let V and W be vector spaces. Let T : V → W be any linear transformation. The Kernel of T ,
denoted as ker( T ), is the set of all vectors in V , that are mapped by T to 0 in W . That is

ker (T ) = {v ∈V : T (v) = 0}

The range of T , denoted as range( T ), is the set of all vectors in W that are images of vectors in V
under T . That is

range(T ) = {T (v) : v ∈ V }
= {w ∈ W : w = T (v) for some v ∈ V }

Null Space and Column Space:

Let A be an m × n matrix.

The null space of A is the subspace of R n , consisting of solutions of the homogeneous linear system
AX = 0 . It is denoted by null ( A) .

The column space of A is the subspace col ( A) of R m spanned by the columns of A .

Note: The kernel of a linear transformation T , ( ker( T )) is a subspace of V ; and the range of T
(range( T )) is a subspace of W .

Rank and Nullity:

Let T : V → W be any linear transformation. The rank of T is the dimension of the range of T , and
is denoted by rank( T ). The nullity of T is the dimension of the kernel of T , and is denoted by
nullity( T ).

Composition of linear maps, Inverse of a linear transformation

Pre-requisites: Fundamental knowledge of functions.

Composition of Linear Transformation:

Let U , V and W be vector spaces of dimension n , m and r respectively. Let T : U → V and
S : V → W be linear maps. Then, S T : U → W is also a linear map.
Matrix associated with the composite linear transformation:
Let U , V and W be a vector spaces with bases B1 = {u1 , u2 ,....., un } , B2 = {v1 , v2 ,....., vm } and
B3 = {w1 , w2 ,....wr } respectively. Let T : U → V and S : V → W be linear maps. Let us denote the
matrix associated with the linear map, T : U → V with respect to the bases B1 and B2 as [ A]B ← B ;
2 1

and the matrix associate with S : V → W with respect to the bases B2 and B3 as [ B ]B ← B
3 2
respectively. Then, the matrix associated with the linear map S T : U → W , denoted by [C ]B ← B
3 1

satisfies

(0.1)

[ C ] B ← B = [ B ] B ← B [ A] B ← B
3 1 3 2 2 1
.

(Right hand side of the above equation is the product of two matrices.)
Inverse of a linear transformation

Definition: Let U and V be vector spaces and T : U → V be a linear map. A linear map
T −1 : V → U is the inverse of T if T T −1 = T −1 T = I .

Note: T −1 : V → U is also linear.

Definition: A linear map T : U → V which has inverse is called invertible or nonsingular

transformation or an isomorphism.

A linear transformation is said to be invertible if the map T : U → V is one- one and onto.
Matrix associated with inverse of a linear transformation

Let U and V be vector spaces with bases B1 = {u1 , u2 ,....., un } , B2 = {v1 , v2 ,....., vm } and let T : U → V
be a linear map. The matrix of T −1 : V → U with respect to given bases is the inverse of matrix of a
linear map T : U → V with respect to the same bases.

2.4 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem and orthogonal transformation

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation; i.e. if the characteristic
equation for the nth order square matrix A is
n
A − λ I = ( −1) λ n + k1λ n −1 + ..... + k n = 0 then

n
( −1) An + k1 An −1 + ..... + kn I = 0 …..(i)

Note: To find A−1 multiply A−1 both sides of (i) and simplify we get,

1 
−1) An −1 + k1 An − 2 + ..... + k n −1 I 
n
A−1 = − (
kn  

5.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors:

In this section we will consider only square matrices.

