Optoelectronics: Wave Nature of Light

2182580 Optoelectronics
Wave Nature of Light

(1)
Lecturer: Charusluk Viphavakit, PhD
ISE, Chulalongkorn University, 2nd/2018
Email: charusluk.v@chula.ac.th
Website: https://charuslukv.wordpress.com
Optoelectronics
▪ Optoelectronics is the study and application of electronic devices that interact with light.
▪ Optoelectronic devices are electrical-to-optical or optical-to-electrical transducers, or

instruments that use such devices in their operation.
✓ Photodiodes (including solar cells)
✓ Photoconductive camera tubes
✓ Phototransistor
✓ Charged-coupled displays (CCD)
✓ integrated optical circuits
✓ Lasers
▪ Optoelectronics is usually considered a sub-field of photonics.
https://charuslukv.wordpress.com 2182580 Optoelectronics 2

Optoelectronic devices

Photonics
▪ Photonics is the physical science of light (photon) generation, detection, and manipulation
through emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and
sensing.
▪ The term photonics more specifically connotes:

➢ The particle properties of light.
➢ The potential of creating signal processing device technologies using photons.
➢ Those quantum optical technologies which are manufacturable and can be low-cost.
➢ An analogy to electronics.
▪ Photonics is closely related to optics. It is of great importance to learn the principle of

classic optics before using them in photonics devices.

Optics
▪ Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behavior and properties of light, including its
interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
▪ Optics can be regarded as a sub-field of electromagnetism. The vast majority of optical

phenomena can be accounted for using the electromagnetic description of light, as
described by Maxwell's Equations.
▪ Topics related to classic optics;

✓ Geometrics optics (Ray optics) ✓ Wave optics ✓ Imaging
✓ Refraction ✓ Reflection ✓ Len design
✓ Diffraction ✓ Polarisation ✓ Scattering
✓ Interferometer ✓ Coherence ✓ Optical testing
✓ Fourier optics ✓ Optical resolution ✓ Guiding optics
Optoelectronics, Photonics and Optics
▪ Optoelectronics deals with the interaction of light with electronic devices, which is a
sub-field of photonics.
▪ Photonics deal with generating, controlling, and detection of photonics which are the
particle properties of light. Photonics is a very related field to optics, which deals with
the interaction of light with matter.
▪ Optics can be categorized as a sub-field of electromagnetics and hence, most of the

optical phenomena can be described using Maxwell's equations.

Light
▪ Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
❑ Particles
▪ Called Photons
▪ Carry energy from one place to the other
▪ Feel the heat of the sun
❑ Wave
▪ Electromagnetic wave
▪ Propagates from one place to another
▪ See a light from far distances

Light
Phenomenon Particles Wave

Reflection
Refraction
Interference
Diffraction
Polarization
Photoelectric effect

What is Electromagnetics??
▪ Electromagnetics involves the macroscopic behavior of electric charges in

vacuum and matter.
▪ Positive and negative electric charges are sources of the electric fields and
moving electric charges yielding a current is the source of magnetic fields.
▪ This behavior can be accurately characterized by the Lorentz force law and
Maxwell’s equations.

Electromagnetics fields
❑ 4 different quantities
▪ The magnetic flux density B with the unit T
▪ The magnetic field intensity H with the unit A/m
▪ The electric field intensity E with the unit V/m
▪ The electric flux density D with the unit C/m2
𝑩 = 𝜇𝑯 𝑫 = 𝜀𝑬
𝜇 is the permeability (𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 ) 𝜀 is the permittivity (𝜀 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 )
•The permittivity of free space e0 (= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m)

•The permeability of free space m0 (= 4p x 10-7 H/m)

Maxwell’s equations
𝛁∙𝑫=𝜌 Gauss’s law
𝛁∙𝑩=0 Gauss’s law for magnetism

𝜕B
𝛁×𝑬=− Faraday’s law
𝜕𝑡
𝜕D
𝛁×𝑯= +𝐽 Ampere’s law
𝜕𝑡

▪ Gauss’s law: 𝛁∙𝑫=𝜌 where 𝜌 is the electric charge density (𝐶/𝑚3 )
The divergence represents the volume density of the outward flux of a vector field.
➢ The electric charges produce an electric field and the static electric field points
away from positive charges and towards negative charges.
➢ The net outflow of the electric field (the electric flux) through any closed surface
is proportional to the charge (𝜌) enclosed by the surface.