1. Prerequisite to the topic
Basic knowledge of matrices and its elementary transformations, Solving system of Linear
system of equations.
2. Definitions, Formulae and Theory
Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors

Let A be a n × n matrix. Suppose the linear transformation Y = AX transforms X into a

scalar multiple of itself i.e. AX = Y = λ X where X is an invariant vector.
Then the unknown scalar λ is known as an eigenvalue of the matrix A and the
corresponding non-zero vector X is known as eigenvector.
∴ AX = λ X for any X ≠ 0
∴ AX − λ IX = 0
∴( A − λ I ) X = 0
This represent a system of n homogeneous equations in the n variables.
It has a non-trivial solution if the coefficient matrix ( A − λ I ) is singular.
i.e. A − λ I = 0
This is known as the characteristic equation of A .
Expansion of the determinant gives a nth degree polynomial known as characteristic
polynomial of A .
Thus eigenvalues of matrix A are the roots of the characteristic equation. Hence A can
have at least one and at most n eigenvalues.
The eigenvector X corresponding to an eigenvalue λ is obtained by solving the
homogeneous system i.e. ( A − λ I ) X = 0 with this known eigenvalue λ .

Note 1: If all the n eigenvalues of A are distinct, then there correspond n distinct linearly
independent eigenvectors.
Note 2: For an eigenvalue of A , repeated (twice or more), there may correspond one or
several linearly independent eigenvectors. Thus the set of eigenvectors may or may not
form a set of n linearly independent vectors.
Note 3: Algebraic multiplicity of an eigenvalue λ is the order of the eigenvalue as a root of
the characteristic polynomial. (i.e. If λ is a double root then algebraic multiplicity is 2).
Note 4: Geometric multiplicity of λ is the number of linearly independent eigenvectors
corresponding to λ .
Note 5: Formula for finding characteristic equation of a 3 × 3 matrix
λ 3 − trace ( A) λ 2 + ( A11 + A22 + A33 ) λ − det ( A) = 0

Note:
1. The eigenvalues of a real symmetric matrix are real. The eigenvalues of a real skew
symmetric matrix are purely imaginary or zero.
2. The eigenvalues of an orthogonal matrix are real or complex conjugates in pairs and have
absolute value 1.

Theorems on Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors:

1. The eigen vectors corresponding to distinct eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are
orthogonal.
1 1 1
2. If λ1 , λ2 ,......, λn are eigen values of A , then , ,......, are eigen values of A−1 .
λ1 λ2 λn
A
3. If λ is eigen value of non-singular matrix A , then is eigen value of adjoint of A .
λ
4. If A is upper and lower triangular matrix, diagonal elements are eigen values of it.
5. Any two eigen vectors corresponding to two distinct eigen values of a unitary matrix are
orthogonal.
6. If f ( x ) is an algebraic polynomial in x and λ is an eigen value and X is an corresponding
eigen vector of a matrix A then f ( λ ) is an eigen value and X is an corresponding eigen
vector of a matrix f ( A) .

2.5 Diagonalization of matrices

Similar Matrices
If A and B are two square matrices of order n then B is said to be a similar to A if there
exists a non-singular matrix M such that B = M −1 AM .

A square matrix A is said to be diagonalisable if it is similar to a diagonal matrix.

If λ1 is an eigen value of the characteristic equation A − λ I = 0 repeated t times then t is

called algebraic multiplicity of λ1 . If s is the number of linearly independent eigen vectors
corresponding to the eigen value λ1 then s is called geometric multiplicity of λ1 .

Note

1. The necessary and sufficient condition of a square matrix to be similar to a diagonal

matrix is that the geometric multiplicity of each of its eigen values coincides with
the algebraic multiplicity.
2. Every matrix whose eigen values are distinct is similar to a diagonal matrix.
3. A square nonsingular matrix A whose eigen values are all distinct can be
diagonalised by a similarity transformation D = M −1 AM where M is the matrix
whose columns are the eigen vectors of A and D is the diagonal matrix whose
diagonal elements are the eigen values of A.
 Classwork problems

Problems on Linear transformations (maps)

Show that the following mappings are linear transformations:

1. T : R → R , T ( x ) = 4 x .
2. T : R 2 → R, T ( x, y ) = 2 x + 3 y .
3. T : R 2 → R 2 , T ( x, y ) = ( 3x + y, x − 2 y ) .
4. T : R3 → R 2 , T ( x, y, z ) = ( 2 x + z, x − 3 y ) .
5. T : R3 → R3 , T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y, 0 ) .
6. T : R3 → R3 , T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + 2 y − 3z, 2 x − y + z, − x + 2 y + z ) .
 x
 
7. Let A be a 3 × 3 matrix. Let T : R3 → R3 , T ( X ) = AX where X =  y  .
z
 
8. Let F denote the set of all differentiable real valued functions defined on the real line R . Let
df
T :F →F , T( f )= .
dx
9. Let C denote the set of all continuous real valued functions defined on the real line. Let
1
T : C → C , T ( f ) = ∫ f ( x) dx .
0

Show that the following maps are not linear:

1. T : R → R, T ( x) = x 2 .
2. T : R 2 → R, T ( x, y ) = xy .
(Hint: Give a counter example.)
Continuation- Problems on Linear Transformation:
1. Let T : R 2 → R 2 be a linear map such that T (4,1) = (1,1) , T (1,1) = (3, −2) . Compute T (1, 0) .
Find T ( x, y ) , where ( x, y ) ∈ R 2 .
 −2 
Ans :  ,1 , T ( x, y ) = ( x + 3 y, x − 2 y ) .
 3 
 cos θ − sin θ   x  π
2. Let T : R 2 → R 2 be a linear map such that T ( x, y ) =     , where θ = . Let
 sin θ cos θ   y  2
S be a square whose corners are at (0, 0), (1, 0), (1,1) and (0,1) . Find the image of the corners of
S under T . What do you observe as the effect of T on the two sides joining (0, 0), (1, 0) and
(0, 0), (0,1) . Also observe the effect on the diagonal joining (0, 0), (1,1) .
(In general, the above transformation for a particular value of θ is rotation by θ degrees. It is
called rotation map.)
Ans : T (0, 0) = (0, 0), T (1, 0) = (0,1), T (0,1) = ( −1, 0), T (1,1) = ( −1,1)
 3. Let T : R 2 → R 2 be a linear map such that T ( x, y ) = ( x, − y ) . Find image of four points of
your choice. What do you observe?

Problems on Matrix associated with a linear map

1. Let T : R 2 → R 2 , T ( x, y ) = ( x + y, x − y ) . Find the matrix associated with T with respect to the
standard bases.
1 1 
Ans : 
1 −1
2. Let T : R3 → R 2 , T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + 2 z,3x − z ) . Find the matrix associated with T with respect
to the standard bases.
1 0 2 
Ans :  
 3 0 −1
3. Let T : R 2 → R3 , T ( x, y ) = ( x, x + y, y ) . Find the matrix associated with T with respect to the
bases : {(1,1), (0,1)} of R 2 and the standard basis of R3 .
 1 0
 
Ans : 2 1 
 1 1
 
4. Let T : R → R 2 , T ( x, y, z ) = ( x − 2 y, x + y − 3z ) . Let B = {e1 , e2 , e3} and C = {e2 , e1} be bases
3

for R3 and R 2 respectively. Find the matrix M with respect to B and C . Verify that
1
 
M  3  = T (1,3, −2 ) .
 −2 
 
1 1 −3 
Ans :  , T (1,3, −2 ) = (−5,10)
1 −2 0 
π
5. Find the matrix associated with T , where T is rotaion by .
4
 1 −1 
 2 2 
Ans : 
 1 1 
 
 2 2
6. Let D : P3 → P2 be the differential operator D ( P ( x )) = p′( x ) . Let B = {1, x, x 2 , x 3 } ,
C = {1, x, x 2 } be bases for P3 and P2 respectively.
a) Find the matrix M of D with respect to B and C .
b) Compute D (2 x 3 − x + 5) using part a).
 0 1 0 0
 
a) Ans : 0 0 2 0  b)6 x 2 − 1
 0 0 0 3
 
 7. Let T : P3 → P5 be the linear transformation given by T ( p ( x ) ) = (1 + 2 x − x 2 ) p ( x ) . Find the
matrix of T relative to the standard bases of P3 and P5 .
1 0 0
 
2 1 0
Ans : −1 2 1 
 
 0 −1 2 
 0 0 −1
 
Problems on range and kernel of a linear map, rank-nullity theorem
1. Find the range and kernel of T : R 3 → R defined by T ( x, y, z ) = 3 x − 2 y + z .