▪ Gauss’s law for magnetic: 𝛁∙𝑩=0
The divergence represents the volume density of the outward flux of a vector field.
➢ There are no "magnetic charges" or “magnetic monopoles”.

➢ The magnetic field due to materials is generated by a configuration called a dipole,
and the net outflow of the magnetic field through any closed surface is zero.

𝜕B
▪ Faraday’s law: 𝛁×𝑬=−
𝜕𝑡
The curl is a measure of the rotation of a vector field.
➢ Magnetic Fields around a circuit gives rise to electric current.

➢ A magnetic flux density changing in time gives rise to an 𝑬-field circulating around it.

𝜕D
▪ Ampere’s law: 𝛁×𝑯= + 𝐽 where 𝐽 is the electric current density (𝐴/𝑚2 )
𝜕𝑡 𝐼
The curl is a measure of the rotation of a vector field. 𝐽
➢ A flowing electric current 𝐽 gives rise to a magnetic field that circles the current.
➢ A time-changing electric flux density 𝑫 gives rise to a magnetic field that circles the 𝑫 field.
➢ The magnetic field induced around any closed loop is proportional to the electric current plus
displacement current (proportional to the rate of change of electric flux) through the
enclosed surface.

Boundary conditions
▪ The tangential components of the electric field are continuous:
𝒏𝟏𝟐 × 𝑬𝟐 − 𝑬𝟏 = 𝟎
▪ The tangential components of the magnetic field are continuous:

𝒏𝟏𝟐 × 𝑯𝟐 − 𝑯𝟏 = 𝟎
▪ The normal components of the electric flux density are continuous:

𝒏𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝑫𝟐 − 𝑫𝟏 = 𝟎
▪ The normal components of the magnetic flux density are continuous:

𝒏𝟏𝟐 ∙ 𝑩𝟐 − 𝑩𝟏 = 𝟎
where 𝒏 is normal vector from medium 1 to medium 2
Electromagnetics wave
❑ Field propagation
Electric Field
Direction
▪ The magnetic field, H, will be perpendicular to the electric field, E,

and both are normal to the direction of propagation.

Electromagnetics wave
▪ Electromagnetic wave oscillates in space ▪ Electromagnetic wave oscillates in time
with a certain period, λ with a certain frequency, ν
Wavelength, λ Frequency, ν
x t
▪ The wavelength of a electromagnetic wave and its frequency are link through
the speed of light.
𝑐
𝜈=
𝜆

Electromagnetics spectrum

Electromagnetics spectrum
Type Wavelength (m)1 Frequency (Hz)1

Gamma rays < 6x10-12 > 5x1019
X-rays 6x10-12 – 8x10-9 3.4x1016 – 5x1019
UV 8x10-9 – 3.8x10-7 7.9x1014 – 3.4x1016
Visible
Infrared 7.6x10-7 – 0.001 3x1011 – 3.9x1014
Microwaves 0.001 – 0.3 109 – 3x1011
Radio waves > 0.3 m < 109

1<a href="http://science.jrank.org/pages/2368/Electromagnetic-Spectrum.html">Electromagnetic Spectrum - Wavelength, Frequency, And Energy, Wavelength Regions</a>
Harmonic wave
▪ A monochromatic wave which has one frequency represented by sine or cosine function.
λ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝐸0
A A
𝑥 𝑥
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)
▪ For electromagnetic waves: 𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑘( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)

where 𝐸0 is wave amplitude (Energy carried by the wave)
2𝜋
𝑘 is wave number; 𝑘 =
𝜆
𝑣 is velocity; 𝑣 = 𝜈𝜆
Harmonic wave
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)
in which (spatial frequency)
in which (angular frequency)
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
𝜙 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒
▪ Wave is a function of 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 or 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 so 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝜙 .

Phase of the wave
𝜙(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
▪ When light travels a distance 𝑥 over a time 𝑡, it gains a phase 𝜙.
▪ Phase is a property of waves having peaks and valleys with a zero-crossing
between them.
2𝜋
▪ The phase denotes a specific point on a wave.

Phase of the wave
𝜙(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
▪ 𝑘 is referred to the wave number or the number of changes of the phase

by 2𝜋 over a unit distance .
Wavelength, λ
Spatial frequency
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆 x
▪ 𝜔 is referred to the angular frequency or the number of changes of the

phase by 2𝜋 over a unit time.
Period, 𝜏 Temporal frequency
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
𝜈 = 1/𝜏 t

Wave number
▪ Number of wave per unit distance → wave propagation
▪ To include the direction of propagation, wave vector is introduced
𝑦
𝑘 = 𝑘𝑎ො𝑟 where 𝑎ො𝑟 = 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑎𝑦 , 𝑎𝑧 and 𝑎ො𝑟 = 1
𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑎𝑥 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘𝑎𝑧

𝑧
𝑘𝑥
𝑘𝑧 2𝜋
𝑥 𝑘=
𝜆

Phase difference
▪ The difference in phase between two waves having the same frequency
and referenced to the same point in time.
▪ Two waves oscillate with the same

frequency and no phase difference
are said to be in phase.
The direction of propagation is drawn

In-phase waves normal to the wave front.
Line of equal phase is a position of identical phase which is a wave front
(contour of maximum field or a line at the location of the peak).
Phase difference
▪ The difference in phase between two waves having the same frequency
and referenced to the same point in time.
Antiphase ▪ Two waves oscillate with the same

frequency and difference phases are
said to be out of phase with each other.
▪ The amount of out-of-phase waves
can be expressed in degrees from
0° to 360°, or in radians from 0 to 2𝜋.
▪ If the phase difference is 180
Out-of-phase waves
degrees (𝜋 radians), then the two
waves are said to be in antiphase.
Phase velocity, 𝑣𝑝
▪ How fast the wave propagating!!?
▪ The rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.
▪ Any given phase of the wave will appear to travel at the phase velocity.
λ ▪ The phase velocity is the wavelength / period:

λ
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑇
𝑥 𝑣𝑝 = λ𝜈 where 𝑘 =
2𝜋
𝜆
𝜔 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘

Group velocity, 𝑣𝑔
▪ A signal velocity!
▪ The velocity at which the overall shape of the wave’s amplitude (envelope of the
wave) propagates through space.
▪ The group velocity is the derivative of the

angular frequency with respect to the wave
number.
𝜕𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝜕𝑘

𝑣𝑝 and 𝑣𝑔
▪ The phase velocity of a wave is the velocity which its phase travels in space, while
the group velocity is the velocity which its amplitude (envelope) travels in space.
3𝜋
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
5
9
𝜔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 0.9𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑑 and 𝑣𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑑
8
𝒗𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 is the phase velocity of the orange
wave which is the average of the speed of
red and green waves. 𝑣𝑝 =
▪ The red and green waves travel with speeds indicated by the red and green dots.
▪ The phase and group velocities of their sum are (represented as the orange wave)
the movement of the blue and black dots respectively.
Source: http://www.thphys.nuim.ie/Notes/MP205/Chapter_7/Chapter_7.html?fbclid=IwAR1NsFBvpEg0tPwk-9jNg2kLFZ6Hc3gSRCUVmorlhXa2399PvHQK02Ig0s4
Wave using complex numbers
▪ Wave can be represented in complex numbers.
𝑦 (imaginary) ▪ Let 𝑥-coordinate be the real part and

𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜙 𝑃 the 𝑦-coordinate be the imaginary part
of a complex number.
𝐴 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin 𝜙
𝑃 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝜙
𝑥 (real)
𝑃 = 𝐴 cos 𝜙 + 𝑖𝐴 sin 𝜙
𝑃 ≡ (𝑥, 𝑦)
where 𝑖 = −1
𝑃 =𝐴= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

Wave using complex numbers: Euler’s Formula
▪ Wave can be represented in complex exponential forms derived from Euler’s theorem.
𝑒 𝑖𝜙 = cos 𝜙 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙
▪ So, the point 𝑃 = 𝐴 cos 𝜙 + 𝑖𝐴 sin 𝜙 can also be written as;
𝑃 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜙 where 𝐴 is amplitude
𝜙 is phase: 𝜙 = 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
▪ The wave function is dependent of amplitude (magnitude) and phase.