Ans : Ker T = {( x, y, 2 y − 3 x ) | x, y ∈R} , Range = R

2. Find the range and kernel of T : R 2 → R 3 defined by T ( x, y ) = ( x, x + y, y ) .

Ans : Ker T = {( 0, 0 )} , Range = {( r , s, s − r ) | r , s ∈ R}

3. Find the range and kernel of T : R 3 → R 3 defined by

T ( x, y , z ) = ( x + z , x + y + 2 z , 2 x + y + 3 z ) .

Ans : Ker T = {( − z , − z, z ) | z ∈ R} , Range = {( r , s, s + r ) | r , s ∈ R}

4. Find the range and kernel of T : R 3 → R 3 defined by

T ( x, y , z ) = ( x − y + z , y − z , 2 x − 5 y + 5 z ) .

Ans : Ker T = {( 0, y, y ) | y ∈ R} , Range = {( r , s, 2r − 3s ) | r , s ∈ R}

5. Find the range and kernel of T : R 3 → R 3 defined by T (e1 ) = e1 + e3 , T (e2 ) = e2 + e3 and

T (e3 ) = −e3 .
Ans : Ker T = {( 0, 0, 0 )} , Range = R3
6. Find the kernel and range of the differential operator D : P3 → P2 defined by D ( p( x) ) = p′( x) .
Ans : Ker D = constant polynomials, Range = P2
1
7. Let S : P1 → R be the linear transformation defined by S ( p ( x)) = ∫ p ( x) dx . Find the kernel
0

and range of S .
Ans : Ker S = {−2bx + b} , Range = R
a b  a +b 0 
8. Let T : M 22 → M 22 defined by, T  =  . Find the kernel and range of T .
c d  0 c+d
 a −a    r 0  
Ans : Ker T =   a, c ∈ R  , Range =   r, s ∈ R 
 c −c    0 s  
 9. Find rank and nullity of the linear transformations given in problem 1 to 8.
Nullity Rank
1 2 1
2 0 2
3 1 2
4 1 2
5 0 3
6 1 3
7 1 1
8 2 2

10. Verify Rank- nullity theorem for the linear transformations given in problem 1 to 8.
Problems on Composition of linear maps, Inverse of a linear transformation
1. Let T : R 2 → R 2 be defined by T ( x, y ) = ( x + y, x − y ) and S : R 2 → R be
defined by S ( a, b) = a + b . Find S T ( x, y ) .
Ans : S T ( x, y ) = 2 x
2. Let T : R3 → R 2 , T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + 2 z,3x − z ) ; and
S : R 2 → R3 , S ( x, y) = ( x, x + y, y ) . Find S T and T S . Write the matrices of
T , S , S T and T S with respect to the standard basis. Verify the result stated
by eqution (1.1).
Ans : S T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + 2 z, 4 x + z,3x − z ) , T S ( x, y ) = ( x + 2 y,3x − y )
1 0 1 0 2 
1 0 2      1 2 
MT =   M S =  1 1  M S T =  4 0 1  MT S =  
 3 0 −1  0 1  3 0 −1  3 −1 
   
2
3. Let T : R → P1 and S : P1 → P2 , be the linear transformation defined by
T ( y , z ) = y + ( y + z ) x and S ( p ( x )) = x p ( x ) . Find S T ( a, b ) .
Ans : ax + ( a + b ) x 2
4. Define linear transformations S : R 2 → M 22 and T : R 2 → R 2 by
a +b b 
S ( a, b ) =   and T ( c, d ) = ( 2c + d , − d ) . Compute ( S T ) ( x, y ) .
 0 a −b
 2x −y 
Ans : ( S T ) ( x, y ) =  
 0 2x + 2 y 
5. Use matrix method and verify the answer in example 1.
 1 1 
Ans : M T =   M S = (1 1) M S MT = ( 2 0)
 1 −1 
6. Let F : R 3 → R 3 be defined by F ( x, y , z ) = ( x + y − 2 z , x + 2 y + z , 2 x + 2 y − 3 z )
Find if F is nonsingular.
7. Find the linear map T : R 2 → R 2 for which T (1, 2) = (2,3) and T (0,1) = (1, 4) .
Find a formula for T ( x, y ). Is T invertible? If so, find T −1 .
 4u − v 
Ans: T ( x, y ) = ( y , 4 y − 5 x). T is invertible. T −1 ( u , v ) =  ,u 
 5 
8. Let T : R 3 → R 3 be defined by T( x, y , z ) = ( x + y + z , x + 2 y − z ,3 x + 5 y − z ) .Find
if T is nonsingular. If not, find u ≠ 0, u in R 3 such that Tu = 0 .
Ans: T is singular. If u= (-3, 2, 1), then Tu=0.
9. Show that T : R 2 → R 2 be defined by T( x, y ) = (2 x + y ,3 x − 5 y ) is invertible.
Find T −1 .
 5u + v 3u − 2v 
Ans: T −1 ( u , v ) =  , 
 13 13 
10. Show that T : R 3 → R 3 be defined by , , = 2 + , − 4 ,3
is invertible. Find the matrix associated with T −1 , with respect to the basis
= 1,1,1 , 1,1,0 , 1,0,0 .
16 18 12
Ans: = −18 −21 −12
6 3 0
Problems on Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

1. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix given below and verify that it
1 1 3  7 −1 3 
satisfies Cayley-Hamilton theorem: i) A = 1 0 −3 , ii) A =  6 1 4 
 
   
 −2 1 0   2 4 8 
2. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A and hence find A−1 , where
 1 2 −2  3 2 6
A =  −1 3 0  Ans. A − 5 A + 9 A − I = 0, A =  1 1 2  .
  3 2 −1

 0 −2 1   2 2 5 
3. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A. Show that the matrix A satisfies
the characteristic equation and hence find A−1 and A4 .
1 2 3   −3 5 11   248 101 218 

i) A = 2 −1 4  −1
Ans. A =
1 
14 −10 2  , A =  272 109 50 
 4
  40 
 3 1 −1  5 5 −5 104 98 204 
 1 2 1  3 −3 6   46 20 10 

ii) A = −1 0 3  Ans. A = −1 1 
7 −1 −4  , A =  −10 36 30 
 4 
  18 
 2 −1 1  1 5 2   20 −10 46 
4. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A given below and hence, find the
matrix represented by A5 − 4 A4 − 7 A3 + 11A2 − A − 10 I in terms of A , where
1 4 
A=  . [Ans. A + 5I ]
2 3
5. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A given below and hence, find the
matrix represented by A8 − 5 A7 + 7 A6 − 3 A5 + A4 − 5 A3 + 8 A2 − 2 A + I , where
2 1 1 8 5 5 

A = 0 1 0 .  [Ans.  0 3 0  ]
 
 1 1 2   5 5 8 
6. Find Characteristic equation of matrix A and hence find the matrix represented by
1 3 7 
A − 4 A − 20 A − 34 A − 4 A − 20 A − 33 A + I where A =  4 2 3  .
7 6 5 4 3 2

 1 2 1 
 3 6 14 
[Ans.  8 5 6  ]
 2 4 3 
Problems on Eigenvalues and eigenvectors:
Symmetric, skew-symmetric and orthogonal matrices
1 0 −1
1. Find eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A = 1 2 1  .
 2 2 3 
Solution: Characteristic equation of A is given by det ( A − λ I ) = 0
1− λ 0 −1
1 2−λ 1 =0
2 2 3−λ
λ 3 − 6λ 2 + 11λ − 6 = 0
( λ − 1)( λ − 2 )( λ − 3) = 0
∴ λ = 1, 2, 3.
These are the three distinct eigenvalues of A .
Now finding corresponding eigenvectors,
For λ = 1 ,
( A − λI ) X = 0
 0 0 −1  x1 
1 1 1   x  = 0
  2
 2 2 2   x3 
R1 ↔ R2
1 1 1   x1 
 0 0 −1  x  = 0
  2
 2 2 2   x3 
R3 − 2 R1
1 1 1   x1 
  