Wave using complex numbers
▪ The wave function is a function of space and time that returns complex number.
𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑖𝐸0 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡

𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡 where 𝐸0 is 𝐸 at 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑡 = 0
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖
▪ The wave function is a linear function which means the two solutions can be added to
each other to obtain another solution;
▪ For harmonic wave, the wave function can also be represented as;
𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
where the argument of the cosine function is the phase of the wave, 𝜙.

Amplitude and phase shift
𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 or 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡+𝜑
where 𝐸0 is amplitude of the wave which is the peak magnitude of the oscillation.
𝜑 is phase shift of the wave.
Absolute phase = 0 Absolute phase = 𝜋/2 ▪ At a given moment in time, a

positive phase shift means the
wave is shifted in the negative
𝐸0
x-axis direction.
𝑘𝑥
▪ A phase shift of 2𝜋 radians
shifts it exactly one wavelength.
2𝜋

Plane wave
▪ If the peak locations across the space are aligned in planes, the wave is referred to
as “plane-wave.”
▪ For plane-wave, the surface of equal phase is a plane with a wavelength apart.
Wavelength, λ
▪ The phase of the wave changes uniformly in a
plane normal to the direction of propagation.
𝜙 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +𝜑
where ∙ is vector dot product and 𝑟 is positive
vector which defines a point in 3-D space (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).
Wave front ▪ A plane wave function can be generally written

(Peak locations or as; 𝑖 𝑘∙𝑟റ−𝜔𝑡+𝜑
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑒
contours of maximum fields)
Cylindrical wave
▪ If the surfaces of constant phase are cylinders, then the wave is referred to as
“Cylindrical wave.”
▪ The phase of the cylindrical is calculated
𝑦 using cylindrical coordinates.
𝜙 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +𝜑
𝜙 = 𝜌 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑧2 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 − 𝜔𝑡 +𝜑
𝑧
𝜃 𝜌
𝑥
where 𝜌 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2
▪ A cylindrical wave function can be approximately*
written as; 𝐸0
Wave front 2
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 =
2
𝑒𝑖 𝜌 𝑘𝑥 +𝑘𝑧 +𝑘𝑦 𝑦−𝜔𝑡+𝜑
(Peak locations) 𝜌
*This solution is an approximation of the Hankle function for large values of 𝜌.

Spherical wave
▪ If the surfaces of equal phase are spheres, then the wave is referred to as
“Spherical wave.”
𝑦 ▪ The phase of the spherical is calculated
using spherical coordinates.
𝑟 𝜙 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +𝜑
𝜑
𝑧 𝜙 = 𝑟 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝑘𝑦2 + 𝑘𝑧2 − 𝜔𝑡 +𝜑
𝜃
𝑥
▪ A spherical wave function can be generally
written as;
Wave front 𝐸0 𝑖 𝑟 𝑘𝑥2 +𝑘𝑦
2 +𝑘 2 −𝜔𝑡+𝜑
𝑧
(Peak locations) 𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑟

Spherical wave: Point source
▪ Usually, spherical wave represents light emitting from a very small source (point-source.)
𝑦 ▪ For light emitting from a very small light

source (point source);
𝑟
𝜙 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑟 − 𝜔𝑡 +𝜑
𝜑
𝑧 𝜙 = 𝑘(𝑟 − 𝑟0 ) − 𝜔𝑡 +𝜑
𝜃
𝑥 ▪ A point source wave function located at 𝑟0
can be generally written as;
Wave front 𝐸0 𝑘(𝑟−𝑟0 )−𝜔𝑡+𝜑
𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑖
(Peak locations) 𝑟

Exercise
Colour Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (nm)
Red 4.615*1014 650
Orange 5.084*1014 590
Yellow 5.263*1014 570
Green 5.882*1014 510
Blue 6.315*1014 475
Violet 7.500*1014 400
1. Write the colors in the table above in terms of angular frequencies and wave-
numbers.

Exercise
2. What is the distance needed to make a blue light gain a phase of 800𝜋?
3. Write the phase of a green light plane wave propagating in the x-y plane with an
angle 30° to the x axis.
4. Write the equation for a violet light plane wave with an amplitude 0.9 (V/m) and
angles of 45 ° to the x-z plane and 60° to the y axis.
5. Write the wave function of red light cylindrical wave.
6. Write the wave function of a yellow light spherical wave.
7. For the following spherical wave, what is the light color and where is the point
𝐸 15 7
source located? 𝐸 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑟0 𝑒 𝑖 3.19∗10 𝑡−1.065∗10 𝑟−21.3

Exercise
3𝜋
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 with 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑑
5
8
𝜔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 0.8𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑑 and 𝑣𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 = 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑑
9
𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 is the phase velocity of the orange

wave.
8. What is the phase velocity, 𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 , of the orange wave?

9. Assume these waves are highly dispersive* in which 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶𝜆1/2 . What is the
group velocity of the envelope, 𝑣𝑔 , compare to the 𝑣𝑟𝑒𝑑 ?
10. If the waves are in non-dispersive medium, what is 𝑣𝑔 ?
*Dispersive medium is a medium in which waves of different frequencies travel at different velocities.
This occurs because the index of refraction of the medium is frequency dependent.
Source: http://www.thphys.nuim.ie/Notes/MP205/Chapter_7/Chapter_7.html?fbclid=IwAR1NsFBvpEg0tPwk-9jNg2kLFZ6Hc3gSRCUVmorlhXa2399PvHQK02Ig0s4

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2182580 Optoelectronics

Wave Nature of Light

▪ Optoelectronic devices are electrical-to-optical or optical-to-electrical transducers, or

▪ Optoelectronics is usually considered a sub-field of photonics.

https://charuslukv.wordpress.com 2182580 Optoelectronics 2

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▪ The term photonics more specifically connotes:

▪ Photonics is closely related to optics. It is of great importance to learn the principle of

https://charuslukv.wordpress.com 2182580 Optoelectronics 4

▪ Optics can be regarded as a sub-field of electromagnetism. The vast majority of optical

▪ Topics related to classic optics;

▪ Optics can be categorized as a sub-field of electromagnetics and hence, most of the

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Phenomenon Particles Wave

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▪ Electromagnetics involves the macroscopic behavior of electric charges in

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•The permittivity of free space e0 (= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m)

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𝛁∙𝑫=𝜌 Gauss’s law

𝛁∙𝑩=0 Gauss’s law for magnetism

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➢ There are no "magnetic charges" or “magnetic monopoles”.

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➢ Magnetic Fields around a circuit gives rise to electric current.

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▪ The tangential components of the magnetic field are continuous:

▪ The normal components of the electric flux density are continuous:

▪ The normal components of the magnetic flux density are continuous:

▪ The magnetic field, H, will be perpendicular to the electric field, E,

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Type Wavelength (m)1 Frequency (Hz)1

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𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝑘( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)

▪ For electromagnetic waves: 𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝑘( 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)

in which (spatial frequency)

in which (angular frequency)

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▪ The phase denotes a specific point on a wave.

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▪ 𝑘 is referred to the wave number or the number of changes of the phase

▪ 𝜔 is referred to the angular frequency or the number of changes of the

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▪ To include the direction of propagation, wave vector is introduced

𝑘𝑦 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑘𝑎𝑥 𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘𝑎𝑦 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑘𝑎𝑧

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▪ Two waves oscillate with the same

The direction of propagation is drawn

Antiphase ▪ Two waves oscillate with the same

▪ The rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.

λ ▪ The phase velocity is the wavelength / period:

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▪ The group velocity is the derivative of the

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