0 0 −1  x2  = 0
0 0 0   x3 
∴ x3 = 0
And x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
i.e. x1 + x2 = 0
Let x1 = k1
∴ x2 = − k1
1
Hence, eigenvector is X 1 = k1  −1 .
 0 
Alternate method: (Applicable only for distinct eigenvalue)
For λ = 1 ,
( A − λI ) X = 0
 0 0 −1  x1 
1 1 1   x  = 0
  2
 2 2 2   x3 
∴− x3 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
2 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
Consider two distinct equations,
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
− x3 = 0
Now by using modified Cramer’s rule, we get
x1 − x2 x
= = 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
0 −1 0 −1 0 0
x1 − x2 x3
= =
−1 −1 0
x x x
Let 1 = 2 = 3 = k1
−1 1 0
1
Hence, eigenvector is X 1 = −k1  −1 .
 0 
For λ = 2 ,
( A − λI ) X = 0
 −1 0 −1  x1 
 1 0 1  x  = 0
  2
 2 2 1   x3 
2
On solving, we get eigenvector X 2 = k2  −1
 −2 
For λ = 3 ,
( A − λI ) X = 0
 −2 0 −1  x1 
  
 1 −1 1   x2  = 0
 2 2 0   x3 
 1
On solving, we get eigenvector X 3 = k3  1  .
 −2 
2 2 1
2.Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of = 1 3 1
1 2 2
1 1 2
= 5,1,1 and 1 ,
[Ans. 0 , −1 ]
1 −1 0
3 10 5
3. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of = −2 −3 −4
3 5 7
5 1
[Ans. = 2,2,3 and for = 2, 2 ; for = 3, 1 ]
−3 −2
2 1 0
4. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of = 0 2 1
0 0 2
1
[Ans. = 2,2,2 and 0 ]
0
 2 4
5. If A =   then find eigen values of 6 A−1 + A3 + 2I . [Ans. 31, 13]
0 3
 1 2 3 −2 
0 2 4 6 
6. Find eigen values of adj ( A ) if A =   [Ans. 48, 24, 12, 8]
 0 0 4 −5 
 
0 0 0 6 
1 8
7. If A =   find Eigen values of A2 + 2 A + I . [Ans. 36, 4]
 2 1
8 −6 2
8. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of = −6 7 −4
2 −4 3
1 2 2
= 0,3,15 and 2 , 1 , −2 ]
[Ans.
2 −2 1
9. Obtain the eigenvalues and corresponding orthogonal eigenvectors of the symmetric
2 2 0
matrix = 2 5 0
0 0 3
−2 0 1
[Ans. = 1,3,6 and 1 , 0 , 2 ]
0 1 0
10. Obtain the eigenvalues and corresponding orthogonal eigenvectors of the symmetric
 6 −2 2  1   2   1 
 
matrix A =  −2 3 −1 [Ans: 2,2,8 and  2  ,  −1 ,  0  ]
 2 −1 3   0   1   −2 
 
11. Obtain the eigenvalues and corresponding orthogonal eigenvectors of the symmetric
1 2 2  1   1  1
 
matrix A =  2 1 2  [Ans: -1,-1,5 and  −1 ,  0  , 1 ]
2 2 1  0   −1 1
 

12. Find Eigen values and Eigen vectors for the following matrices:
 0 1 1  −1
a.   [Ans. λ = i, −i and   ,   ]
 −1 0  i   i 
 2 −1 i   −i 
b.   [Ans. λ = 2 + i, 2 − i and   ,   ]
1 2  1  1 

13. Find the eigenvalues of the following matrices:

 0 −6 −12   0 2 −6 

a.  6 0 −12   b.  −2 0 −9  [Ans. a. λ = 0,18i, −18i ; b. λ = 0,11i, −11i ]
12 12 0   6 9 0 
14. Find Eigen values and Eigen vectors for the following orthogonal matrix
0 1  1  1 
1 0  [Ans. λ = 1, −1 and   ,   ]
  1  −1

 4 8 1
9 9 9
 
−7 4 −4 
15. Find the eigenvalue of the given orthogonal matrix A = 
9 9 9
 
 −4 1 8
 9 9 9 
7 5 11 7 5 11
[Ans. λ = 1, + i, − i ]
18 18 18 18

Problems on Diagonalization of matrices

Similar Matrices, Diagonalisation
1. Find the algebraic multiplicity and geometric multiplicity of each eigen value of the
4 6 6
matrix  1 3 2  .
 
 −1 −5 −2 
[Ans. λ = 1, 2, 2 for λ = 1, a.m. = g.m. = 1& λ = 2, a.m. = 2, g.m. = 1 ]
2. Show that the following matrix is diagonalizable. Also find the diagonal matrix and
  6 −2 2 
diagonalising matrix, A =  −2 3 −1 .
 
 2 −1 3 
 6 −2 2 
Answer: Given A =  −2 3 −1
 
 2 −1 3 
Trace of A = 12
Sum of minors of diagonal elements of A = 36
A = 32
∴ characteristic equation is λ 3 − 12λ 2 + 36λ − 32 = 0 .
∴ λ = 8, 2, 2
For λ = 2
Consider AX = λ X ⇒ [ A − λ I ] X = 0
 4 −2 2   x   0   4 −2 2   x   0 
 −2 1 −1  y  = 0  → 2 R2 + R1     
      2 R3 − R1  0 0 0   y  = 0 
 2 −1 1   z  0   0 0 0   z  0 
Rank of coefficient matrix=1
Number of Variables=3
Number of independent solution= Number of Variables - Rank of
coefficient matrix=3-1=2
Considering above matrix form in equation form,
2x − y + z = 0 ⇒ z = y − 2x
Put x = s, y = t then z = t − 2s
Solution is {( s, t , t − 2s ) / s, t ∈ R − {0}}
'
Linearly independent solution is (0,1,1) ' and (1, 0, −2 ) .
Arithmetic mean=2=Geometric mean
For λ = 8
Consider AX = λ X ⇒ [ A − λ I ] X = 0
 −2 −2 2   x   0 
 −2 −5 −1  y  =  0 
    
 2 −1 −5  z   0 
By Crammers Rule,
x −y z x −y z
= = ⇒ = =
−2 2 −2 2 −2 −2 12 6 6
−5 −1 −2 −1 −2 −5
'
Solution is ( 2, −1,1)
Arithmetic mean=1=Geometric mean
Matrix A is diagonalizable.
 2 0 0 0 1 2 
−1
D = M AM where D =  0 2 0  , M = 1 0 −1 .
 
 0 0 8  1 −2 1 

 8 −6 2 
3. Show that the matrix A =  −6 7 −4  is diagonalizable. Find the transforming
 
 2 −4 3 
matrix and the diagonal matrix.
1 2 2 0 0 0
[Ans. M = 2 1 −2 , D =  0
  3 0  ]
  
 2 −2 1   0 0 15
 −9 4 4 
4. Show that the matrix A =  −8 3 4  is diagonalizable. Find the transforming
 
 −16 8 7 
matrix M and the diagonal matrix D.
1 1 1   −1 0 0 
[Ans. M = 0 2 1 , D =  0 −1 0  ]
 
   
 2 0 2   0 0 3 
 1 −6 −4 
5. Show that the matrix A =  0 4 2  is diagonalizable. Find the transforming
 
 0 −6 −3 
matrix M and the diagonal matrix D.

2 1 2 0 0 0
[Ans. M = −1 −2 −2 , D = 0
  1 0  ]
  
 2 3 3  0 0 1 
2 −1 1
6. Check whether the following matrix is similar to diagonal matrix: A =  2 2 −1 .
 1 2 −1
[Ans. No]
2 3 4 
7. Show that the matrix A =  0 2 −1 is not similar to diagonal matrix.
 0 0 1 